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Approach – Answer: General Studies Mains Mock Test 1054 (2018)

1. What are the salient features of temple architecture in the Himalayas? Explain with adequate

examples in light of various elements that influenced this architectural style.

Approach:

Discuss the salient features of the temple architecture in Himalayas.

Giving examples, highlight the influences of different styles on this architecture.

Answer:

A unique form of temple architecture developed in the Himalayan hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal

and Kashmir. Some of the famous temples of this architecture type are those in Panderthan in Kashmir,

Champwat and Jageshwar in Kumaon, Kedarnath in Garhwal and sculptures in Chamba temples.

Salient features of Himalayan temples are:

The temples, especially in Kashmir, are made of wood.

They have pitched roofs. Roof is peaked and slants slowly outwards to bear snowfall.

They often take the shape of a pagoda.

Metal images are of yellow colour, made of an alloy of zinc and copper.

Temples are dedicated to both Buddhism and Hinduism.

They are moderately carved.

Himalayan temple architecture is a confluence of multiple styles, such as:

Kashmir’s proximity to prominent Gandhara sites such as Taxila and Peshawar, lent it strong

Gandhara influence.

This style began to mix with Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal styles of Gupta and Post-Gupta

traditions because Hindu and Buddhist monks travelled between the hills and the rest of India.

In several temples Garbhagriha and Shikhara are made in Rekha-prasad style.

Temple at Pnadrethan is built between a water tank, a style followed in Gujarat.

Sculptures at Chamba show an amalgamation of local traditions with post Gupta tradition.

Many temples in Kumaon are classic examples of Nagara architecture.

Thus, the temple architecture in hills has influence of different styles, yet holding few features, which

make it unique.

2. “Indo-Islamic art was neither merely a local variety of Islamic art nor a modified form of Hindu

architecture. It derives its character from both sources though not always in an equal degree.”

Analyse.

Approach:

Discuss how the Indo-Islamic art is fusion of the Indian and Islamic art.

Focus on the features of Indo-Islamic art and how many of the elements are derived from Hindu and

Islamic art, though in different degree.

Conclude on the basis of above points.

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Answer:

With the establishment of Muslim rule in India, in the field of architecture, a mix of architectural elements came about through constant interventions of acceptance, rejection or modification, known as Indo-Islamic art.

This art form is categorized in four major styles and the amalgamation of Hindu and Islamic features in varying degrees in these styles can be understood from the following:

Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate): Many of the structures of Sultanate period adorn elaborately decorated and embellished arches and domes with teachings from the Holy Quran. Also many Hindu motifs such as swastika, lotus, bells and other were widely used by the sultans. From the times of lltutmish there was a marked increase in the Islamic elements in the construction of buildings. Examples: Design of shafts & cusped arches in the Tomb of Iltutmish, Qutub-Minar, Alai Darwaza, Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque

Provincial Style (Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur): The architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct. In Gujarat, tombs, mosques and dargahs had many regional character borrowed from regional temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of bell and chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees. Notable examples include Jamia Masjid in Cambay, Mosque of Hilal Khan Qazi in Ahmedabad that display columnar & trabeated effect which was markedly a Hindu influence.

Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore): The Mughal emperors were connoisseurs of art and architecture with famous monuments, palaces, forts, Masjids and tombs inspired from Hindu architecture. For example, In Taj Mahal, the main dome by its shape is plainly of Timurid extraction; while, the cupolas with their wide caves are inspired from Hindu temples. Humayon’s tomb has more Persian features than Indian in its design. Similarly, other important architectures such as Agra fort, Jama Masjid, Akbar’s mausoleum have been influenced by both Hindu and Islaimic architecture in varying forms.

Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda): In Qutb Shahi tombs and Charminar of Hyderabad verses from the Quran along with Hindu motifs like the lotus, chain and pendant adorn the wall. Jami Masjid and Gol Gumbad of Bijapur have both Persian and Indian features.

Thus, the Hindu and the Muslim architecture possessed the distinct features of their own, the mingling of the two led to the rise of Indo-Islamic art.

3. The most powerful trend of medieval Indian literature between 1000 and 1800 A.D. is devotional (bhakti) poetry, which dominates almost all the major languages of the country. Comment.

Approach:

Give a brief introduction about Bhakti literature.

Give examples which show dominant Bhakti poetry in many languages.

Answer:

Bhakti literature is a poetic approach to religion and an ascetic approach to poetry. The Bhakti movement started during the seventh century Tamil Nadu and gradually spread northwards. This led to devotional poetry in regional languages and the old form of secular love poetry began to have new meanings and interpretations in all languages.

Many bhakti saints discarded the use of traditional languages like Sanskrit and used languages such as Tamil, Bengali, Marathi, Hindi etc. to make their teachings more accessible to the people. For example:

Kannada literature was enriched by the Vachanas (sayings) of the various saints of the Krishna, Rama and Shiva cults such as Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi and others.

In Marathi literature, the short poetic narratives, devotional abhangas (a literary form) and songs were written by Gyaneswar, Eknath and Tukarram.

In the 12th century, Gujarati poets of the likes of Narsi Mehta and Premananda occupy a prominent place among Vaishnava poets.

Bengali was used by Chaitanya and Chandidas to write extensively on the theme of the love of Radha and Krishna. This turned Vaishnavism into a religious as well as a literary movement.





In 14th century, the ‘Vakhs’ composed by Lalleshwari (also known as Lal Ded), a mystic of Kashmir Shaivism, were the earliest compositions in Kashmiri language.

In the late 15th and early 16th century, Sankardev, an Assamese devotional poet, used plays (Ankiya-Nat) and Kirtan (devotional songs) to propagate Vaishnavism.

Similarly, Jagannath Das, a legendary devotional poet in Oriya, wrote Bhagavat (the story of Krishna), which spiritually united all the people of Orissa and created a living consciousness.

Early form of Hindi was used by the Bhakti saints such as Kabir, Nanak, Surdas and Mirabai which gave it an important status.

Thus, Bhakti poetry dominates almost all the major languages of the country.

4. The Siddhanta or mathematical astronomy tradition has been the dominant stream of mathematics in India, with an essentially continuous tradition that flourished for close to a thousand years, starting from about the third or fourth century AD. Elaborate.

Approach:

Explain the statement in the introduction.

Elaborate on the contributions of Indians in mathematical astronomy of the said period.

Answer:

Ancient India made path breaking contributions to the field of mathematics. From about 4th century CE, numerous scholars wrote various mathematical treatise focusing on several aspects of mathematics and astronomy. Indian contributions of this period gave broader and clearer shape to many branches of mathematics.

Prominent contribution of Indians during the classical period are enlisted below:

Author Works Fields explored

Aryabhata (476–550) Aryabhatiya Quadratic equations, trigonometry, the value of π correct to four decimal places, calculations for solar and lunar eclipses etc.

Varahamihira (505–587) Pancha Siddhanta (The treatise on Five Astronomical Canons); Brihatsamhita (work on astronomy)

Trigonometry, including sine and cosine tables to 4 decimal places of accuracy and formulas relating sine and cosine functions; observed that the moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun.

Brahmagupta (c. 598 – 668)

Brahmasputa Siddhanta (first book to mention ‘zero’ as a number; 628 CE)

At times, considered as the inventor of ‘zero’, he was the first to give rules of using zero with other numbers.

Bhaskara I (c. 600–680) Mahabhaskariya, Aryabhatiya-bhashya and Laghu-bhaskariya

Expanded the work of Aryabhata; provided solutions of indeterminate equations, a rational approximation of sine functions, etc.

Mahavira Acharya (c. 800–870)

Ganit Saar Sangraha and other treatises

Numerical mathematics; treatises about a wide range of mathematical topics such as squares, cubes, square root, cube root, geometry, etc.

Shridhara (c. 870–930) of Bengal

Nav Shatika, Tri Shatika and Pati Ganita

Rules/ formulas for the volume of a sphere, solution to quadratic equations, summation of different arithmetic and geometric series etc.





Aryabhata II (c. 920–1000) commentary on Shridhara; astronomical treatise called Maha-Siddhanta

Numerical mathematics, algebra etc.

Bhaskara II (1114–1185) Siddhanta Shiromani, Lilavati, Bijaganita etc.

Gave proof of Pythagorean theorem; conceived differential calculus.

Narayana Pandit and Ganesa from the 14th and 16th centuries respectively may be associated with Siddhanta tradition. The former’s work include Ganita Kaumadi (an arithmetical treatise) and Bijganita Vatamsa (algebraic treatise) while the latter’s work include Buddhivilasini (a commentary on Bhaskaracharya’s Lilavati) and Tithi-Cintamani (a commentary on the astronomical text, Siddhantasiromani).

Works by these scholars in mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries became cornerstones for further research and progress.

5. The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 gave a new lease of life to the nationalist movement in India. Elucidate.

Approach:

Introduce by describing the impact of the First World War on the economic and political situation in India.

Analyse as to how the entire situation led to greater political consciousness, thereby intensifying the struggle for freedom in India.

Give an appropriate conclusion.

Answer:

The First World War (1914-1918) altered the economic and political situation in India. The British government declared India as an ally without the consent of the Indians.

This created mass resentment among the Indians against the British rule, as the war had the following economic impact:

A huge rise in the defence expenditure of the British Colonial Government, which increased taxes on individual incomes and business profits.

Increased military expenditure and demands for war supplies led to a sharp rise in prices which created great difficulties for the common people.

The crop failure of 1918-19 and 1920-21 led to acute food shortages, accompanied by epidemic influenza.

These factors, among others, gave impetus to the nationalist movement in India.

Apart from the economic impact, the war and its aftermath also involved the following:

A large number of Indian soldiers serving abroad. Many returned with an understanding of the ways in which the imperialist powers were exploiting the people of Asia and Africa, with a desire to oppose colonial rule in India.

The British were fighting against the Turkish Empire, which was ruled by the Caliph (Khalifa). The Muslims had great respect for the Caliph and joined the Caliphate (Khilafat) Movement for the defence of Turkey against the British.

The war effort compounded the oppression faced by the agrarian society faced with exorbitant tax rates, high prices of food & other necessities. The anguish amongst the tenants was leveraged by nationalists who initiated the process of their organization on modern lines & linked them with politics at the national level e.g. in Kisan Sabhas in UP & Mappila agitation in Malabar.

The growing nationalism also re-united the moderates & the extremists at the Luckow session, 1916. Furthermore, the Congress & the Muslim League ignored their differences & put up common political demands in front of the British.

Ghadarites attempted a violent overthrow of British rule, while the Home Rule Leaguers launched a nation-wide agitation for securing Home Rule or Swaraj.





Mahatma Gandhi emerged as the leader of the masses& led the Khilafat movement to unify Hindus and Muslims. He also propagated the idea of Satyagraha. The Champaran Satyagraha, Kheda Satyagraha and Ahmadabad Satyagraha- were centred around the issues of locals.

The Indian business groups reaped great profits from the war; the war created demand for industrial goods (jute bags, cloth, rails) and caused a decline of imports from other countries to India. As the Indian industries expanded, the Indian business groups began to demand greater opportunities for development.

Thus, the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 gave a new lease of life to the nationalist movement which had been dormant since the Swadeshi Movement.

6. A real breakthrough was made by Bhagat Singh and his colleagues in terms of ideology, goals and the forms of revolutionary struggle. Analyse.

Approach:

Provide a brief introduction about revolutionary extremism of Bhagat Singh.

Mention the breakthrough made by Bhagat Singh and his colleagues in terms of ideology, goals and forms of revolutionary struggle.

Answer:

The apathy and oppression by British government towards India inspired the ideas of revolutionary extremism and many young people, including Bhagat Singh and his colleagues, were once drawn to the idea that violent revolutionary methods of individual heroic action and assassinations, alone would free India.

A rethinking began in mid-1920s and a real breakthrough was made by Bhagat Singh and his colleagues in terms of ideology, goals and the forms of revolutionary struggle.

Ideology

In 1928, nearly all the major young revolutionaries of northern India, created a new collective leadership and adopted socialism as their official goal and changed the name of HRA to the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (Army).

As per the changed ideology, they preached social revolutionary and communist principles through labour and peasant organizations. Also, they were fully and consciously secular as two of the six rules of the Naujawan Bharat Sabha were (a) to have nothing to do with communal bodies; and (b) to create the spirit of general toleration among the public.

Goal

Bhagat Singh, because of his interest in studying and his keen sense of history gave to the revolutionary tradition a goal beyond the elimination of the British imperialism. Along with his colleagues, he broadened the scope and definition of revolution. For them, it went beyond liberation from imperialism and was aimed at ending exploitation of man by man. Chandrasekhar Azad and Yashpal defined revolution as social, political and economic change aimed at establishing a new order of society in which political and economic exploitation would be impossible.

Forms of revolutionary struggle

From terrorism and individual heroic action, they turned to Marxism and had come to believe that popular broad-based mass movements alone could lead to a successful revolution. They helped establish the Punjab Naujawan Bharat Sabha as an open wing of revolutionaries to carry out political work among the youth peasants and workers.

Even though the HSRA and its leadership was rapidly moving away from individual heroic action and assassination and towards mass politics, Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, as the result of a brutal lathi-charge during anti-Simon Commission demonstration, led them once again to take to individual assassination.

Similarly, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were asked to throw a bomb in the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929. However, the objective was not to harm anyone, but to get arrested and use the trial court as a forum for propaganda so that people would become familiar with their movement and ideology.

In these ways, they made an abiding contribution to the national freedom movement and helped in broadening the nationalist consciousness.





7. The Railway system was built not for the modernization of India, but to serve the imperial, colonial and

strategic objectives of the British. Examine.

Approach:

Briefly mention about the beginning of Railways in India.

Discuss whether Railways aimed to serve the interests of the British and any modernisation was not

the outcome of deliberate policy, but incidental.

Answer:

In 1831-32, the idea of railway construction was put forward in India. The first train ran between Mumbai

and Thane in 1853. It played a significant role towards the modernization of the country. However, it was

launched with limited objectives of serving the British interests.

These were:

Britain’s production capacity had increased immensely. Railways provided an opportunity to

procure raw materials especially cotton in bulk form the remotest possible areas.

They also wanted to expand the market for finished goods, which could be transported at cheapest

cost through railways.

These two factors scuttled the local industries e.g. Handlooms, that were already suffering from high

taxes and tariffs.

The railways were hence not coordinated with India’s industrial needs & brought about a

commercial revolution in place of an Industrial revolution in India.

It was an investment outlet for British surplus capital with guaranteed interests paid entirely from

Indian and not British taxes. Besides, the benefits of railway construction in terms of encouragement

to steel & machine industry were reaped by Britain not India.

It was to help for the rapid mobilization of troops for the defence of the empire against internal

rebellion and external invasion facilitating its imperial ambitions.

Along with other modes of communication like telegraph, it aimed to strengthen British

administrative control.

However, there were some unintended but positive outcomes :

It brought people across different regions and rural hinterlands in contact. Thus generating a sense

of unity and consciousness of one nation.

It increased mobility of people and enhanced the reach of political leaders, which led to the spread

of liberal modern values among the masses.

It helped Indian traders and industrialists in expanding commercial activities.

It generated employment for Indians.

It brought new regions into the mainstream political and commercial activities and aided their

modernisation.

Thus, started with narrow objectives, Railways nonetheless proved to be a blessing in disguise for the

Indians.

8. “In many senses Rabindra Nath Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi thought about education in similar

ways. There were, however, differences too.” Elucidate.

Approach:

Introduce by giving the view points of Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindra Nath Tagore on education

systems.

Analyse the similarities and differences in their view points.


Answer:

Both Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindra Nath Tagore believed in education to be a tool to develop a person’s

mind and soul and realised that literacy or simply learning to read and write does not count as education.

In this context:





Gandhiji’s Views:

Mahatma Gandhi argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority in the minds of

Indians. It made them see western civilisation as superior and destroyed the pride they had in their

own culture. As a consequence, educated Indians began admiring the British rule.

He strongly felt that Indian languages ought to be the medium of teaching as English education did

not relate to the masses.

In his view western education focussed on reading and writing rather than lived experiences and

practical knowledge, thus lacking skill development.

Tagore’s Views:

According to Tagore, childhood ought to be a time of self-learning, outside the rigid and restricting

discipline of the schooling system.

Teachers must be more imaginative, understand the child so as to help him/her develop his/her

curiosity.

In his view creative learning could be encouraged only with natural environment.

He emphasised the need to teach science and technology at Shanti Niketan along with art, music,

and dance.

Similarities in their views:

Both believed that education must a means for integrated development of human personality.

Both believed that education must be associated with practical knowledge and highlighted

importance of mother tongue in education.

Educational discourse of both was critique of colonial education system.

Differences in their views:

Mahatma Gandhi was highly critical of western education, but Tagore wanted to combine its best

elements with Indian learning.

While Gandhi was critical of machines and technology, Tagore believed in teaching modern sciences

along with traditional knowledge.

Tagore adopted Plato’s method of creating curiosity as a means for learning, but Gandhi believed in

‘learning by activity’ through his concept of “Nai Taleem”.

Thus, the educational ideas put forth by Tagore and Gandhi had both similarities and differences

influenced by their different socio-cultural background, political ideas and life experiences.

9. Raja Ram Mohan Roy has been described as the "Father of Modern India". Do you agree with such

characterisation? Justify your answer with adequate arguments and evidences.

Approach:

Give a brief introduction about Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

Enumerating his contributions evaluate whether he can be called as the Father of Modern India.

Answer:

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the pioneer of Indian renaissance. The Brahmo Samaj, started by him was the

earliest modern reform movement. His reform efforts encompassed religious, social, political and

economic aspects.

In particular, they can be illustrated as follows:

1. Religious

Condemning blind faith and fatalism, he promoted the philosophy of Vedanta and rationality.

Condemned polytheism, idolatry, caste rigidities and meaningless rituals, thereby promoting

monotheism.

Instilled pride and modern values in the Hindus. Gandhiji called him “the father of advanced liberal

thought in Hinduism.”





2. Social

Played a crucial role in passage of Bengal Sati Abolition Regulation, 1829. He also worked for abolition of Purdah system, polygamy and child marriage; and also supported women education and widow remarriage.

Worked for spreading modern scientific education and liberal values among Indians by opening Hindu College at Calcutta.

3. Political

He brought out journals in English, Hindi, Persian and Bengali to politically educate people and put their grievances before the Government.

He demanded Indianisation of superior services, separation of executive from judiciary, judicial equality between Indians and Europeans and trial by jury.

Inspired by his ideas, political activities began in Bengal. First political organisation of the country called Bangabhasha Prakshika Sabha was formed by his associates. Radical political ideas of Derozians were inspired by him.

4. Economic

He condemned oppressive practices of Bengali zamindars and demanded fixation of maximum rents and reduction of export duties on Indian goods.

Called for abolition of trading rights of East India Company.

Thus for all his contributions towards building of a modern country, Raja Ram Mohan Roy can be justifiably called the “Father of modern India”.

10. Series of civil rebellions run like a thread through the first 100 years of British rule. In this context, explain the underlying factors and consequences of Paika Rebellion of 1817.

Approach:

Briefly mention the causes that led to civil rebellions.

Explain the factors which specifically contributed to Paika Rebellion.

Mention the consequences of Paika Rebellion.

Answer:

Civil rebellions were often led by deposed rajas and nawabs or their descendants, uprooted and impoverished zamindars, landlords and poligars, and ex-retainers and officials of the conquered Indian states. The major cause of all these civil rebellions taken as a whole was the rapid changes that the British introduced in the economy, administration and land revenue system.

Paika Rebellion:

Paikas were essentially the peasant militias of the Gajapati rulers of Odisha who rendered military service to the king during times of war, while taking up cultivation during times of peace. They unfurled the banner of rebellion against the British in 1817 to throw off the British yoke. The factors that led to Paika rebellion:

The Paikas were alienated by the British regime, who took over the hereditary rent-free lands granted to them after the conquest of Khurda in 1803.

They were subjected to extortion and oppression at the hands of the company government and its servants.

The extortionist land revenue policy of the Company affected the peasants and the zamindars alike.

A source of much consternation for the common people was the rise in prices of salt due to taxes imposed on it by the new government.

The Company also abolished the system of cowrie currency that had existed in Odisha prior to its conquest and required that taxes be paid in silver. This caused much popular hardship and discontent.

Consequences of the Rebellion:

The Paikas under Baxi Jagabandhu, the hereditary chief of the militia army of the Gajapati King, rose in rebellion, taking support of tribals and other sections of society. The Paikas attacked British symbols of power, setting ablaze police stations, administrative offices and the treasury during their march towards





Khurda, from where the British fled. The rebellion quickly spread to Purl, Pipli Cuttack and other parts of the province. The British tried to regain lost ground but faced stiff resistance from the rebelling Paikas. It took the British over three months to finally control the rebellion.

11. Nearly all the artistic remains in ancient India are of religious nature, or were at least made for religious purpose. Critically evaluate.

Approach:

Introduce the answer with importance of religion in Indian Society.

Give arguments showing how religion is reflective in artistic remains of ancient India.

Write how many of the artistic initiatives were taken up only for the love of art.


Answer:

Religion has been a defining aspect of the Indian society for a long time which is equally true for the ancient historical periods as well. This also gets reflected in the artistic remains from these periods.

Reflection of religious nature can be seen in the artistic remains of ancient India, such as:

During Harappan period, sculptures of mother goddess show an inclination towards worshipping fertility. Sculptures were also widely used for idol worship in temples. The architectural remains like the great baths also seem to have served ritualistic purposes. Seals during Indus valley civilization are expected to have religious nature as well. For e.g. animals drawn on the seals might symbolize animal worship.

The Buddhist art such as stupa, chaitya, viharas etc. have their basis in Buddhism. For e.g. Sanchi stupa, Ajanta caves, Pitalkhora caves etc.

Sculpture art of ancient India too had religious themes and was motivated by religious purpose. For ex- Gandhara had Buddhist themes; Mathura had Brahmanical, Buddhist as well as Jain themes; while Amravati had Buddhist and secular themes.

The temple architecture, which reached its zenith during Gupta period, involves three distinct architectural styles- Nagara, Vesara and Dravida. The rise of Bhagavatism inspired the emergence of temple architecture in ancient India.

The themes of paintings etc. was also inspired by religion. For ex-– Ajanta paintings have Buddhist themes, Western Chalukyas patronized Jain themes etc.The ancient texts also largely dealt with the religious aspects. For ex- Natyashastra was being promoted by the emergence of bhakti tradition during the Post-Mauryan period.

Though religion did seem to have a significant impact on the artistic activities, in several cases the artistic activities were done just for the sake of art as well. For example:

Stupa Granary, during Harappan period, was secular in nature. Toy carts also seem to be made just out of curiosity emerging out of observation. Artistic remains such as seals also had economic significance.

Ashokan pillars involved several artistic features which didn’t have any symbolic significance such as the capital on the pillars. Stupas had rich embellishments of flora and fauna as well.

Amravati also promoted secular sculptures. For ex- murals involved secular themes depicting community activities, like hunting, dancing etc. In Bagh caves, during Gupta period, we find paintings with themes taken from day to day life activities.Dance initially started in the temples, but later got independence from the idol worship and thrived as an art form of its own.

Rajput temples at Khajuraho depict sexual libertinism devoid of religious tone.

Epics and dramas like Abhijanshakuntalam and Meghdootam written during Gupta period and Sangam literature in south India are of secular nature.

Thus, it can be concluded that though religion was a major motivator in art, the ancient Indians did have a creative side that promoted art independent of religion.





12. Buddhism not only enriched Indian philosophy but also left an indelible imprint on ancient Indian art and architecture. Explain with adequate examples.

Approach:

State how Buddhism has enriched Indian philosophy.

Further, state the contributions of Buddhism to Indian art through sculptures, paintings etc.

Similarly, state how it enriched Indian architecture, thereby, depicting its multi-faceted contribution to Indian culture.

Answer:

Buddhist philosophy is one of the earliest schools of “Rationalism” in the Indian philosophy. It enriched ancient Indian philosophy in the following ways:

It emphasized a middle path, avoiding excess luxury and austerity, at a time when stringent and ritualistic Brahmanistic practices were prevalent.

Buddha rejected the concept of God and a permanent soul, altering the philosophical discourse of his time.

Buddha taught four noble truths and prescribed the ashtangika mārga for elimination of human sorrow.

He advocated Pancha-sila, which became cherished Indian philosophical principles of peaceful co-existence.

He believed in individual effort rather than divine intervention to attain Nirvana. Further, his concept of Karma became an important part of Indian philosophy.

He advocated Pratityasamutpāda, meaning everything has a cause, thereby, teaching people to question everything.

Modern Indian philosophies such as democracy, social equity etc. are rooted in the Buddhist Sangha.

Buddhism also enriched Indian art and architecture, the remnants of which remain even today.

Art:

Monolithic pillars during Mauryan time, were inscribed with the Buddhist concepts of morality, humanity and piety through various symbols associated with Buddha.

Buddhist art in the form of statues of Buddha and Boshisattvas were found at popular centres of sculpture such as Gandhara, Mathura etc.

Large statues of Yakshas and Yakshinis are also found in many Buddhist monuments.

Ajanta caves also consist of many caves dedicated to the life of Buddha, where impact of Buddhism can be seen in wall Paintings.

Other forms of Buddhist art include miniature paintings of Pala rulers, music, prayer chanting, drama, poetry etc.

Pictoral representations of the Jatakas are found in stupas at Bahrut and Sanchi

Architecture: Three types of architectural structures, mainly associated with Buddhism are:

Viharas (monasteries): Sites such as Ajanta Caves, Karla caves etc. contain several viharas. Other examples include Nalanda (also a learning centre), Namgyal monastery, etc.

Chaityas (prayer halls): eg: rock-cut Barabar caves, the Great Chaitya at Karla caves etc.

Stupas: Stupas were also erected over relics of Buddha, eg - Sanchi stupa, Amravati stupa etc. With change in religious practices, stupas were gradually incorporated in the chaiyta-grihas eg. complexes of Ajanta and Ellora Caves.

13. Write a brief note on the following:

(a) Phad (b) Pattachitra (c) Yakshagana (d) Chhau (e) Sankirtana

Approach:

Write a brief note on each of the paintings highlighting characteristics, place of origin etc.

Answer:

(a) Phad Paintings

Phad is a type of scroll painting, approximately 700 years old, originated in Bhilwara, Rajasthan. It depicts the heroic deeds of a heroic figure, rural life, flora and fauna etc.





Phad paintings are part of an elaborate song-and-dance performance by a pair of balladeers, usually a priest and his wife – called bhopa and bhopi.

The unique features of phad paintings are the bold lines and a two-dimensional treatment of figures with the entire composition arranged in sections.

(b) Pattachitra

Pattachitra is traditional, cloth-based scroll painting of Odisha depicting stories of Hindu gods and goddesses inspired by Jagannath and Vaishnava sect. Pattachitra also has the Geographical Indication tag.

These resemble old murals of Odisha from religious centres of Puri, Konark and Bhubaneshwar region, dating back to the 5th century BC.

The best work is found in and around Puri, especially in the village of Raghurajpur, where every household practice this form of painting.

(c) Yakshagana

Yakshagana is a traditional theatre form mainly found in Karnataka and Kerala that combines dance, music, dialogue, costume, make-up, and stage techniques.

Yakshagana is believed to have evolved from pre-classical music and theatre during the period of the Bhakti movement.

The performance start with an initial beating of the drums called abbara or peetike. It consists of a story teller who narrates the story by singing and the actors dance to the music.

Its stories are drawn from Hindu epics such as Ramayana, Mahabharata etc. (d) Chhau Dance

Chhau Dance is a semi classical Indian dance with martial, tribal and folk origins performed in the eastern India. It’s three different styles are known as the Purulia Chau of Bengal, the Seraikella Chau of Jharkhand, and the Mayurbhanj Chau of Odisha.

The stories enacted dancers include those from the Hindu epics- the Ramayana and the Mahabharata etc.

The dance is traditionally an all males group wearing big colourful masks. It is included in the UNESCO's list of Intangible Cultural Heritage.

(e) Sankirtana

Manipuri Sankirtana involves ritual singing, drumming and dancing performed in the temples and domestic spaces in Manipur State in India.

It is practiced at the centre of a temple, where performers narrate the lives and deeds of Krishna through song and dance.

It is included in the UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage.

14. Trace the evolution of British policy towards the Princely states. In what ways did the national movement in princely states differ from the rest of British India?

Approach:

Mention different phases of British policy towards Princely states.

Bring out the differences in the national movements in Princely states and British India, and identify the reasons for the same.

Answer:

British conquest of India was well planned. Incrementally they gained direct control over important coastal areas, fertile agricultural regions, ports, valleys and navigable rivers and densely populated prosperous lands while allowing inaccessible and less fertile regions remain princely states. In particular their policy towards Princely States can be traced as follows:

East India Company’s struggle for equality with Indian states from a position of subordination (1740-1765).

Policy of Ring and Fence (1765-1813): Warren Hasting was aimed to create a buffer zone to defend company’s frontiers. Later Wellesley’s policy of subsidiary alliance was its extension aiming to reduce states as British dependent.

Policy of subordinate isolation (1813-1857): States surrendered all forms of external sovereignty and retained full internal sovereignty. Later policy of annexation culminated in usurpation of 6 states.





However, after revolt of 1857, British policy towards princely states was reversed because of their loyalty and potential to act as breakwaters in future political storms.

Policy of Subordinate Union (1857-1935): Policy of annexation was abandoned but paramount supremacy of British crown was exercised. Later Curzon adopted policy of patronage and intrusive surveillance. Post 1905, a policy of cordial cooperation was adopted to counter large scale political unrests.

Policy of equal federation through Government of India Act 1935.

Lastly, Lord Mountbatten refused to give sovereign status to states.

Political conditions between British India and the states and within states were different such as general lack of civil liberties including freedom of association, comparative political backwardness of people, and the fact that Indian states were legally independent entities. Therefore, nature of national movements in Princely states was different from those of British India.

National movement in Princely states started mainly after stirring up of entire Indian population cutting across British India due to movements like Non-cooperation and was mainly taken in individual capacity of leaders under movements like Praja Mandal. Also, nationalists fleeing British authority came to Princely states in the 1st and 2nd decades of 20th century and initiated political activities there.

Ultimate protection provided by British enabled princes to withstand popular pressure. As a result, there was greater tendency for movements to resort to violence making INC to separate itself from such movements. Thus, Communists and Leftists less hesitant in resorting to violence were able to grow politically. However, in late 1930s, Congress changed its policy towards these movements leading to integration of national movements of states and British India which was reflected in Quit India movement.

Thus, the movement in Princely states adopted forms of struggle and a strategy that was specifically suited to their political context.

15. Most of the protests, revolts and movements launched by the peasants against British policies grew out of local grievances, remained localised and had no regular organisation and leadership. Discuss with examples.

Approach:

Discuss nature and characteristics of peasant revolts in 19th and 20th century in terms of grievances, localised nature, organisations and leadership..

Conclude by bringing out the fact that not all agrarian movements were localized and rather stood for achieving much broader aims.

Answer:

During the British rule, the peasant movements surfaced mainly due to impoverishment of Indian peasantry owing to high rents, arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour in zamindari areas. They were centered on the issue of land ownership and land distribution. However, they witnessed gradual evolution in terms of their nature of demands and geographical reach.

Phase-I (19th Century)

Initially, the peasant revolts were largely localized, had no organized leadership and centered on local grievances with following features:

They fought only for their own local demands, colonialism wasn’t their main target, as the nationalist feeling didn’t fully develop till then. These revolts were directed against the immediate enemies, like planters, moneylenders and indigenous zamindars.

For example, Indigo Revolt (1859-60) stood merely to protect the interests of indigo growers against the foreign planters. Similarly, Deccan riots (1870s) remained confined to the Deccan region and were against the local moneylenders.

The objectives were specific and limited to the redressal of particular grievances. For example, Pabna Leagues (1870s-80s) were against the exploitation of tenants by local Zamindars.

Their territorial reach was limited to the region of their occurrence. For example, not even half the Indian mainland witnessed any agrarian revolt during the 1857 Revolt.





There was no formal enduring organization which could provide meaningful direction to these revolts.

These struggles were also marked by inadequate understanding of colonialism and even lacked coherent ideology about future socio-economic and political programmes. As a result, they couldn’t sustain themselves for long despite being militant in nature.

Phase-II (1905-1947)

However, with the onset of Swadeshi Movement there was a palpable shift in orientation of these movements. They were deeply influenced by and had a marked impact on the national freedom struggle.

They organized themselves under enduring leadership through Kisan Sabha Movements. They had wide-ranging demands which were directed against the British rule. For example, due to the efforts of Home Rule activists, Kisan Sabhas were organized in UP under the leadership of nationalists like Gauri Shankar Mishra and Madan Mohan Malviya.

These movements had better sense of brotherhood against the common enemy. For example, the Eka Movement of 1921 stood for the collective interests of peasants coming from different social backgrounds. .

They served as conduit for mobilizing public opinion. For example, Bardoli Satyagraha Patrika was brought out in 1926 to mobilize public opinion.

During this phase the agrarian movement served as the means for mobilizing masses, especially with the coming of Gandhiji on the political scene. These served as the link between the nationalist leaders and the masses.

Thus, on one hand these agrarian movements represented the cause of peasants, while on the other they also served as vehicles for broadening the nationalist movement on subcontinent scale.. In fact, movements like Tebhaga Movement and Telanagana Movement, served as the blueprint for post-independence agrarian reforms. These movements later eroded the hegemony of landed classes and paved way for transformation of the existing oppressive agrarian structure.

16. Indian nationalism arose when the contradiction between the aims and objectives of the British rule and the interests of Indians became clear and obvious. In this context, elaborate on the role played by the intelligentsia in the growth of nationalism.

Approach:

Mention general reasons and contradictions which resulted in the growth of Indian nationalism.

By citing examples, discuss the role of the intelligentsia class in the growth of nationalism.

In conclusion, describe the significance of nationalism in the freedom struggle.

Answer:

Nationalism symbolizes people‘s sense of belongingness to a nation with the aim of gaining and maintaining self-governance. Indian nationalism grew in the latter half of 19th century partly as a result of colonial policies and partly as a reaction to colonial policies.

One of the main factors was emergence of intelligentsia class mainly due to British administrative and economic innovations. They only exposed the hidden imperialist agenda by providing a common foreground of knowledge, ideas and values. They contributed to the growth of nationalism in the following manner:

Economic exploitation: Economic drain theories by Moderates like Dadabhai Naoroji and Romesh Chandra Dutt explained the negative impact of British policies on Indian economy. Thus intelligentsia class awakened the masses and galvanised the phenomenon of nationalism.

Socio-religious reforms: Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar and Jyotiba Phule were impressed by rationalism, modern science and humanism. The socio-religious campaigns against social evils like Sati, female infanticide were aimed to regenerate Indian society which ultimately broadened national unity in the years to come.

Restoring pride of Indians: Scholars like R.G Bhandarkar, R.L. Mitra aroused nationalistic feelings and demolished colonial myths that Indian was an inferior race which was bound to servility.





Contribution to press and literature: Intelligentsia class contributed a lot to the growth of Indian owned English and vernacular newspapers. This helped in faster dissemination of modern idea of self-government, democracy, civil rights etc.

Exposing imperialist agenda: Intelligentsia class quickly understood that the administrative makeover, hike in defence expenditure development of modern transport and communication were not targeted for the welfare of people and necessarily meant for accelerating colonial exploitation of India. They exposed it through press, meetings and protests which helped in creating a uniform voice against the discriminatory British policies.

Ideological background and leadership role: Intelligentsia class appealed innovatively before the masses for embracing modern education so as to get rid of social and economic backwardness. They also provided leadership to various political organisations such as Indian National Congress, which in turn mobilized people against the oppressive British rule

During the build up of nationalism, middle class intelligentsia constituted the nucleus of newly rising political unrest in the country. This minority new class played a vital role in igniting the minds of majority class and helped in generating a sense of Indianness among the masses.

17. Discuss the reasons behind the British emerging as the most formidable power in India by the end of the eighteenth century, outdoing not just every European rival but also Indian counterparts.

Approach:

Highlight the fact of British supremacy in India by the end of the eighteenth century.

Discuss the reasons for their success against any foreign or Indian challenge.

Answer:

British arrived in India as traders at the dawn of 17th century and by the sunset of 18th century they practically became India’s sole master. They were able to ward off any kind of challenge coming both from European and Indian rivals. Their success against other Europeans powers in India can be attributed to several factors.

English East India Company was privately and professionally managed which helped in faster decision making. While French and Portuguese companies were largely owned by crown and were feudalistic in nature.

Largest and most modern British navy was able to score victory over French and Portuguese due to faster deployment of its naval ships.

Since, Industrial revolution began in England, it was able to accumulate large capital and its companies were richer and more enterprising.

British army was more disciplined, trained and technologically superior. This helped small British army to defeat large foreign armies.

Britain had a stable government back home unlike its European counterparts. This ensured strong control over the activities of Company with government support available when needed.

Britain used debt market to fund its wars and increased military expenditure while during that period Dutch and French companies were facing bankruptcy.

English held three important coastal places, namely, Bombay, Madras and Calcutta while French held Pondicherry and Portuguese only Goa. This greatly aided their expansion throughout India and supported movement of their military to different fronts via sea.

These factors also aided British against many native kingdoms. Additionally their success against locals was catalysed by following factors:

Crumbling Mughal Empire and emergence of several kingdoms fighting for territorial gains amongst themselves helped British. They sided with one party against other and gained territories as favour.

Indians lacked a sense of unity and nationalism. This helped British to recruit locals as mercenaries, who were ready to fight against fellow Indians.

British were superior in terms of arms, military and strategy when compared to locals. Also, with organised finances they were able to pay regular salaries unlike local kings.

Indian administrators and commanders possessed inferior leadership skills, as they were selected on the basis of ascriptive identities and not merit.





Conquest of Bengal in 1757 made British immensely rich and powerful aiding their future conquests. Lastly, Indian masses were also not politicised. British were seen just like any other ruler by Indians.

Hence, British rarely faced resistance from the native people of princely states.

As a result, British were able to become most formidable power in the country by the end of the 18th century.

18. Partition was a culmination of a communal politics that started developing in the opening decades of the twentieth century. Comment.

Approach:

Briefly introduce by mentioning the divisive policies adopted by the British for creating a communal divide.

Trace the series of events that occurred right from the beginning of 20th century till the partition of India which ultimately shaped the communal politics on the Indian subcontinent.

Answer:

The adoption of divide and rule by the British, after the challenge faced by them in 1857, led to assigning religious identities to a functional use, within the modern political system. The logic of electoral politics deepened and hardened these identities. Community identities no longer indicated a simple difference between faith and belief. They came to mean active opposition and hostility between communities.

Partition of Bengal in 1905, though couched in administrative terms, had clear communal undertones. Similarly, separate electorates created by the colonial government in 1909 and expanded in 1919 crucially shaped the nature of communal politics. Muslims could now elect their own representatives in designated constituencies. This created a temptation for politicians working within the system to use sectarian slogans and gather a following by distributing favours to their own religious groups.

During 1920s and 30s communal tensions grew around a number of issues. Muslims were angered by music before mosques, cow protection movement and efforts of Arya Samaj to bring back others to Hindu fold (shuddhi). On the other hand, Hindus were angered by rapid spread of Tabligh (propaganda) and Tanzim(organisation) after 1923. During this period Muslim League was gaining voice, Hindu organizations like RSS were formed.

In this background, middle class publicists and communal activists sought to build greater solidarity within their communities by mobilising people against other community. This gave rise to riots in different parts of country.

In the provincial elections held in 1937, when Muslim league performed badly, it decided to resort to extreme communalism. In order to counter the propaganda, Hindu organisations such as Hindu Mahasabha and RSS also advocated for militant communal nationalism. The main purpose was to encourage the Hindus to transcend the divisions of caste and re-define Hindu identity in opposition to Muslim identity. Communalists on both sides started seeking narrow interests often undermining national movement.

Muslim League now started asking for political demands with focus on Muslim majority areas of sub-continent. As a result, the demand for Pakistan was formalised gradually by 1940 as expressed in the famous ‘Pakistan Resolution’. It demanded grouping of all geographically contiguous Muslim majority areas into independent states.

Thus, the seed of an independent sovereign nation of Pakistan finally developed into a full-fledged tree in a matter of few decades. And in a short span of 7 years after resolution, an independent Pakistan comprising of Muslim majority areas of Punjab, Singh, Baluchistan, North-West Frontier Province and Bengal was born in 1947owing its origin to communal politics.

19. In the course of the freedom struggle, as the participation of the working class evolved so did the position of the nationalist leadership towards it. Elucidate.

Approach:

Trace the evolution of working class movement in India.

Simultaneously relate various stages of the movement with the changing perspectives of the nationalist leaders with time.





Answer:

Indian working class had to face imperialist political rule and economic exploitation at the hands of both foreign and native capitalist classes. After the advent of modern industry, Indian working class suffered from low wages, long working hours, unhygienic and hazardous working conditions, absence of basic amenities etc.

Under these circumstances, Indian working class movement became intertwined with political struggle for national emancipation.

First Phase (1875-1918)

Early nationalists were indifferent to workers' cause because they did not want a division in national movement on the basis of classes. Also, they differentiated between British and Indian owned factories and felt that laws favoring workers would hamper competitive edge of Indian factories.

As a result, trade unions were of a sporadic or ad hoc nature, devoid of funds, regular membership, constitution, etc.

However, some prominent nationalist leaders like B.C. Pal and G Subramanya Aiyer demanded pro-labour reforms.

During Swadeshi movement, workers participated in variety of political issues. Various strikes were organised under the leadership of nationalists. However, attempts to form trade unions were not very successful.

During WWI, establishment of Soviet Union, formation of Comintern and emergence of Mahatama Gandhi lent new dimension to the movement of working class and the focus shifted towards addressing workers' concerns.

Second Phase (1918-1924)

During 1918-1921, several organised labour unions sprouted throughout country’s industrial centres owing to economic miseries experienced by Indian working class by way of price rise, low wages, long hours of work etc.

Recognising this, Gandhiji founded Ahmedabad Textile Labour Association in 1918, which desisted workers from taking militant class struggle against capitalists by advocating for class collaboration.

Formation of national level All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in 1920 helped in coordinating all India level activities and aimed at organizing the workers on a national scale. Thus, trade unionism accelerated and 1920s was the period of some of the biggest strikes in country.

Nationalist leaders advocated for continuation of the struggle against imperialist domination by taking along the worker class. For e.g. C.R Das advocated for incorporating worker's cause in the struggle for Swaraj.

Third Phase (1924-1934)

Recognizing this trend, the British Government passed Trade Union Act, 1926 with an aim of directing labour movement into safe channel by putting restrictions on political activities of unions.

After following a period of lull, working class activity was again spurred by emergence of Left Bloc in national movement under the leadership of S.A Dange, P.C Joshi etc.

Strong communist influence on the movement lent a militant and revolutionary content to it. For instance, workers participated in massive Simon boycott demonstrations in 1927 and Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930s.

There was considerable participation of workers in Civil Disobedience Movement, 1930.

In early 1930s, trade union movement reached a low ebb when disunity and dissensions rose to a great height.

Fourth Phase (1935-1947)

Next wave of working class activity came with provincial autonomy and formation of popular ministries in 1937. Congress Ministries in various provinces gave a fillip to trade union activity. They were sympathetic to workers' demands and passed several favorable legislations.

After following a policy of industrial peace during initial years of WWII, workers even participated in post-War national upsurges. They organised multiple strikes on economic issues under the direction and leadership of various nationalist leaders.

The participation of the working class helped in economic and political gains, thus aiding the process of freedom struggle in a variety of ways.





20. The pattern of land ownership and the methods of assessment for collection of land revenue introduced by the British in India had a profound impact on the agrarian economy. Discuss.

Approach:

Discuss different revenue settlement methods introduced by the Britishers in India.

Discuss their impacts on various aspects of agrarian economy.

Answer:

Before the beginning of British colonial rule, traditional Indian village society was characterized by common ownership of land and certain division of labor. The British violated variety of traditional ownership rights and adopted different land revenue collection policies which suited their exploitative agenda.

In 1793, Permanent Settlement was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal & Bihar. Under this, the zamindars were converted into landlord with hereditary and transferable land rights with land revenue fixed in perpetuity.

In the beginning of 19th century, Ryotwari Settlement was introduced in parts of Madras and Bombay presidencies. Under this, cultivator was given land ownership and revenue demand was to be revised periodically.

In parts of central India and Ganga valley, Mahalwari System was introduced where revenue settlement was made at village or estate (mahal) level with periodic revision.

Under the Tinkathia system, the Champaran tenant was bound by law to plant three out of every twenty parts of his land with indigo for his landlord.

However, irrespective of the collection method, the revenue was exorbitant and led to impoverishment of peasantry. They had a profound impact on land ownership pattern and consequently on the agrarian economy in the following manner:

Tenure insecurity: Permanent Settlement system caused great insecurity to the tenants who lost all their traditional rights over land.

Landlessness: Because of high revenue assessments, indebtedness among peasant grew, and distribution of land became highly unequal. As a result, by the time of independence, 40% of total rural population was under the category of landless agricultural labourers.

Loss of community lands as community ownership was replaced with private property. This caused immense hardships to tribal and forest dwellers.

Highhandedness by Zamindars as they resorted to summary evictions, demanded illegal dues and 'begar' and had no incentive to invest for improvement of agriculture.

Overburdened peasants: Due to increase in number of intermediaries and exploitation by money-lenders, exploitation on peasants achieved a new peak.

Lack of investment in agriculture: Cultivator had neither means nor incentive to invest in agriculture. New class of Zamindars created due to transfer of lands had no roots in villages and only aimed at extracting highest possible rent. At the same time Government spent little on agricultural, technical or mass education. Hence, agriculture production stagnated and low level of productivity became a common feature.

Commercialisation of agriculture: Certain specialised crops began to be grown not for consumption in village but for sale in national and international markets, thus subjecting Indian agriculture to international market fluctuations and commercial considerations.

By making land a tradable commodity which could be freely bought and sold, Britishers introduced a fundamental change in the existing land revenue systems of the country. The inherent stability and resiliency of the Indian villages was shaken up. This gave birth to many rent-seeking intermediaries, different land revenue systems, high inequality in land holding pattern, high density of tenant cultivators, regressive legislations and exploitative production relations, which continue to be a part of modern day agrarian economy.

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