· web views.p.s. abubaker, kerala state veterinary council, peroorkada po, thiruvananthapuram...
TRANSCRIPT
Investigation of productivity in a southern Indian Malabari goat herd shows
opportunities for planned animal health management to improve food
security.
Neil D. Sargison, Sophie A. J. Ivil, John Abraham, Shameem P. S. Abubaker, Andy M. Hopker, Stella
Mazeri, Ilona A. Otter, Nigel Otter
N.D. Sargison, S.A.J. Ivil, S. Mazeri, A. Hopker, University of Edinburgh, Royal (Dick) School of
Veterinary Studies, Easter Bush Veterinary Centre, Roslin, Midlothian, UK. EH25 9RG
J. Abraham, Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, College of Veterinary and Animal
Sciences, Pookot, Wayanad 673576, Kerala, India.
I.A. Otter, Worldwide Veterinary Service, International Training Centre, Gramya Bhavan/RDO-
building complex, Aruvankadu, 643202, Tamil Nadu, India.
S.P.S. Abubaker, Kerala State Veterinary Council, Peroorkada PO, Thiruvananthapuram 695005,
Kerala, India.
N. Otter, India Project for Animals and Nature, Hill View Farm Animal Refuge, Mavanalla, Masinagudi
PO, Nilgiris 643223, Tamil Nadu, India.
E-mail for correspondence: [email protected]
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Here we report the objective veterinary clinical measurement of productivity in a representative
southern Indian Malabari goat herd. We show failure to meet pragmatic production targets that
are commensurate with the animals’ genetic potential, or adequate to meet the demands of
global food security. We suggest that this situation may have arisen as a consequence of animal
husbandry constraints and protein undernutrition and imply the involvement of nematode
parasitism. Benzimidazole resistance was detected in Haemonchus spp., showing the need for
better understanding of the principles of sustainable helminth parasite control within the
southern Indian context. Our study highlights the need to understand the true costs of goat
production in seasonally resource poor environments, while also considering its impact on the
overall ecosystem in which the animals are placed. We conclude that pragmatic opportunities for
improvements in goat production efficiency lie in the development of problem-focussed planned
animal health and nutrition management.
Introduction
Goat production is widely considered to be a solution to the challenge of achieving global food
security and has a potentially important role in improving the health and wellbeing of the rural poor
living in marginal environments that present seasonally favourable conditions for agriculture (Pollott
and Wilson 2009). Having evolved as selective browsers in semi-arid or humid ecological
environments, goats are generally more efficient than other domesticated ruminants in their
metabolism and tolerance of poor quality and potentially toxic nutrients and conversion into food
products, hence are adaptable to being the main livestock economic resource in developing
countries (Luikart and others 2001). Small ruminants are further suited to enhancing the livelihoods
of the poor, due to their manageable size, relatively low maintenance requirements, low capital
investment cost, short generation interval and ease of marketing of animals and products, hence
suitability as short-term economic reserves (Singh and Ramkumar 2014).
2
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
The global goal of goats in alleviating poverty is frequently not achieved (Dubeuf 2014). Failures of
goat farming must, therefore, be investigated and addressed before it can become a solution to the
challenge of socioeconomically- and environmentally-sustainable global food security.
The overall aim of our study is to describe pragmatic educational and research priorities to address
failures of goat farming as a socioeconomically sustainable activity within an integrated agricultural
system in seasonally resource poor subtropical areas, using an improved southern Indian Malabari
herd as a pertinent example. We have evaluated the productivity of the herd as a first step towards
identifying the potential for increased food production. We have investigated the primary
constraints to sustainably efficient production, and subjectively assessed if these are pertinent to
inform a model for improved production.
Materials and Methods
General and animal husbandry information concerning the study goat herd
The study herd of about 35 goat does of the Malabari breed had been established in 2006 as a
model system with the aim of showing the role of goats in exploiting natural resources for food
production and demonstrating best-practice production in the southern Indian state of Kerala.
Production targets had been set when the Malabari herd was established, based on matching the
potential performance of the breed which had originally been improved by the selection of animals
through crossing heterosis, then based on production traits, with the estimated available nutritional
resources (Table 1). The purchase price of adult does weighing about 30 kg was about INR 6250
(equivalent to about £62.50) and of the adult buck weighing about 35 kg was about INR 7800. The
encouraging economic model upon which the herd was founded depended upon ‘free’ grazing and
market prices of about INR 6000 for entire male and surplus female goats kids of about 25 kg
3
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
liveweight sold for meat at about 6 months’ old and INR 4500 for cull does weighing about 30 kg.
The herd had been closed since its establishment.
The herd is based in the rural Wayanad district in northeast Kerala, on the Deccan plateau at the
southern end of India’s Western Ghats mountain ranges, at about 900 metres above sea level. The
climate in this subtropical region varies between being warm and dry between about November and
May (daily mean temperatures between about 17oC and 26oC, with daytime high temperatures rising
to about 30oC during April and May and between 10 and 200 mm average monthly rainfall, being
driest between November and March) and warm and wet between June and October (daily mean
temperatures about 20oC and about 500 mm average monthly rainfall). Sharp drops in temperatures
accompany heavy monsoon rains. (Weather data had been collected and recorded locally over
several years.) A large part of the region is covered by deciduous rainforest, with variation in the
growth of different plant species throughout the year, and consequently in composition and
availability of herbage.
Two women are responsible for the care of the goats, each spending about 8 hours daily tending the
animals. All of the goats are housed in splendid, permanent, purpose built buildings, in pens
constructed on wooden-slatted floors, raised about 1.5 m above ground-level. The buildings open
onto a central courtyard, providing shelter from sun, heat and rain. Pens are dry swept clean daily,
and manure removed from under the slats daily by sweeping and washing, while the pens and yard
outside the buildings are periodically disinfected using a hypochlorite formulation. The goats are
generally grouped in separate pens as: lactating does and their kids; pregnant does; non-pregnant
does with yearlings; and bucks in individual pens, with an overall stocking density of about one
animal per square metre.
Between around August and March, the weaned and adult female goats are taken for about 3 hours
per day to free-access grazing, where they feed on whatever natural herbage is seasonally available.
The animals are housed for the remainder of the day. Between about March and May, when the
4
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
availability of herbage dwindles due to drought conditions and also during heavy periods of
monsoon rainfall between June and August, the goats are housed all day. Cultivated forage such as
hybrid Napier grass (Pennisetum spp.) or Jack fruit tree (Artocarpus heterophyllus) leaves, depending
on seasonal availability, is cut and carried to the herd, then fed ad-lib to the housed animals.
Throughout the year, the pregnant and lactating does, other goats, and kids are fed a flat rate of
about 400 g, 300 g and 100 g, respectively of concentrates once per day. The concentrates are
purchased as locally-compounded cattle feed. At the times of year when the adult goats are taken
to ‘free’ grazing each morning, kids less than about 6 months’ old are housed in separate pens, and
only introduced to their dams for about 3 hours during the afternoons. Whenever the goats are
housed all day, the kids have greater, but nevertheless intermittent access to their dams.
Does are taken to the buck for mating whenever oestrus is observed, hence kidding occurs all year
round, regardless of season. There are no specific kidding pens, and the does kid in whatever pens
they are grouped at the time. The navels of the kids are dipped in locally-sourced strong iodine
when they are first seen after birth. Suckling is assisted when it is perceived to be necessary. In the
absence of accurate records, the stockkeepers estimate the annual perinatal kid mortality to be
about 10%. Diarrhoea is reported to be consistently obvious in most of the suckling kids between
one and 12 weeks-old and is perceived as being the main cause of mortality.
There is a tendency to focus on visually obvious health concerns, for example Monezia tapeworms
owing to the obvious appearance of segments in the faeces, and known diseases, for example peste
des petits ruminants (PPR) and haemonchosis. Consequently the goats are routinely vaccinated
using a freeze-dried PPR vaccine (Freeze dried PPR vaccine; Institute of Animal Health and Veterinary
Biologicals), and given ad hoc anthelmintic treatments using fenbendazole and praziquantel
combination tablets (Fentas Plus; Intas Pharmaceuticals).
5
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
Study design
A BVM&S student (SI) spent 4 weeks during August 2014 following the study herd and participating
in daily routine, providing an opportunity to validate the relevant detailed management data
described above and a fresh perspective in collating current production data. During the study
period, the herd comprised of 22 adult does, 8 yearling females and one buck.
The health status of the herd and of individual animals was first determined by focussed veterinary
clinical examination (Sargison and Scott 2010). Our next step in the process of planned animal
health management was to identify the constraints to rationally investigate the primary animal
health problems that were identified. In this case we chose the investigation of linked causes of
poor reproductive performance and kid growth rates, integrating a focussed problem history with
clinical examination of the environment and groups of animals, and using selected ancillary tests to
describe constraints of protein under nutrition and helminth parasitology that were implicated. This
included weighing of animals, determining faecal helminth egg counts (FECs) using a modified
McMaster saturated saline floatation method with a sensitivity of 50 eggs per gram (MAFF, 1986)
and the collection and submission to a local medical diagnostic laboratory (Aebeena Clinical
Laboratory, Kalpetta, Kerala) of serum samples from randomly-selected, representative animals for
analysis of protein concentrations.
A faecal egg count reduction test was undertaken (Coles and others 1992, 2006), treating eight
randomly selected pregnant does, one non-pregnant and non-lactating doe, three lactating does and
three yearlings with 5.0 to 7.5 mg/kg fenbedazole (Fentas Plus; Intas Pharmaceuticals). Seven
pregnant does, two non-pregnant and non-lactating does, three lactating does and four yearlings
acted as untreated controls. Pre and post treatment coprocultures were used (MAFF 1986) to
provide third stage nematode larvae (L3) for morphological identification (Van Wyk and Mayhew
2013). Post treatment reductions in arithmetic mean FECs and 95% confidence intervals were
6
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
calculated using a hierarchical modelling of faecal egg counts package in R (Version 3.0.3) (R Core
Team 2014).
Informed consent
The work of the University of Edinburgh student with the goat herd kept on the Kerala Veterinary
and Animal Sciences University, Pookode was undertaken with ethical approval from the R(D)SVS
and approved in writing by the KVASU Directorate of Entrepreneurship. Faecal samples were
collected from selected individual animals per rectum or directly off the ground. Diagnostic serum
samples were collected from 13 animals by jugular venupuncture. All of the procedures were
undertaken under direct veterinary supervision. The sampling procedures were reviewed and
approved as part of the field work permit (Proceedings of the Directorate of Entrepreneurship
reference KVASU/DE/15436/2004).
Results
Collation of production data
The levels of reproductive performance and kid growth are shown in Table 2. These fail to meet the
pragmatic targets shown in Table 1 for each of the selected indices.
Protein nutrition
The serum protein concentrations of four pregnant, four lactating, five yearling and one non-
pregnant and non-lactating goats are shown (Fig 1). Validated reference ranges for serum protein
7
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
concentrations in goats are not available. However, the serum albumin concentrations of each goat
are below the accepted low ‘normal’ values of 29 to 43 g/l, while the serum globulin concentrations
are all within the accepted ‘normal’ range of 27 to 50 g/l (Matthews, 1999).
Helminth parasitology
The mean FECs (±SEM) of 16 pregnant does, three non–pregnant and non-lactating does, six
lactating does and 8 yearling females were 347 (±70), 367 (±60), 217 (±104) and 463 (±219) epg,
respectively. Monezia spp. eggs were only seen in faeces collected from one yearling female.
The overall arithmetic mean reduction in FEC 14 days after fenbendazole treatment was 75.2%
(89.6% - 40.4%, 95% CI). The arithmetic mean reduction in FEC of the untreated control animals was
12.7% (56.2% -73.1%, 95% CI). Pre-treatment L3 coprocultures were 69% Oesophagostomum, 27%
Haemonchus and 4% short tailed L3 (Teladorsagia or Trichostrongylus). Post fenbendazole treatment
L3 coprocultures were 100% Haemonchus. These results confirm the poor efficacy of the
benzimidazole drug, and according to World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary
Parasitology guidelines (Coles and others 1992; Coles and others 2006) show the presence of
benzimidazole resistance in Haemonchus spp..
Discussion
Our aim was to identify practical and pragmatic opportunities to redress failures of goat farming to
meet the needs for food security and socioeconomic development. Our sampling design was
insufficient to validate the broader potential of southern Indian goat production, but our key findings
are nevertheless pertinent. Kerala has about 1.3 million goats of many different breeds and types
kept under a wide range of management systems, hence it is not possible to define a typical
8
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
southern Indian goat herd. Nevertheless, the Malabari goat breed is a pertinent example due to its
development and genetic improvement from crosses between Arabian and southern Indian
indigenous animals as an adaptation to regional conditions and needs (Radhika and others 2015).
The profitability and sustainability of goat production is influenced by the efficiency of conversion of
primary biological resources to food, fibre, or manure. Therefore, the poor reproductive
performance and slow kid growth rates that have been highlighted in our study, provide an example
of inefficient conversion of natural resources into marketable products; hence of economically
unsustainable and environmentally unfriendly production.
It is not practical to attempt to solve every problem at the first attempt; hence it was necessary to
prioritise key areas. Our study has identified a need to determine the balance between the cost of
labour inputs required to tend animals on free-access herbage and its nutritional value, while also
considering the impact of the goats on the overall ecosystem to which they belong. We have shown
needs to evaluate the response to and cost benefits of nutritional management and nematode
parasite control (Sargison and Scott 2010) with reference to sustainability.
Within the context of Indian goat production, we consider that the poor reproductive performance
demonstrated in our study may be a consequence of the goats being in poor body condition and
negative nutritional balance. Extrapolating from the theory of beef cattle reproductive management
(Mossman and Hanly 1977), it can be argued that the consequences of female goats failing to reach
a critical minimum weight as a proportion of their mature weight by the age at which they are first
mated are twofold: some do not conceive; while those that do so become underweight and are thus
in poor body condition at parturition due to the nutritional demands of pregnancy, and subsequently
at the time of rebreeding due to the further requirements for lactation. Most of these animals then
fail to show oestrus behaviour, have low ovulation rates, or cannot maintain pregnancy. Hence it is
not possible to achieve their target 365-day rebreeding interval. Furthermore, the consequent
combination of low numbers of replacement female animals and a high involuntary culling rate,
9
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
demonstrated by our study, impede genetic improvement through the selection of the best
performing individual animals.
The low albumin concentrations in the study goats may be a result of long-term poor rumen
degradable protein (N) nutrition, or endogenous protein loss. In this case, the manner whereby the
serum albumin concentrations of each goat were low, in the absence of raised globulin
concentrations indicative of chronic inflammatory disease, broadly supports the former explanation
(Henshaw 1995), although this could not be formally proven. Nevertheless, our findings suggest that
the poor body condition and growth rates may be primarily due to inadequate nutritional
management, in part as a consequence of seasonal variation in quality and availability of herbage.
One practical approach to enable efficient utilisation of seasonally-available natural resources is to
introduce a compact, seasonal kidding pattern, following the model that is prerequisite for pastoral
cattle production (Holmes 2001). This necessitates home-bred animals first kidding at one or two
years-old. Two year-old first kidding imparts the potential benefit of their being more mature and in
better body condition when they are mated, with a knock on effect on their life-long reproductive
performance and longevity. A compact kidding period enables targeted disease management, for
example helminth control, and more precise grazing and nutritional supplementation management,
in line with the global move towards precision livestock farming systems (Wathes 2010). However,
before promoting such a fundamental change in goat husbandry, it is first necessary to understand
the seasonal nutrient availability and deficiencies in conjunction with compounding effects of
infectious disease threats.
The nutritive values of a range of natural herbage that is freely available in southern India and other
subtropical environments, and of cultivated crops, are well known and the principles of ration
formulation are understood (Devendra 1981). However, our study highlights the general principle
that the nutritive value of the ration that is actually fed or ingested may be misjudged due to
seasonal variation in the availability of nutrients, poor understanding of the energy cost associated
10
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
with walking to and from free grazing, or changes in availability as a consequence of urbanisation
and other demands on grazing and crop producing land. High levels of once-a-day concentrate
feeding to compensate for seasonal variations in availability of free access cultivated herbage, may
cause ruminal acidosis, potentially compounding the problem by reducing the efficiency of digestion
of natural herbage (Ram and others 2007), although this was not formally evaluated. Similar
considerations apply to the growing practice in southern India of feeding goats energy crop by-
products. There is therefore a need for better understanding of the nutritive value of herbage fed to
goats, of the concept of a balanced ration, and of the effects of concentrate feeding on the efficiency
of digestion of primary natural nutrient resources.
Referring to unpublished historical FEC data for the herd (Dr John Abraham, personal
communication), the FECs occurring in August, at a time when H. contortus FECs usually start to
increase, were considered to be indicative of a potentially significant nematode parasite burden,
although it is acknowledged that as in many aspects of planned animal health management, this
interpretation is highly subjective and formally unproven. There has been an historic dependence
on benzimidazole anthelmintics for the control of haemonchosis in southern Indian goat herds, and
there have been reports of benzimidazole resistance (Manikkavasagan and others 2015). The
importance of anthelmintic drug inefficacy identified in our study extends beyond its implications for
roundworm control in goats, because Haemonchus contortus is also a parasite of co-grazed sheep
and cattle in southern India (Chaudhry and others 2015). Anthelmintic resistance is often considered
to occur first in goats, due to their intrinsic immune responses to nematode parasites and
pharmacokinetics of drug absorption and elimination (Hoste and others 2010) imposing a
significantly higher selection pressure.
We have identified a tendency to focus upon visually obvious indices of infectious diseases and
established perceptions of threats to efficient goat production. This approach encourages remedies
such as the ad hoc anthelmintic treatments using praziquantel and fenbendazole combination
11
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
tablets. The irrational perception of a need to administer praziquantel treatments for Monezia
expansa tapeworms biases the choice of anthelmintic drug for the control of H. contortus towards
using a combination product containing a benzimidazole anthelmintic drug, which we have shown to
be ineffective. Furthermore, the use of anthelmintic drugs in a standard dose rate tablet
formulation presents a high risk of exposure of the helminths to sub-therapeutic drug
concentrations, which may further select for anthelmintic resistance (Besier and Hopkins 1988). This
scenario is unhelpful in addressing efficient and sustainable infectious disease control needed to
ensure food security and shows clear needs to develop objective approaches to place health
management of southern Indian goats in context and develop control programmes integrating
responsible medicines use.
Hands-on involvement with the activities of the study herd of Malabari goats enabled the collection
and interpretation of production and animal health management data in a unique and
unprecedented manner. Our results show that productivity of the study herd is both economically
unsustainable (because it permit neither the maintenance of the closed herd, nor iterative genetic
selection within the herd), and environmentally-unfriendly (owing to the imbalance between food
production, degradation of the natural environment and greenhouse gas production). We have
identified basic animal husbandry and animal health problems contributing to failure to meet
pragmatic production targets. Accurate data recording is important in improving global livestock
production efficiency. Our results highlight the need for future work on the themes of nutritional
and reproductive management, and sustainable helminth control as next steps towards addressing
the global need for efficient livestock production.
Acknowledgments
12
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
We are grateful for the support of Zoetis in enabling and encouraging the University of Edinburgh,
Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies’ engagement in India in developing educational resources
for livestock farmers and keepers. The support and assistance of the University of Edinburgh India
Liaison Office, Mumbai, was important in enabling the work to be undertaken. The assistance of
colleagues at the Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University and of the farm staff caring for
the Malabari goat herd is also gratefully appreciated.
References
BESIER, R.B. & HOPKINS, D.L. (1988) Anthelmintic dose selection by farmers. Australian Veterinary
Journal 65, 193-194
CHAUDHRY, U., REDMAN, E.M., ABBAS, M., MUTHUSAMY, R., ASHRAF, K. & GILLEARD, J.S. (2015)
Genetic evidence for hybridisation between Haemonchus contortus and Haemonchus placei in
natural field populations and its implications for interspecies transmission of anthelmintic resistance.
International Journal for Parasitology 45, 149-159
COLES, G.C., BAUER, C., BORGSTEEDE, F.H.M., GEERTS, S., KLEI, T.R., TAYLOR, M.A. & WALLER, P.J.
(1992) World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (W.A.A.V.P.) Methods for
the detection of anthelmintic resistance in nematodes of veterinary importance. Veterinary
Parasitology 44, 35-44
COLES, G.C., JACKSON, F., POMROY, W.E., PRICHARD, R.K., VON SAMSON-HIMMELSTJERNA, G.,
SILVESTRA, A., TAYLOR, M.A. & VERCRUYSSE, J. (2006) The detection of anthelmintic resistance in
nematodes of veterinary importance. Veterinary Parasitology 136, 167-185
13
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
DEVENDRA, C. (1981) Potential of sheep and goats in less developed countries. Journal of Animal
Science 51, 461–473
DUBEUF, J.P. (2014) Science, technology, innovation and governance for the goat sectors. Small
Ruminant Research 121, 2-6
HENSHAW, C.J. (1995) Serum protein concentrations in chronic ill-thrift conditions of adult sheep.
Proceedings of the Sheep Veterinary Society 18, 75-77
HOLMES, C.W. (2001) Managing fertility in the New Zealand dairy herd. Proceedings of the New
Zealand Society of Animal Production 61, 135-140
HOSTE, H., SOTIRAKI, S., LANDAU, S.Y., JACKSON, F. & BEVERIDGE, I. (2010) Goat-Nematode
interactions: think differently. Trends in Parasitology 26, 376-381
LUIKART, G., GIELLY, L., EXCOFFIER, L., VIGNE, J., BOUVET, J. & TABERLET, P. (2001) Multiple
maternal origins and weak phylogeographic structure in domestic goats. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Science 98, 5927-5932
MAFF (MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE FISHERIES AND FOOD) (1986) Part 1 Helminthology. In: Manual
of Veterinary Parasitological Laboratory Techniques, 3rd Ed. Reference Book 418, Her Majesty’s
Stationary Office, London, pp 3-67
MANIKKAVASAGAN, I., BINOSUNDAR, S.T. & RAMAN, M. (2015) Survey on anthelmintic resistance to
gastrointestinal nematodes in unorganized goat farms of Tamil Nadu. Journal of Parasitic Diseases
39, 258-261
MATTHEWS, J. (1999) Diseases of the Goat. Blackwell Science, Oxford, p. 332
MOSSMAN, D.H. & HANLY, G.J. (1977) A theory of beef production. New Zealand Veterinary
Journal 25, 96-100
14
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
POLLOTT, G., WILSON, R.T. (2009) Sheep and Goats for diverse products and profits. FAO
diversification booklet. Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome. a-i0524e.pdf http://www.fao.org/publications (accessed
18-2-15)
R CORE TEAM (2014) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, 2014
RADHIKA, G., RAGHAVAN K.C., ARAVINDAKSHAN T.V. & THIRUPATHY V. (2015) Genetic diversity and
population structure analysis of native and crossbred goat genetic groups of Kerala, India. Small
Ruminant Research 131, 50-57
RAM, P.K., VERMA, S.P., AGRAWAL, A.K. & JAYACHANDRAN, C. (2007) Effect of severity of acidosis
on ruminal activity in goats. Indian Journal of Animal Research 41, 256-260
SARGISON, N.D. & SCOTT, P.R. (2010) The implementation and value of diagnostic procedures in
sheep health management. Small Ruminant Research 92, 2-9
SINGH, A. & RAMKUMAR, S. (2014) Factors influencing self-help group members for selecting
livestock rearing as an income generating activity. Research Journal of Animal Husbandry and Dairy
Science 5, 84-87
VAN WYK, J.A. & MAYHEW, E. (2013) Morphological identification of parasitic nematode infective
larvae of small ruminants and cattle: A practical lab guide. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary
Research 80, Art#539
VERMA, N.K., DIXIT, S.P., DANGI, P.S., AGGARWAL, R.A.K., SUBOTH KUMAR & JOSHI, B.K. (2009)
Malabari goats: characterisation, management, performance and genetic variability. Indian Journal
of Animal Sciences 79, 813-818
WATHES, C.M. (2010) The prospects for precision livestock farming. Journal of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England 171, 26-32
15
331
332
333
334
335
336
337
338
339
340
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
351
352
353
Liveweight at 12 months’ old 28 kgAdult doe liveweight 31 kgMean kid birthweight 1.6 kgKidding interval Once a yearAverage litter size 2.1 kidsAverage age at first kidding 19 to 21 months
TABLE 1: Pragmatic production targets for the Malabari goat herd, that were based on matching the
potential performance of the genetically improved breed with the estimated available nutritional
resources. The information presented in this table is based on an unpublished document titled ‘goat
rearing in Kerala’ that was produced by the KVASU prior to the establishment of the goat herd. The
information presented in this publication is similar to that reported by Verma and others (2009).
Performance index Actual production Pragmatic targetKids reared annually per lactating doe
1.0 kid 2.1 kids
Mean 4-week-old kid weight
About 4.0 kg Between 6 and 7 kg
Mean weight of adult does
27.3 kg (±1.2 kg SEM) 31 kg
Mean weight of yearling goats, with a mean age of 15 months
11.1 kg (±0.7 kg SEM) About 30 kg
Kidding pattern and interval
Kidding occurs over a protracted period of time, being all year round. The actual mean kidding interval could not be determined from the available records.
365 days over a short period of time
16
354
355
356
357
358
359
360
361
362
363
Mean age of the adult does
About 3 years, with involuntary culling mostly due to failure to re-breed.
More than 5 years, giving scope for voluntary culling.
TABLE 2: Production data for the study goat herd and tenable targets for Malabari goats kept in
comparable environments.
FIG 1: Serum protein concentrations of representative pregnant adult does (n=4), lactating adult
does (n=4) and yearling female goats (n=5).
17
364
365
366
367
368
369
370