vehicle body engineering and safety notes

8/10/2019 Vehicle Body Engineering and Safety Notes

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VEHICLE CODY ENGINEERING AND SAFETY M A QADEER SIDDIQUI

3

UNIT 7:Vans, Trucks, and busses:types of Mini coach with trailers, single and double deckers,design criteria

based on passenger capacity ;goods to be transported and distance to becovered, constructional details, weight and dimensions, Convectional andintegral type

UNIT 8:Vehicle Stability:

Steering geometry vehicle and curvilinear path, and lateral stability, effectsof tyre factors, mass distribution and engine location on stability.

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1)Structural Material

Aluminum Alloy Sheets for Automobile Panel

Features

The TM Series (type 6000 alloy) is bake hardened, making its lightweightand strong.

The TG Series (type 5000 alloy) is highly ductile, lightweight and with highformability.

We offer a variety of products with different surface finishes, surfacetreatments, lubricants and sizes.

Specification Description

Material Type 5000 or 6000 rolled sheet alloySurface finishes Dull or milled finished

Surfacetreatments

Acid washing possible

Lubricants Can be coated with various types of lubricant

ShapesCoils and sheets (longitudinal circular sheets alsopossible)

Applications

Automotive panel materials (engine hoods, trunk lids, doors, etc.)




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Product Characteristics

Typical characteristics of aluminum alloy sheets used to makeautomobile panels

Alloy

By alloy

andquality

Byquality

Tensilestrength

Yieldstrength

ElongationAlloy proofstrength

after

baking(Note1)

Notes

TS(MPa) YS(MPa) EL (%) YS(MPa)

5000Alloys

5052 O 195 90 27Generalmaterials

5182 O 270 130 28Generalmaterials

TG19 O 270 125 30

Good

formability,SS-markimprovemen

TG25 O 275 120 33

Highformability,SS-markimprovemen

6000Alloys

TM30 T4 210 110 27 200

High BH,superiorcorrosionresistance

TM45 T4 245 135 29 165

Goodformability,superiorcorrosionresistance

TM55 T4 230 120 29 220

High BH,superiorcorrosionresistance

TM66 T4 240 115 29 210

Good

formability,High BH

High BH-TM67

T4 255 120 29 215Goodformability,High BH

Highformability-

T4 285 145 29 175Highformability




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TM67Steelsheet

SPCC 314 176 42 Reference

Note 1Baking conditions: After applying 2% pre-distortion, test value after 20

min at 170CNote 2

The "stretcher-strain mark" (SS mark) is a distortion pattern thatappears during forming.

Note 3The BH (bake-hard effect) is the property of strength increased byapplying the bake coating.

Extrusion

Extrusionis the process by which long straight metal parts can beproduced. The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round,

rectangular, to L shapes, T shapes. Tubes and many other different types.

Extrusion is done by squeezing metal in a closed cavity through a tool,

known as a die using either a mechanical or hydraulic press.

Extrusion produces compressive and shear forces in the stock. No tensile is

produced, which makes high deformation possible without tearing the metal.

The cavity in which the raw material is contained is lined with a wear

resistant material. This can withstand the high radial loads that are createdwhen the material is pushed the die.

Extrusions, often minimize the need for secondary machining, but are not of

the same dimensional accuracy or surface finish as machined parts. Surface

finish for steel is 3 m; (125 in), and Aluminum and Magnesium is 0.8 m

(30 in). However, this process can produce a wide variety of cross-sections

that are hard to produce cost-effectively using other methods. Minimum

thickness of steel is about 3 mm (0.120 in), whereas Aluminum and

Magnesium is about 1mm (0.040 in). Minimum cross sections are 250mm2(0.4 in2) for steel and less than that for Aluminum and Magnesium.

Minimum corner and fillet radii are 0.4 mm (0.015 in) for Aluminum and

Magnesium, and for steel, the minimum corner radius is 0.8mm (0.030 in)

and 4 mm (0.120 in) fillet radius.




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Cold Extrusion: Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or

slightly elevated temperatures. This process can be used for most materials-

subject to designing robust enough tooling that can withstand the stresses

created by extrusion. Examples of the metals that can be extruded are lead,

tin, aluminum alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium, steel.Examples of parts that are cold extruded are collapsible tubes, aluminum

cans, cylinders, gear blanks. The advantages of cold extrusion are:

No oxidation takes place.

Good mechanical properties due to severe cold working as long as the

temperatures created are below the re-crystallization temperature.

Good surface finish with the use of proper lubricants.

Hot Extrusion: Hot extrusion is done at fairly high temperatures,

approximately 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the metal. The pressures

can range from 35-700 MPa (5076 - 101,525 psi). Due to the high

temperatures and pressures and its detrimental effect on the die life as well

as other components, good lubrication is necessary. Oil and graphite work at

lower temperatures, whereas at higher temperatures glass powder is used.

Typical parts produced by extrusions are trim parts used in automotive and

construction applications, window frame members, railings, aircraftstructural parts.

Casting

In metalworking, castinginvolves pouring liquid metal into a mold, whichcontains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool




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Ferrite Stainless steel

Plain chromium steels (12 to 27 percent chromium) with

no significant nickel content which results in lower corrosion resistantthan austenitic stainless steels. However, they have slightlyhigher yield strengths and much lower strain hardening than austenitic.Ferritic steels have body centered cubic crystal, are less ductile thanaustenitic steel, and are not hardenable by heat treatment like martensiticsteels. Older ferritics (such as AISI 409 and 430) are used mainlyfor household utensils and other applications not demanding in anti-corrosion properties. Ferritics with high chromium content (such as AISI446) are used mainly for high temperature (but below 475C) applicationsand those with extremely low carbon and nitrogen content (such as S44400)

are used where protection against stress corrosion cracking is required. Theyare the second largest selling type of stainless steels behind austenitic.

ALLOY STEELSSteel is a metal alloy consisting mostly of iron, in addition to small amountsof carbon, depending on the grade and quality of the steel. Alloy steel is anytype of steel to which one or more elements besides carbon have beenintentionally added, to produce a desired physical property or characteristic.Common elements that are added to make alloy steel aremolybdenum, manganese, nickel, silicon, boron, chromium, and vanadium.Alloy steel is often subdivided into two groups: high alloy steels and lowalloy steels. The difference between the two is defined somewhat arbitrarily.However, most agree that any steel that is alloyed with more than eightpercent of its weight being other elements beside iron and carbon, is highalloy steel. Low alloy steels are slightly more common. The physicalproperties of these steels are modified by the other elements, to give themgreater hardness, durability, corrosion resistance, or toughness as comparedto carbon steel. To achieve such properties, these alloys often require heattreatment.If the carbon level in a low alloy steel is in the medium to high range, it canbe difficult to weld. If the carbon content is lowered to a range of 0.1% to

0.3%, and some of the alloying elements are reduced, the steel can achievea greater weldability and formability while maintaining the strength thatsteel is known for. Such metals are classified as high strength, low alloysteels.

Perhaps the most well-known alloy steel is stainless steel. This is a steelalloy with a minimum of 10% chromium content. Stainless steel is moreresistant to stains, corrosion, and rust than ordinary steel. It was discovered




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in 1913 by Harry Brearley of Sheffield, England, but the discovery was notannounced to the world until 1915. Stainless steel is commonly used in tablecutlery, jewelry, watch bands, surgical instruments, as well as in the aviationindustry. Its familiar luster has also been appropriated for many famousarchitectural designs, such as the Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, and

the pinnacle of the Chrysler Building in New York City.

In all types of alloy steel, the alloying elements tend to either form carbidesor compounds, rather than simply being uniformly mixed in with the iron andcarbon. Nickel, aluminum, and silicon are examples of the elements thatform compounds in the steel. Tungsten and vanadium will form carbides,both of which increase the hardness and stability of the finished product.

Alloy steel- steel whose characteristics are determined by the addition ofother elements in addition to carbonSteel - an alloy of iron with small amounts of carbon; widely used inconstruction; mechanical properties can be varied over a wide rangeChromium steel, stainless, stainless steel - steel containing chromium thatmakes it resistant to corrosionChrome-nickel steel,Elinvar - Elinvar is a trademark for a kind of steel usedfor watch springs because its elasticity is constant over a wide range oftemperaturesChrome-tungsten steel - a steel alloy made with chromium and tungstenAustenitic manganese steel, manganese steel - a steel with a relatively large

component (10-14%) of manganese; highly resistant to wear and shockMolybdenum steel - steel containing 10-15% molybdenum; properties aresimilar to tungsten steelNickel steel - an alloy steel containing nickelTool steel - alloy steel that is suitable for making tools; is hard and toughand can retain a cutting edgeTungsten steel, wolfram steel a very hard heat-resistant steel containingtungstenVanadium steel - steel alloyed with vanadium for greater strength and high-temperature stability


http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Elinvarhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/chrome-tungsten+steelhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/tool+steelhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/tool+steelhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/chrome-tungsten+steelhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/Elinvar


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DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPOSITES

What are composite materials?

Composites are a unique class of materials made from two or more distinctmaterials that when combined are better (stronger, tougher, and/or moredurable) than each would be separately. They are non-corroding, non-magnetic, radar transparent and they are designed to provide strength andstiffness where it is needed.

Although many man-made materials have two or more constituents, such asmetallic alloys, but they are usually not classified as composites because thestructural unit is formed at microscopic level (it means that the combination

of materials are combined in such a way thatthe individual components are indistinguishable)

rather than at the macroscopic level (thatmeans the constituents retain their identities inthe composite, they do not dissolve or otherwisemerge completely into each other). Incomposite materials, the components can bephysically identified and exhibit an interfacebetween one another.

The most common composite is the fibrous composite consisting of

reinforcing fibers embedded in a binder, or matrix materials.

IMPORTANCE

Composites have properties, which could not be achieved by either of theconstituent materials alone. We can see that composites are becoming moreand more important as it can help to improve our quality of life. Composites

are put into service in flight vehicles, automobiles, boats, pipelines,buildings, roads, bridges, and dozens of other products. Researchers arefinding ways to improve other qualities of composites so they may be strong,lightweight, long-lived, and inexpensive to produce.




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Different type of composites

Actually the production of composites is an attempt to copy nature. Wood isa composite of cellulose fibers cemented together with lignin. This kind of

composite is called natural composites.

And for man-made composites, there are polymer matrix composites(PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix composites(CMCs). They are made from adding reinforcing fibres into polymer matrix,metal matrix or ceramic matrix respectively.

Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs) - These are the most common and willbe the main area of discussion in this website. Also known as FRP - FiberReinforced Polymers - these materials use a polymer-based resin as thematrix, and a variety of fibers such as glass and carbon as the

reinforcement. For examplefiberglass, the first successful moderncomposites, is one of the polymer matrix composites. It is used for makingboat hulls, storage tanks, pipes, and car components.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) - Increasingly found in the mobileindustry, these materials use a metal such as aluminum as the matrix, andreinforce it with fibers such as silicon carbide.

Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) - Used in very high temperatureenvironments, these materials use a ceramic as the matrix and reinforce itwith short fibers, such as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.

Disadvantages of composite materials

Although composite materials have certain advantages over conventionalmaterials, composites also have some disadvantages. The common one isthe high manufacturing costs. However, as improved manufacturingtechniques are developed, it will become possible to produce compositematerials at higher volumes and at a lower cost than is now possible.

FRP (Fiber Rain forced Composites)

Faber-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also fiber-reinforced polymer) is a compositematerial made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibers. The fibers areusually glass, carbon, basalt or aramid, although other fibers such as paperor wood or asbestos have been sometimes used. The polymer is usually anepoxy, vinyl ester or polyester thermosetting plastic, and phenol




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formaldehyde resins are still in use. FRPs are commonly used in theaerospace, automotive, marine, and construction industries.

A polymer is generally manufactured by Step-growth polymerization oraddition polymerization. When combined with various agents to enhance or

in any way alter the material properties of polymers the result is referred toas a plastic. Composite plastics refer to those types of plastics that resultfrom bonding two or more homogeneous materials with different materialproperties to derive a final product with certain desired material andmechanical properties. Faber-reinforced plastics are a category of compositeplastics that specifically use fiber materials to mechanically enhance thestrength and elasticity of plastics. The original plastic material without fiberreinforcement is known as the matrix. The matrix is a tough but relativelyweak plastic that is reinforced by stronger stiffer reinforcing filaments orfibers. The extent that strength and elasticity are enhanced in a fiber-reinforced plastic depends on the mechanical properties of both the fiber andmatrix, their volume relative to one another, and the fiber length andorientation within the matrix. Reinforcement of the matrix occurs bydefinition when the FRP material exhibits increased strength or elasticityrelative to the strength and elasticity of the matrix alone.

What is FRP?

Fiberglass-reinforced plasticis one of the strongest and mostdurable materials in the world.

Bedford manufactures most of its profiles out of fiberglass-reinforcedpolymers (FRP), also known as composites, which are a combination of:

Resin,such as polyester or vinyl ester; Reinforcements,such as fiberglass roving and mat; Additives,such as pigments, UV inhibitors, fire retardant, etc.; and Surface veil,which enhances corrosion resistance, UV protection and

appearance

These materials work in concert to provide a specific set of strength andperformance properties, including:

Light weight with high strength Corrosion free and impact resistant Dimensional stability Electrically non-conductive Non-magnetic and non-sparking Low thermal conductivity




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Rapid installation with standard tools RF transparency

MMC (Metal Matrix composites)

A metal matrix composite (MMC) is composite material with at least twoconstituent parts, one being a metal. The other material may be a differentmetal or another material, such as a ceramic or organic compound. When atleast three materials are present, it is called a hybrid composite. An MMC iscomplementary to a cermets.

Composition

MMCs are made by dispersing a reinforcing material into a metal matrix. Thereinforcement surface can be coated to prevent a chemical reaction with thematrix. For example, carbon fibers are commonly used in aluminum matrixto synthesize composites showing low density and high strength. However,carbon reacts with aluminum to generate a brittle and water-solublecompound Al4C3 on the surface of the fiber. To prevent this reaction, thecarbon fibers are coated with nickel or titanium boride.

Matrix

The matrix is the monolithic material into which the reinforcement isembedded, and is completely continuous. This means that there is a paththrough the matrix to any point in the material, unlike two materials

sandwiched together. In structural applications, the matrix is usually alighter metal such as aluminum, magnesium, or titanium, and provides acompliant support for the reinforcement. In high temperature applications,cobalt and cobalt-nickel alloy matrices are common.

Reinforcement

The reinforcement material is embedded into the matrix. The reinforcementdoes not always serve a purely structural task (reinforcing the compound),but is also used to change physical properties such as wear resistance,friction coefficient, or thermal conductivity. The reinforcement can be either

continuous, or discontinuous. Discontinuous MMCs can be isotropic, and canbe worked with standard metalworking techniques, such as extrusion,forging or rolling. In addition, they may be machined using conventionaltechniques, but commonly would need the use of polycrystalline diamondtooling (PCD).




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Continuous reinforcement uses monofilament wires or fibers such as carbonfiber or silicon carbide. Because the fibers are embedded into the matrix in acertain direction, the result is an anisotropic structure in which the alignmentof the material affects its strength. One of the first MMCs used boronfilament as reinforcement. Discontinuous reinforcement uses "whiskers",

short fibers, or particles. The most common reinforcing materials in thiscategory are alumina and silicon carbide.

Application

Carbide drills are often made from a tough cobalt matrix with hardtungsten carbide particles inside.

Some tank armors may be made from metal matrix composites,probably steel reinforced with boron nitride, which is a goodreinforcement for steel because it is very stiff and it does not dissolvein molten steel.

Some automotive disc brakes use MMCs. Early Lotus Elise models usedaluminum MMC rotors, but they have less than optimal heat propertiesand Lotus has since switched back to cast-iron. Modern high-performance sport cars, such as those built by Porsche, use rotorsmade of carbon fiber within a silicon carbide matrix because of its highspecific heat and thermal conductivity. 3M sells a preformed aluminummatrix insert for strengthening cast aluminum disc brake calipers,allowing them to weigh as much as 50% less while increasing stiffness.3M has also used alumina performs for AMC pushrods.

Ford offers a Metal Matrix Composite (MMC) driveshaft upgrade. The

MMC driveshaft is made of an aluminum matrix reinforced with boroncarbide, allowing the critical speed of the driveshaft to be raised byreducing inertia. The MMC driveshaft has become a commonmodification for racers, allowing the top speed to be increased farbeyond the safe operating speeds of a standard aluminum driveshaft.

TIMBERS in Automobiles-

The Weymann system comprises an ultra-light wood framework with specialmetal joints so that timber does not touch timber. Small metal panels are

inserted between the fabric and the framework to make rounded externalcorners. Straining wires are fitted to hold the doors in shape when they arestressed by acceleration or bumps. The frame is then covered with muslinover chicken wire with a thin layer of cotton batting used to span large openareas and over this a top layer of fabric, usually a pigmented syntheticleather, is placed. Any exposed joints in the fabric are covered withaluminum moldings. The seats are fixed directly to the chassis.




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Passengers were therefore in almost direct contact with the firmly mountedengine. Where the market permitted some isolation was provided byluxuriously sprung passenger-seating often topped with inflated pneumaticcushions. For the luxury market it further encouraged the development ofinherently smoother multi-cylinder engines in place of sixes and eights and,

too late for Weymann, the introduction of flexible engine mounts and betterchassis suspension systems in place of primitive leaf springs.

Fiber glass is an excellent example of a relatively modern composite material (Invented in1938 by Russell Games). In industry it is often referred to as Glass Reinforced Plastic(GRP).

GRP is composed of strands of glass. Each individual glass fiber is very fine with a smalldiameter, and they are woven to form a flexible fabric. The fabric is normally placed in amould, for instance a mould for a canoe and polyester resin is added, followed by acatalyst (to speed up the reaction). The process is repeated so that there are many layersof fiber glass and resin and allowed to dry/cure. The resulting material is strong and lightGlass Reinforced Plastic can be sanded for a smooth finish and painted.

Three samples of different weaves of fiberglass are seen below. The pattern of weavedetermines the strength and weight of the Glass Reinforced Plastic, after resin has been

added. Different weaves have been developed for different practical applications.




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Glass reinforced plastic is lightweight and has good thermal insulation properties. It has ahigh strength to weight ratio, making it useful for the production of products such aswater tanks, surfboards, canoes, small boat hulls and similar products. The new Europeanfighter plane, called Eurofighter, has an airframe which includes 12% glass reinforcedplastic.

TWO TYPICAL USES OF GRP




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GRP (Glass reinforced fiber)

Properties of GRP

Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), also known as glass fiber-reinforced plastic(GFRP) is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material.

These advantages of using GRP over other materials include:Freedom of Design

The practical uses of GRP are virtually endless and it has literally bought thedesigners imagination to life. GRP opened many new avenues for creativedesigners. Its unique physical properties allow it to be easily tooled, molded

and manufactured to meet almost any specifications. With GRP there are fewconstraints on size, shape, color or finish, the styling and appearance cantake precedence over manufacturing costs.Versatility and Affordability

The lightweight strength of GRP makes it a popular choice formanufacturing. GRP reduces weight and requires less maintenance making ithighly attractive over more traditional materials like timber, metal or brick.




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The flexibility of GRP and the cost effectiveness of its composite materialsalso make it an extremely affordable solution and an economical alternative.By using GRP industry can manufacture virtually any component or finishedproduct in any quantity.

Strength and Durability

GRP has a high strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength making itan attractive lightweight material that builds strength into almost anyfinished product or component. Pound for pound GRP can be stronger thansteel and sheet metals.

GRP also has high resistance to environmental extremes and requires verylittle maintenance - no rust, no painting, no wood rot plus GRP is non-corrosive and has a much longer life expectancy when compared to a varietyof construction materials.

In highly corrosive environments GRP is the preferred choice over metal,wood, or plastic. GRP provides resistance to ultra violet light, extremetemperatures, salt air, and a variety of chemicals including most acids. AsGRP is chemically inert and corrosion-resistant, it offers an economicalalternative to stainless steel.Appearance

GRP products can be manufactured in numerous finishes, textures and colorsincluding brick and stone effect.

With sheet metal, you get a plain box. GRP products have sleek contoursand a superior molded appearance.Dielectric

GRP is non-conductive, RF transparent, and helps to insulate againstelectromagnetic fields, making GRP the obvious choice for electrical andelectronic equipment storage like electrical meter boxes and cabinets.Acoustic Properties

GRP provides superior acoustical properties when compared to plastic ormetal. Various type of sound deadening materials can be laminated betweenhigh strength layers of GRP to achieve the preferred level of sounddeadening.

GRP parts have excellent dimensional stability and will hold their shapesunder severe mechanical and environmental stresses.




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Properties of GRP

Glass-reinforced plastic(GRP), also known as glass fiber-reinforcedplastic(GFRP) is a lightweight, extremely strong, and robust material.

These advantages of using GRP over other materials include:

Freedom of Design

The practical uses of GRP are virtually endless and it has literally boughtthe designers imagination to life. GRP opened many new avenues forcreative designers. Its unique physical properties allow it to be easily

tooled, molded and manufactured to meet almost any specifications. WithGRP there are few constraints on size, shape, color or finish, the stylingand appearance can take precedence over manufacturing costs.

Versatility and Affordability

The lightweight strength of GRP makes it a popular choice formanufacturing. GRP reduces weight and requires less maintenancemaking it highly attractive over more traditional materials like timber,metal or brick.

The flexibility of GRP and the cost effectiveness of its composite materialsalso make it an extremely affordable solution and an economicalalternative. By using GRP industry can manufacture virtually anycomponent or finished product in any quantity.

Strength and Durability

GRP has a high strength to weight ratio and high flexural strength makingit an attractive lightweight material that builds strength into almost anyfinished product or component. Pound for pound GRP can be stronger

than steel and sheet metals.

GRP also has high resistance to environmental extremes and requiresvery little maintenance - no rust, no painting, no wood rot plus GRP isnon-corrosive and has a much longer life expectancy when compared to avariety of construction materials.




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In highly corrosive environments GRP is the preferred choice over metal,wood, or plastic. GRP provides resistance to ultra violet light, extremetemperatures, salt air, and a variety of chemicals including most acids. AsGRP is chemically inert and corrosion-resistant, it offers an economicalalternative to stainless steel.

Appearance

GRP products can be manufactured in numerous finishes, textures andcolours including brick and stone effect.

With sheet metal, you get a plain box. GRP products have sleek contoursand a superior molded appearance.

Dielectric

GRP is non-conductive, RF transparent, and helps to insulate againstelectromagnetic fields, making GRP the obvious choice for electrical andelectronic equipment storage like electrical meter boxes and cabinets.

Acoustic Properties

GRP provides superior acoustical properties when compared to plastic ormetal. Various type of sound deadening materials can be laminatedbetween high strength layers of GRP to achieve the preferred level ofsound deadening.

GRP parts have excellent dimensional stability and will hold their shapesunder severe mechanical and environmental stresses.

High strength Composites-

What Is Carbon Fiber?

Before you can understand how carbon fiber can help solve the oil crisis, youhave to understand what it is. Carbon fiber is a super strong material that'salso extremely lightweight. Engineers and designers love it because it's five

times as strong as steel, two times as stiff, yet weighs about two-thirds less.Carbon fiber is basically very thin strands of carbon -- even thinner thanhuman hair. The strands can be twisted together, like yarn. The yarns canbe woven together, like cloth. To make carbon fiber take on a permanentshape, it can be laid over a mold, then coated with a stiff resin or plastic(kind of like how you would make something out of papier-mch by putting




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newspaper strips over a mold, then adding paste to force it to hold theshape).

Most car components are made of steel. Replacing steel components withcarbon fiber would reduce the weight of most cars by 60 percent. That 60

percent drop in weight would, in turn, reduce that car's fuel consumption by30 percent and cut greenhouse gas and other emissions by 10 to 20 percentthatsa huge fuel savings, even without changing the car's engine. With alighter carbon fiber body, car makers could build cars with smaller, moreefficient engines, or increase the use of electric engines, resulting in evenmore fuel savings. Reducing weight, increasing fuel efficiency and allowingfor the development of different kinds of engines: That's how carbon fibercan solve the oil crisis.

The Difficulties of Carbon Fiber

Only a few cars available at your local dealership use carbon fiber. The BMWM6 has some carbon fiber panels on its body, as does the Chevrolet CorvetteZR1 and the Ford GT. The Audi R8 also includes some carbon fiber. What doall these cars have in common? They cost a lot of money -- most start above$100,000. It's rare to see a car with carbon fiber because it's expensive! Tenyears ago, carbon fiber cost $150 a pound. Now, the price is around $10 apound. Steel, on the other hand, costs less than a dollar per pound. Manyanalysts say that for carbon fiber to make it into widespread use in cars, theprice will have to drop to about $5 per pound Cost is the main hurdle carbonfiber will have to overcome before it can provide a viable energy solution.

The second hurdle is waste disposal. When a typical car breaks down, itssteel can be melted and used to construct another car (or building, oranything else made of steel). Carbon fiber can't be melted down, and it's noteasy to recycle. When it is recycled, the recycled carbon fiber isn't as strongas it was before recycling. Carbon fiber recycled from a car isn't strongenough to be used in building another car. That's a big issue. Having morecars use carbon fiber would save a lot of oil, but it could also generate a lotof waste.

As it stands now, carbon fiber could solve the oil crisis. It's lightweight,durable and safe. But it's also expensive and difficult to recycle. For now, itlooks like carbon fiber is just going to be one of many solutions to the oilcrisis. When combined with efficient engines, other, cheaper materials and achange in driving habits, carbon fiber is just one piece of the energy puzzle.




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Carbon fiber body

Thermoplastic

A thermoplastic (sometimes written as thermo plastic) is a type of plasticmade from polymer resins that becomes a homogenized liquid when heatedand hard when cooled. When frozen, however, a thermoplastic becomesglass-like and subject to fracture. These characteristics, which lend thematerial its name, are reversible. That is, it can be reheated, reshaped, andfrozen repeatedly. This quality also makes thermoplastics recyclable.

There are dozens of kinds of thermoplastics, with each type varying incrystalline organization and density. Some types that are commonlyproduced today are polyurethane, polypropylene, polycarbonate, and acrylic.Celluloid, which is considered the first thermoplastic, made its appearance inthe mid-1800s and reigned in the industry for approximately 100 years.During its peak production, it was used as a substitute for ivory. Today, it isused to make guitar picks.

Sometimes, thermoplastics are confused with thermosetting plastics.Although they may sound the same, they actually possess very different

properties. While thermoplastics can be melted to a liquid and cooled to asolid, thermosetting plastics chemically deteriorate when subjected to heat.Ironically, however, thermosetting plastics tend to be more durable whenallowed to cool than many thermoplastics.




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Tensile Yield Strength

Tensile yield strength is the maximum engineering stress in psi (or Pa) atwhich a permanent non-elastic deformation of the thermoplastic materialbegins.

Yield Point

Yield point is the first point where the specimen yields, where the specimen'scross-sectional area begins to contract significantly, or where the strain canincrease without increase in the stress.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

Ultimate tensile strength is the maximum stress the thermoplastic materialcan withstand before failing, whichever occurs at the higher stress level.

Tensile Modulus

Tensile modulus or Young's Modulus is the ratio of stress to strain within theelastic region of the stress-strain curve before the yield point.

Thermoplastic Characteristics

ABS - Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) is the polymerization of Acrylonitrile,Butadiene, and Styrene monomers. Chemically, this thermoplastic family ofplastics is called "terpolymers", in that they involve the combination of threedifferent monomers to form a single material that draws from the propertiesof all three. ABS possesses outstanding impact strength and high mechanicalstrength, which makes it so suitable for tough consumer products.Additionally, ABS has good dimensional stability and electrical insulatingproperties. Dynalab Corp's plastic fabrication shop fabricates thousands of

catalog and custom ABS products. Strong and rigid resistant to a variety ofbases and acids some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons may damagethe material maximum usable temperature 160oF (71oC)common as DEV -Drainage, Waste and Vent - pipes

PB - Polybutylene

flexible pipe




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used for pressurized water systems usable for hot and cold water only compression and banded type joints used

PE - Polyethylene

flexible pipe Used for pressurized water systems - sprinkler. not usable for hot water

PEX - Polyethylene Cross Linked

flexible pipe Used for pressurized water systems - sprinkler.

PP - Polypropylene

lightweight temperature up to 180oF (82oC) highly resistant to acids, bases and many solvents usable in laboratory plumbing

PVC - Polyvinyl Chloride

strong and rigid resistant to a variety of acids and bases

may be damaged by some solvents and chlorinated hydrocarbons maximum usable temperature 140oF (60oC) usable for water, gas and drainage systems not useable in hot water systems

CPVC - Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride

similar to PVC - but designed for water up to 180oF (82oC)

PVDF - Polyvinylidene Fluoride

strong and very tough material resistant to abrasion, acids, bases, solvents and much more usable to 280oF (138oC) usable in laboratory plumbing




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Styrene

Styrene, also known as vinyl benzeneand phenyl ethene, is an organiccompound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative ofbenzene is a colorless oily liquid that evaporates easily and has a sweet

smell, although high concentrations confer a less pleasant odor. Styrene isthe precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers. Approximately 25million tons (55 billion pounds) of styrene was produced in 2010.

Styrene is essential in the creation of many products that we use every day.A few of the most familiar uses of styrene include:

Solid and film polystyrene, used in rigid foodservice containers, CDcases, appliance housings, envelope windows and many otherproducts.

Polystyrene foam, used in food service products and buildinginsulation.

Composite products, used in tub and shower enclosures, automobilebody panels, wind turbine parts, boats and many other applications.

Other styrene-based materials include:

ABS plastic, used in refrigerator liners, medical devices, smallhousehold appliances and luggage.

SAN plastic, used for food containers and optical fibers. SB Rubber (SBR), which reduces dependence on natural rubbers and

provides improved performance in applications such as vehicle tires,leading to improved fuel efficiency.

SB latex (SBL) used in many paper coatings and in more than 90% ofthe carpeting made in the United States to attach carpet fibers to abacking material.

Strength, Durability, Comfort, Safety

Styrene is so widely used today because it enables a multitude of productsto deliver many benefits that are highly valued by consumers. These benefitsinclude strength, durability, comfort and safety. For example, styrene-based

products cushion bicycle helmets, strengthen military armor, create windpower turbines, reduce coal plant emissions, enhance components thatmake cars and trains lighter and more fuel-efficient, enable manufacturinghigh-performance and cost-effective recreational products such as boats andother watercraft, and reduce dependence on costly natural resources such astropical hardwoods used in boats and marble and granite used in homes andbuildings.




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Sandwich panel construction

A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite materialsthat is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but

thick core. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higherthickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness withoverall low density.

Open- and closed-cell-structured foams like polyvinylchloride, polyurethane,polyethylene or polystyrene foams, balsa wood, syntactic foams, andhoneycombs are commonly used core materials. Open- and closed-cell metalfoam can also be used as core materials.

Laminates of glass or carbon fiber-reinforced thermoplastics or mainlythermoset polymers (unsaturated polyesters, epoxies...) are widely used asskin materials. Sheet metal is also used as skin material in some cases.

The core is bonded to the skins with an adhesive or with metal componentsby brazing together.




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UNIT 2) SHAPING AND PACKAGING

Product designis the process of creating a new product to be sold by abusiness to its customers. A very broad concept, it is essentially the efficientand effective generation and development of ideas through a process that

leads to new products.

In a systematic approach, product designers conceptualize and evaluateideas, turning them into tangible inventions and products. The productdesigner's role is to combine art, science, and technology to create newproducts that other people can use. Their evolving role has been facilitatedby digital tools that now allow designers to communicate, visualize, analyzeand actually produce tangible ideas in a way that would have taken greatermanpower in the past.

Product design is sometimes confused with (and certainly overlaps with)industrial design, and has recently become a broad term inclusive of service,software, and physical product design. Industrial design is concerned withbringing artistic form and usability, usually associated with craft design andergonomics, together to mass-produce goods.Other aspects of productdesign include engineering design, particularly when matters of functionalityor utility (e.g. problem-solving) are at issue, though such boundaries are notalways clear.

Conceptis a fundamental category of existence. In contemporary

philosophy, there are at least three prevailing ways to understand what aconcept is:

Concepts as mental representations, where concepts are entities thatexist in the brain.

Concepts as abilities, where concepts are abilities peculiar to cognitiveagents.

Concepts as abstract objects, where objects are the constituents ofpropositions that mediate between thought, language, and referents

Industrial Designis the use of both applied art and applied science toimprove the aesthetics, ergonomics, functionality, and/or usability of aproduct, and it may also be used to improve the product's marketability andeven production. The role of an industrial designer is to create and executedesign solutions for problems of form, usability, physical ergonomics,marketing, brand development, and sales.




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Industrial design can overlap significantly with engineering design, and indifferent countries the boundaries of the two concepts can vary, but ingeneral engineering focuses principally on functionality or utility of productswhereas industrial design focuses principally on aesthetic and user-interfaceaspects of products. In many jurisdictions this distinction is effectively

defined by credentials and/or licensure required to engage in the practice ofengineering."Industrial design" as such does not overlap much with theengineering sub-discipline of industrial engineering, except for the latter'ssub-specialty of ergonomics.

Aesthetics(also spelled sthetics) is a branch of philosophy dealing withthe nature of art, beauty, and taste, with the creation and appreciation ofbeauty. It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory or sensory-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste. Morebroadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical reflection on art,culture and nature."More specific aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to aparticular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as arttheory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from arttheory is aesthetic theory as a set of principles underlying the work of aparticular artist or artistic movement: such as the Cubist aesthetic.

What is aesthetics?

The term 'aesthetics' concerns our

senses and our responses to anobject. If something isaesthetically pleasing to you, it is'pleasurable' and you like it. If it isaesthetically displeasing to you, itis 'displeasurable' and you don'tlike it. Aesthetics involves all ofyour senses - vision, hearing,touch, taste, and smell - and youremotions.

Elements of Aesthetics

There are many different things that contribute to your overallperception of a product, and to your opinion as to whether it isaesthetically pleasing to you.




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Vision Hearing Touch Taste SmellColourShapePatternLineTextureVisual weightBalanceScaleMovement

LoudnessPitchBeatRepetitionMelodyPatternNoise

TextureShapeWeightGiveComfortTemperatureVibrationSharpnessEase of use

StrengthSweetnessSournessTexture

StrengthSweetness'Pleasantness'

Your opinion about a product may also be influenced by certainassociationsthat are important to you, such as:

how fashionable it is

whether it is a novelty, or an old favourite whether it is a symbol of wealth or love how much danger or risk is involved if it provides a link with your past

You might also take into account whether it is safe and reliable and fitfor its purpose.

Consistency with a particularaesthetic concept may be asignificant factor in creating a

product's appeal too, for example,the current appreciation of 'retro'designs.However, such trends are oftencultural and almost certainlyalways short-lived, so theirpopularity can't be guaranteed.

Computer Aided Drafting

Computer-aided design/drafting (CAD) is the use of computer systems toassist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.CAD software is used to increase the productivity of the designer, improvethe quality of design, improve communications through documentation, andto create a database for manufacturing. CAD output is often in the form ofelectronic files for print, machining, or other manufacturing operations.




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Computer-aided design is used in many fields. Its use in electronic design isknown as Electronic Design Automation, or EDA. In mechanical design isknown as Mechanical Design Automation, or MDA, it is also known ascomputer-aided drafting (CAD) which describes the process of creating a

technical drawing with the use of computer software.

CAD software for mechanical design uses either vector based graphics todepict the objects of traditional drafting, or may also produce raster graphicsshowing the overall appearance of designed objects. However, it involvesmore than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical andengineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such asmaterials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions.

Ergonomics of vehicle

Dictionaries generally define ergonomicsas a scientific discipline that usesprinciples of biotechnology and engineering to make products morecomfortable for workers and consumers. But ergonomics isn't just aboutdesign. It also factors in how we use things.

In the context of a car, that means considering anything from the placement

of a radio dial to how a person sits in a passenger seat. One ergonomicsengineer for Ford described her job as human factors engineering. So whileengineers may design cars to be ergonomically friendly, it doesn't mean thatone design will work for all users, especially if the car is designed for aperson of certain proportions.

It's also up to us passengers and drivers to make ourselves comfortable. Forinstance, if you're a driver and position your seat so that your feet barelyreach the pedals, you may induce unnecessary strain on your arms -- just assitting too close can cause leg or back pain. Seat position, posture and timespent in the car all can affect a person's health. According to one study, ifyou drive four or more hours a day, you're six times more likely to developback problems .Musculoskeletal disorders also pose a concern for long-distance drivers, particularly those who drive for a living: truck drivers, taxidrivers, even police officers on patrol.




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In this article, we'll take a look at the design of car ergonomics and how totake full advantage of them for health, comfort, efficiency and safety. First,let's see what role ergonomics play for a person in the driver's seat.

Vehicle Surfaces

The materials used for vehicle load beds (in rigid, curtain-sided and flatbedvehicles) generally present a low-slip risk when dry, but it is likely that theywill become wet during normal use. They may then become slippery.

Tests have been carried out on a range of materials used on vehicle loadareas, looking at the surface or micro roughness and slip resistance in bothwet and dry conditions.

Composite resin and aggregate surfaces have been found to give good slip-resistance in both wet and dry conditions while aluminium chequer plateperforms relatively poorly when wet.

DASH BOARD INTRUMENTS

At minimum, your dashboard display has a speedometer and a fuel gauge.In addition to those gauges, the display will feature some combination of atachometer, charging system gauge, oil pressure gauge and engine

temperature gauge. Let's have a quick dashboard confessional that coverswhat each part does.

The speedometer, one of the most frequently used tools, tells you how fastyou're going. Traditionally, this gauge relied upon a cable that connected thespeedometer to a gear inside the transmission, but now, electric sensors areused with most dashboard devices. Instrument panels basically have a feedof constantly updated information from around the car; in fact, about one-half of a vehicle's total wiring can be found in the dashboard display.

If you drive a stick, you're probably well familiar with the tachometer,

which measures revolutions per minute (RPM) in the engine. Knowing thisinformation can help you shift at a time when you'll get maximum fueleconomy.

Ever needed a jump when your battery went dead? You might have paidmore attention to the charging system gaugeor warning light afterwards.The amount of electrical current that the charging system provides to your




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vehicle's battery is monitored by either a voltmeter, which measures thevoltage in the charging system, or an ammeter, which measures amperageleaving the battery. When the battery is using too much of its own juice anddepleting itself without getting refilled by the charging system, then thesegauges or warning lights should alert you to the problem.

While many of us strive to lower our blood pressure, we should never striveto have low oil pressure. The oil pressure gaugemeasures oil pressure inpounds per square inch, and you're going to have a big problem if thatpressure falls in a car. Unless you want to destroy your vehicle, stop the caras soon as possible when this gauge alerts you to a problem; you'll likely bewarned via an oil lamp warning light in the dash. Similarly, if your enginegets too hot, you should also get off the road as soon as you can. Yourtemperature gauge, which measures the temperature of engine coolant,will alert you to a dangerous situation.

There are a host of other warning lights designed to let you know about thestatus of the car. Though there have been some efforts to standardize theselights in all makes and models, they are currently personalized to someextent by car manufacturers. You might see these lights for everything froma reminder that someone's not wearing a seatbelt to a warning that tirepressure is low. For more details about what a certain light is trying to tellyou, consult your car's manual.

The configuration and arrangement of these instruments varies according toeach car. In fact, it may surprise you to learn how much time carmakers

spend designing dashboard displays.

Dashboard Display Design

First impressions are important, and a dashboard provides your introductionto each automobile you drive. Designers get paid to think about what eachperson might want from the dashboard, because, unlike with potentialpartners, you're not likely to ask for a second date with that car if you don'tget the information you need upfront. The style, shape and layout of the

dashboard can be a deal-breaker when buying a car.

That's why some drivers may have a completely electronic dashboarddisplay, while others still watch the rise and fall of a needle; it seems thatyoung drivers and women, in particular, have more of an affinity for thedigital model. Some drivers want as much information as possible abouttheir driving and their car; people with displays that show real-time fuel




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economy information might make a game out of trying to improve theirdriving with each mile. The aging baby boomer generation, however, wantsbasic information in an easy-to-read format.

The need to control additional technology, from power mirrors to a stereo

system, means that dashboard displays will only become more diverse in thefuture. In 2006, writers at PC Magazine imagined a future dashboard thatincluded drowsiness sensors, advanced navigation systems and voicerecognition systems that allow you to ask your car questions. This dashboardof the future will also let you pick which instrument gauges you want to seeat a given time and project that display on the windshield, so that less eyemovement is required That means you'll have more time to move your eyestoward the custom entertainment system, full of your favorite music andvideos.

That begs the question, of course, as to when a dashboard display becomesa dashboard distraction. Safety advocacy groups worry that drivers willperceive that most of the driving is being done for them with dashboardgadgets such as self-parking devices, lane-change alerts and cruise control.These people will pay less attention to the road and their driving, while eventhose who are trying to pay attention will be distracted by the constant humof beeps and the constant flash of notifications from the dashboard. There'sa balance to strike multitasking and keeping those eyes on the road.




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ADVANCES IN DASH BORAD INSTRUMENTS

LCD instrument panels are coming, trickling down from a handful ofexpensive cars today to affordable cars. You need an LCD display in front ofyou to process all the information youre getting from the car and connected

devices. Any car instrument panel tells you how fast youre going and howmuch fuel remains. When you also want to see navigation instructions, songinfo, hybrid battery efficiency, and the name of an incoming caller, its time

for a big-screen LCD instrument panel. Theyre on a dozen premium carmodels today. Affordable cars are getting hybrid displays in the instrumentpanel: The speedometer, tachometer, and fuel gauge are traditionalmechanical devices; inset among them or in a bottom strip is an LCD displaythat can show all the other information.

The car instrument panel is following the lead of the center stack in going toLCDs. The instrument clusteror instrument panel is whats on the far side ofthe steering wheel. The center stackis where the radio/head unit and

climate control knobs live. Within five years (by 2017), nearly two thirds ofcars sold in North America will have a center stack with a display radio, orhead unit with an LCD of at least 4.5 inches rather than a dumb, one- ortwo-line text display, according to IHS Automotive, a Minnesota consultinggroup. Try scrolling a thousand-song smartphone list on a text display forquick proof of why you want an LCD display. As for the instrument panel,85% of cars will have at least a partial LCD and more than 10% will be fullLCDs. Infotainment is the main driver for most display radios, says Mark




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Boyadjis, an IHS senior analyst. Safety is the main driver for LCD displays

in the instrument cluster or small displays in the head unit. The US isrequiring all cars built by September 2014 to have a rear camera and displayin the cockpit. An LCD backup (reversing) camera display embedded in theinside mirror is acceptable, too, though theyre small and can be affected by

sunlight.

The industry hasnt yet settled on a term for an instrument panel that usesan LCD or brighter OLED, so youll hear digital dashboard, virtual instrumentcluster, reconfigurable instrument cluster, glass cockpit(borrowed from theaviation industry), and digital instrument cluster display (ICD)used todescribe the instrument panel of the near future. Information presented inthe instrument panel is easier to see at a glance because the driver justlooks down, not over and down as with center stack displays. Ahead-updisplay is even better,but the cost is around $1,000 and some drivers findthem distracting even when they show a pared-down subset of info (speed,cruise-control speed, next turn).

The full monty: 12-inch, all-glass instrument panel

Full digital ICDs have been on a handful of cars for 3-4 years. Jaguar andLand Rover were early pioneers in full digital ICDs with the Jaguar XJ andLand Rovers Range Rover (pictured above). Both use 12.3-inch LCD panels.

At the very least, a full digital instrument panel usually lets the driver switchbetween a digital and analog speedometer, or even have the digital readoutset inside the analog speedometer gauge. Switching from miles tokilometers is a snap when you drive in Canada or Mexico. It could allow theover-40 driver to increase the font size of information. For old farts whomaybe shouldnt be driving at all, the text could be really big. For the forty-something driver who needs reading glasses and isnt wearing them, or who


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has sunglasses ground only for distance vision, larger fonts would makemake the make the cockpit information more legible. So far, automakershavent rushed to implement sizable fonts, even though they talk a good

game about being sensitive to the boomer population.

Cadillac XTS: Move apps from center stack to instrument panel

The most recent car to make a splash with a full LCD instrument cluster isthe full-sizeCadillac XTS (pictured at the top of the story), announced in thespring, and followed by the compactCadillac ATS sport sedan, with a partialdigital ICD. It, too, has a 12.3-inch, 1280480 panel.

The Cadillac XTS display is highly but not infinitely configurable. First, youcan set four themes for the instrument panel display, called Simple,Enhanced, Balanced (photo), and Performance, with less or moreinformation. Then you can tinker with the display elements. The 3-inchcenter of the speedometer (middle gauge) can be digital speed readout or amoving map. This is part of the Cadillac User Experience (CUE) infotainmentpackage that also includes an 8-inch capacitive touch center stack LCD. The

XTS driver can swipe or flick windows of information from the center stackover to the instrument panel LCD.

But you cantmake the map any bigger in the instrument panel or move itto the seemingly underused gauge on the right. Boy racers believe thetachometer (left gauge) redline should point straight up in a properlysporting car run at the track, but that is something you cant do, a Cadillacmarketing manager said with a bit more NFW emphasis than I thought thequestion called for. It goes without saying that you cant download an

instrument panel template and roll your own interface. Yet Hackers, takeyour marks


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Partially customizable LCDs

Some automakers started their trek to the glass cockpit with partial digital

ICDs such as this 2010 BMW 7 Series. The small and large gauges on topare mechanical and that trademark look hasnt changed much since the

seventies. The strip at the bottom is a wide LCD that you can customize a bitby deciding what elements youd like to see. BMW has since expanded to a

full digital ICD, 12 inches across, for the 7 Series and 5 Series. The CadillacATS, a compact sports sedan, also has a partial digital ICD.


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The eco-friendly partial LCD instrument panel

If you build a hybrid, the owner gets, free of charge, all manner of positive

reinforcement telling you what great job youre doing. Ford calls this attaboyLCD Smart Gauge, a pair of 4.5-inch LCDs flanking the speedometer. Ifyoure a conservative driver, you collect green leaves, as on the Ford FusionHybrid (pictured above). The driver can customize what the gauges show,including a small navigation screen, phone info, infotainment (artist, track,album), or efficiency on the right. The left-side information can be mademore or less complex as well. Ford offers the Smart Gauge on a wide line ofcars, not just hybrids that have the My Ford Touch and Ford Syncinfotainment system.


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Small MID adds information at low cost

A multi-information display (MID) has been in the center of car instrument

panels for years and has been upgraded from a text-only display, good forshowing the outside temperature or miles to empty, to a small color LCDthat can show navigation arrows, MP3 album art, or an icon of the car withinformation such the four tires pressures. The Chevrolet Malibu Eco (above)

is typical of the current genre of smallish LCDs that provide a lot ofinformation for just a few dollars of manufacturing cost.


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The future: LCD instrument panels, two center stack LCDs

Can you have too much of a good thing? Concept cars and soon productioncars may have high and low LCD displays in the center stack with dual 7- or8-inch displays. While some higher-end cars have 10-inch displays, IHSBoyadjis says prices are falling most for 8-inch LCDs. A higher panel isbetter for quickly seeing information. Low is better for touching and swipingwith your finger. The Infiniti LE concept car incorporates two center stackpanels in addition to to a full digital instrument panel.


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Commercial Vehicle Dimensions

Part 2 - Vehicle Weights and Dimensions Limits by Configuration

Category 1: Tractor Semi-trailer

Section 1 - Dimension Limits

DIMENSION LIMIT

Overall Length Maximum 23 m1, 2Overall Width Maximum 2.6 m3Overall Height Maximum 4.15 m4TractorWheelbase Maximum 6.2 m5Tandem axle spread Minimum 1.2 m/Maximum 1.85

m

Semi-trailerLength Maximum 16.2 mWheelbase Minimum 6.25 m/Maximum 12.5

m6Kingpin setback Maximum 2.0 m radiusEffective rear overhang Maximum 35% of wheelbase7Tandem axle spread Minimum 1.2 m/Maximum >

1.85 m




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Tridem axle spread Minimum 2.4 m/Maximum 3.7 mTriaxle axle spread Minimum 2.4 m/Maximum 4.8 mTrack width Minimum 2.5 m/Maximum 2.6 mInteraxle SpacingSingle Axle to Single, Tandem, or Tridem

Axle

Minimum 3.0 m

Tandem Axle to Tandem Axle Minimum 5.0 mTandem Axle to Tridem Axle Minimum 5.5 m1 A tractor semi-trailer while being used to transport poles, pipe or

material that cannot be dismembered must not exceed a length of 25 m.2 A tractor semi-trailer designed and being used as an auto carrier must

not exceed a length of 23 m when not loaded and 25 m when loaded.3 The load of a tractor semi-trailer designed and being used as an auto

carrier that overhangs the front or rear of the tractor semi-trailer mustnot have an overall width that exceeds 2.1 m.

4 A tractor semi-trailer designed and being used as an auto carrier mustnot have an overall height that exceeds 4.15 m when not loaded and 4.30m when loaded. The driver must ensure there is a safe clearance underany physical overpass, including structures and utility lines.

5 A tractor wheelbase can be up to a maximum of 7.2 m, if the wheelbaseof the semi-trailer is not greater than the wheelbase as set out inSchedule A-1.

6 The minimum wheelbase for a semi-trailer, model year 2002 or earlier,is 3.75 m.

7 A tractor semi-trailer designed and being used as an auto carrier mustnot have a rear overhang that exceeds 35% of the wheelbase when not

loaded and 42% of the wheelbase when loaded.

Schedule A, Part 2, Category 1, Section 1 replaced: O.I.C. 2010-5,N.S. Reg. 4/2010.

Category 1: Tractor Semi-trailer

Section 2 - Weight Limits




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The maximum axle weight limits and maximum gross vehicle weight limitsset out in this Section are for axles equipped with dual tires, except forsteering axles. The maximum gross vehicle weight limit for a vehicle or

combination of vehicles composed of axles equipped with single tires or acombination of single tires and dual tires is the sum of the maximum axleweight limits in Section CAxle Weight Limits of Part 1Vehicle Weight andDimension Limits for the particular axles equipped with single tires or acombination of single tires and dual tires for a specified class of highway.The maximum gross vehicle weight limit of a vehicle or combination ofvehicles equipped with single tires or a combination of single and dual tiresmust not exceed the maximum gross vehicle weight limit of a similar vehicleor combination of vehicles equipped, except for the steering axle, with dualtires for a specified class of highway.

WEIGHT LIMIT

Axle Weight Limits:Steering Axle Maximum 5500 kg1Single Axle (dual tires) Maximum 9100 kgTandem Axle (including tandemequivalent axle)Axle spread 1.2 m to 1.85 m Maximum 18 000 kgAxle spread > 1.85 m Maximum 18 000 kg

Tridem Axle(including tridem equivalentaxle)Axle spread 2.4 m to less than 3.0 m Maximum 21 000 kgAxle spread 3.0 m to less than 3.6 m Maximum 24 000 kgAxle spread 3.6 m to 3.7 m Maximum 26 000 kgAxle spread greater than 3. 7 m Maximum 18 000 kg4Triaxle Axle




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Axle spread 2.4 m to less than 3.0 m Maximum 18 000 kg2Axle spread 3.0 m to less than 3.6 m Maximum 18 000 kg3Axle spread 3.6 m to 4.9 m Maximum 18 000 kg4Gross Vehicle Weight Limits18:Maximum Weight Roads

Three axles Maximum 23 700 kgFour axleswith tandem spread 1.2 m to1.85 m

Maximum 32 600 kg

Four axleswith semi-trailer tandem spread> 1.85 m

Maximum 32 600 kg

Five axleswith tandem spreads 1.2 m to1.85 m

Maximum 41 500 kg

Five axleswith semi-trailer tandem spread> 1.85 m

Maximum 41 500 kg

Five axleswith tridem spread 2.4 m to

vehicle body engineering and safety notes

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