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The Dead Sea Scrollsand the Bible

J a m e s C . V a n d e r K a m

W I L L I A M B . E E R D M A N S P U B L I S H I N G C O M P A N YG R A N D R A P I D S , M I C H I G A N / C A M B R I D G E , U . K .

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2oi2James C. VanderKamAU rights reserved

Published 2 0 1 2 byWm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co .

2140 Oak Industrial Drive N . E . , Grand Rapids, Michigan 49505 /P.O. Box1 6 3 ,Cambridge CB3 9PU U.K.

Printed in the United States of America

18 17 16 15 14 13 12 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataVanderKam, James C.

The Dead Sea scrolls and the Bible/ James C. VanderKam.p . cm.

"S ix of the seven chapters in The Dead Sea scrolls and the Biblebegan as the Speaker's Lectures at Oxford University, delivered

during the first two weeks of May 2009 Introd.Includes bibliographical references.

I S B N 978-0-8028-6679-0(pbk.: alk. paper)L.Dead Sea scrolls. 2. Dead Sea scrolls Relation to the Old Testament.

3 . Dead Sea scrolls Relation to the NewTestament.4. Judaism History Post-exilic period, 586 B . c - 2 1 0 A . D . I. Title.

B M 4 8 7 . V 2 5 5 201222i.4'4 dc23

2 0 1 1 0 2 9 9 1 9

www.eerdmans.com

http://www.eerdmans.com/

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Contents

I N T R O D U C T I O N I XA B B R E V I A T I O N S X

. T h e " B i b l i c a l " S c r o ll s a n d T h e i r I m p l i c a t i o n s N u m b e r o f C o p i e s f ro m t h e Q u m r a n C a ve s 2O t h e r C o p i e s 4Tex ts f rom O th e r Jud ean De se r t S it es 5N a tu re o f the Tex t s 7

General Comments 7The Textual Picture 9An End toFluidity 15

C o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t h e E v i d e n c e 1 5

N e w E v i d e n c e a n d t h e T e x t - C r i ti c a l Q u e s t 1 72 . C o m m e n t a r y o n O l d e r S c r i p t u r e i n t h e S c r ol ls 2 5

O l d e r E x a m p l e s o f I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 28In the Hebrew Bible 28Older Literature Outside the Hebrew Bible 30

Sc r ip tu ra l I n te rp re t a t io n in th e Sc ro ll s 35

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Continuous P e sh a r i m 3 6Other Forms of Interpretation 38

C o n c l u s i o n 4 73 . A u t h o r i t a t i v e L i t e r a t u r e A c c o r d i n g t o t h e S c r o ll s 4 9

T h e I m p o r t a n c e o f S c r i p t u r e 52Was The re a Co l l ec t ion o f Author i t a t ive Sc ro l l s

in the Secon d Te mp le Pe r iod? 55Sc r ip tu ra l P rac t i ce 60

Statements about Groups ofAuthoritative Works 61Statements That Specific WorksWere from God and

Thus Authoritative 67Quotations from a Book Introduced with Citation

Formulas 69A Commentary 70

4 . N e w C o p i e s o f O l d T e x t s 7 2T h e Texts 73

Jubilees 73A ram a ic Lev i 77The Book of Giants 81The Wisdom of Ben Sira (Sirach) 85Tobit 89E n o c h 91Epistle of Jeremiah 93Psalms 1 5 1 , 1 5 4 , 155 93

5. G r o u p s a n d G r o u p C o n t r o v e r s i e s i n t h e S c ro ll s 9 6T h e T h r e e G r o u p s 98

Essenes 99Sadducees 1 0 4Pharisees 107

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Contents

6 . T h e D e a d S e a S c r o ll s a n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t G o sp e l s 1 1 8Mess iahs 120Th e W ork s o f the Mess iah 127S c r i p t u r a l I n t e r p r e t a t i o n 1 3 0Lega l M a t te r s 133R e b u k i n g 1 3 7

7 . T he D ea d Sea Sc ro l l s , t h e A c t s o f th e A p os t l e s ,a n d t h e L e t t e r s o f P a u l 1 4 2T he Sc ro ll s an d A c t s 1 - 4 14 2

Community of Goods 143Acts2, Pentecost, and Sinai 147Conclusions 155

Paul 156Scriptural Interpretation 1562 Corinthians 6:14-7:1 159Worksof the Law 1 6 3

B I B L I O G R A P H Y 167

I N D E X 18 3

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Introduction

S ix of the seven chapte rs in The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible began a sthe Speake r ' s Lec ture s a t Oxfo rd Un ive rs i ty , de l ive red dur ing the f i r s ttwo weeks o f May 2009. For the pu b l i s hed fo rm o f th e l ec tu re s , I havechanged the f i r s t pe r son addre ss o f the speeches to the th i rd pe r son , en t e r e d m a n y m i n o r a lt e r a t i o n s i n t o t h e t e x t s , a n d su p p o r t e d t h e s t a t e m e n t sin the t ex t s w i th foo tno te s .

I am gra te ful to John Bar ton of Or ie l Col lege for the invi ta t ion to be theSpeaker ' s Lec turer . In the invi ta t ion he suggested tha t the lec tures be devoted to top ics in the Dead Sea Scro l l s . I took tha t suggest ion in a broadsense survey ing some o f the many ways in wh ich the sc ro l l s en l igh tenone ' s r ead ing o f the B ible , a l so und e r s to od in a b r oa d sense as inc lu d ing theHebrew B ib le /Old Tes tamen t and the New Tes tamen t . I n f ac t , t he New Test a m en t is an i m p or ta n t r e so urce fo r severa l o f the cha p te r s . Th i s is a p os i t ion i t na tu ra l ly occup ie s a s a nea r - con tempora ry , l a rge ly Jewish wi tness top rac t i ce s , p roc ed ure s , be li ef s , an d de ba te s in the l at e Secon d Tem ple p e r io d .

The purpose o f the l ec tu re s themse lves and a l so o f the i r pub l i shedfo rm is to p rov ide up - t o - da te , access ib le ove rv iews o f m a jo r su b jec t s in th earea of th e sc ro l l s an d the Bib le , espe c ia l ly on es tha t hav e in te re s ted m eover the las t severa l decades . Each of them covers cent ra l top ics in sc ro l l sresearch and inqui res about the s igni f icance of the da ta for mater ia l in theB i bl e. I n p a r t i c u l a r , I h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o t h i n k t h r o u g h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o fthe sc ro l l s fo r the i r t ime and in the i r con tex t s by a sk ing ques t ions such a s :W h a t is t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a v a il a bl e , w h a t a r e t h e p r o b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t hi t , and wha t poss ib i l i t i e s a re ra i sed by i t ? In app roach ing the a rea s cove redin the l ec tu re s an d no w in the chap te r s o f th i s bo ok , I have d r aw n u p o n m y

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p r e v i o u s w o r k , r ev i s e d , u p d a t e d , a n d a d d e d t o i t, w h i l e a lso d r a w i n g u p o nthe many s tud ie s wr i t t en by co l l eagues and f r i ends in the busy f i e ld o fsc ro l l s r e sea rch . G iven the na tu re o f the book , i t i s no t my purpose to p ro v ide fu ll b ib l io gra p h ica l cove rage bu t r a the r to m ak e a se lec t ion f rom then e a r l y i n n u m e r a b l e p u b l i c a t i o n s i n o r d e r t o f u r n i sh t h e r e a d e r w i t h d o c u m e n t a t i o n a n d i n d i c a t i o n s w h e r e f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n m a y b e f o u n d .

The f i r s t chap te r , "The 'B ib l i ca l ' Sc ro l l s and The i r Imp l i ca t ions , " be g i n s w i t h a su r v e y o f t h e m a n u sc r i p t c o p i e s o f b o o k s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y b e c a m e p a r t o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e, c i t a t i o n s of t h o s e b o o k s , a n d o t h e r e v i den ce fo r the i r t ex t s in the Jud ean D ese r t f inds ; bu t it is m or e co nc e rn edw i t h p r o v i d i n g sp e c i f i c e x a m p l e s f r o m t h e m a n u sc r i p t s a n d w i t h e x p l o r i n g w h e r e t h e n ew e r d a t a l e ad . C h a p t e r 2 , " C o m m e n t a r y o n O l d e r S c r i p tu re in the Scro ll s ," focuses on a ma jo r p reo cc up a t i on o f the au th or s ex p l a i n i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f o ld e r , a u t h o r i t a t i v e w o r k s fo r th e i r t i m e . I n c l u d e da re s tud ie s o f the sources o f in te rp re ta t ion whe the r in the Hebrew B ib leo r o the r , o lde r works on which the wr i t e r s cou ld d raw and the ways inw h i c h t h e y w e n t a b o u t h a n d l i n g t h e se m o r e a n c i e n t t e x t s . T h e t h i r d c h a p t er , "A utho r i t a t ive L i t e r a tu re A ccord ing to th e Sc ro l ls , " dea l s w i th th e a s su m p t i o n s t h a t d r o v e t h e s c r o l l s w r i t e r s a n d t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y i n d i ca te w h ic h anc ien t t ex t s fun c t ion ed au th or i t a t iv e ly a t a t im e w he n th e rewas not , as near ly as one can te l l , a canon of sc r ip ture in the s t r ic t sense oft h e t e r m . I n C h a p t e r 3 N e w T e s t a m e n t i n f o r m a t i o n is a d d u c e d a s h e l p f u lc o m p a r a t i v e e v i d e n c e f r o m r o u g h l y t h e s a m e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d .

T he fou r th cha p te r con ta in s an e ssay th a t wa s no t de l ive red a s on e o fthe Sp eake r ' s Lec tu re s . "N ew C op ie s o f O ld Tex t s " is a s tu dy o f va r iou sJewish compos i t ions tha t we re known be fo re the sc ro l l s d i scove r i e s (madebe tw een 1947 an d 1956) bu t o f w h ich f ra gm en t a ry cop ie s from the o r ig ina ll a n g u a g e t e x t s h a v e t u r n e d u p i n t h e c a v e s a t Q u m r a n . T h e w o r k s c o v e r e da re Jubilees, Aramaic Levi, th e Book of the Giants, the W is do m of Ben S i ra ,Tob i t ,Enoch ( e spec ia l ly the Greek f ra gm en ts f rom cave 7 tha t ma y c on ta inb i t s o f the Ep i s t l e o f Enoch) , t he Ep i s t l e o f Je remiah , and Psa lms 151 ,154 ,a n d 155.A l l o f the se w ork s , ap a r t f rom Aramaic Levi, h ave fo un d a p lace inthe B ib le s o f va r ious g roups even the Book of the Giants a m o n g t h eManichees and for tha t reason can be sa id to fa l l under the overa l l rubr ic of The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Bible.

In Ch ap te r 5 , " G ro up s and G ro u p C on t rov e rs i e s in the Scro ll s, " I t u rn tothe que st io n of w he th er the sc ro l ls dea l w i th the three "sec ts" tha t Josep husm en t io ne d P ha r i see s , Saddu cees , an d Essenes an d w ha t they say abou tth em , if t hey do m en t io n th em . Th e t ex t s p l a in ly , in m y op in i on , speak o f the

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f i r s t and las t of these groups , us ing speci f ic names for both , whi le the ev i den ce is weak er fo r t he p rese nce o f Sadd ucees , t h o ug h th e re i s ev idence fo r a" S a d d u c e a n " a p p r o a c h t o la w i n t h e sc r ol ls . O n c e a g a in N e w T e s t a m e n t p a s s a g e s a r e s u m m o n e d a s c o m p a r a t i v e m a t e r i a l .

The f ina l two chap te r s a r e d i r ec t ed p r inc ipa l ly a t p l aces i n t he Gospe l s ,A c ts , a n d l e t te r s o f P a u l w h e r e t h e s c ro l ls p r o v i d e i l l u m i n a t i o n t h a t e n r i ches t he r ead ing o f t ho se t ex t s . T he s i x th chap te r , "T h e De ad Sea Sc ro l lsa n d t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t G o s p e l s , " e x a m i n e s s ev e ra l p e r i c o p e s a n d t o p i c s( e .g . , m ess i an i sm , l ega l m a t t e r s ) t h a t bene f i t t he s tu de n t o f t he N ew T es t am e n t in u n d e r s t a n d i n g p h e n o m e n a i n t h e t e x t s. T h e l as t c h a p t e r , " T h eD ea d Sea Sc ro l ls , t h e Ac t s o f t he A p os t l e s , and th e Le t t e r s o f Pau l , " o f f er sana lyses o f t he f i r s t chap t e r s o f Ac t s t ha t exh ib i t p ro found pa ra l l e l s wi ththe sc ro ll s , a lo ng wi th so m e d i f f e rences , an d a n u m b e r o f i s sues i n P au l ines t u d i e s ( s c r i p t u r a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , 2 C o r . 6 : 1 4 - 7 : 1 , works o f t he l aw) in connec t ion wi th ma te r i a l i n t he sc ro l l s .

I wi sh to t ha n k a ll i n O x fo rd w ho m ad e my v i si t an d m y wi fe Mary ' s s tayfor t he second wee k such a m em or ab le an d en joyab le on e : Joh n Bar to n , asno ted , who i s sued the i nv i t a t i on bu t was p reven ted by f ami ly ma t t e r s f rombe ing p rese nt as he in te nd ed ; Pa ul Joyce of S t. P e ter ' s Col lege , w h o ablys tep p ed in and a l so hos te d us a t h i s college; th e Rev. P e ter Southw el l ofQueen ' s Col l ege , Markus Bockmuehl o f Keb le Col l ege and h i s wi f e Ce l i a ,C h r i s t o p h e r R o w l a n d o f Q u e e n ' s C o l l eg e , a n d J o h n D a y o f L a d y M a r g a r e tHa l l , a ll o f w h o m se rved as hos t s fo r mea l s ; A l ison Sa lvesen , M ar t in G oo dm a n , a n d F e r g u s M i l la r, w h o w e l c o m e d m e t o t h e O r i e n t a l I n s t i tu t e ; a n dGeza Vermes , a longt ime fe l low devotee of the scrol l s . I am a lso gra tefu l toMrs . El izabeth Macal l i s te r , adminis t ra t ive of f icer in the Theology Facul ty ,f o r mak ing such good p l ans fo r ou r v i s i t , and to Kev in Ca thca r t and NickKing , S.J., f or we lcom ing us t o Ca m p io n Ha l l .

In p re p a r in g the b o o k I have r ece ived as s i s tance f rom Sara Fe r ry , w h oa l so wa s a he lp fu l a nd eager f on t o f kn ow led ge ab ou t O x ford . A s he has soo f te n , G e n e U l r i c h h a s b e e n a g e n e r o u s s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e"b ib l i ca l " s c ro l ls an d sub jec t s r e l a t ed to t h em . M y wi f e M ar y has t ake n th et i m e t o r e a d o v e r t h e c h a p t e r s a n d o f f e r s u g g e s t i o n s f o r i m p r o v i n g t h e m .S a r a h S c h r e ib e r , a d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t a t t h e U n i v e r s i ty o f N o t r e D a m e , d e se rves l av i sh p ra i se fo r he r i nd i spensab le , expe r t he l p i n r ead ing the p roof sa n d p r e p a r i n g t h e i n d e x a ll d o n e w i t h t h e u t m o s t g o o d c h e e r. O n c eaga in I am g ra t e fu l t o E e r dm an s fo r p ub l i sh ing m y w or k an d fo r t he i r sk il li n do ing so .

J A M E S C . V A N D E R K A M

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Abbreviations

AB An ch or BibleABRL A nc ho r Bible Reference Lib raryAn Bib Analec ta bibl icaAPOT The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament,ed.

R. H. Charles. 2 vols . Oxford, 1913BA Biblical ArchaeologistBH T Bei t rge zur h i s tor i schen Th eologieBJS Bro wn Juda ic StudiesBN Biblische NotizenBRS Biblical Re sou rce SeriesBSO(A)S Bulletin of the School of Oriental (and African) StudiesB ZN W Beihefte zu r Zei tschrif t fr die ne ute stam en tl ich e

WissenschaftCBQ Catholic Biblical QuarterlyCB QM S Ca thol ic Bibl ica l Qu ar ter ly M on og rap h SeriesC C C on t i ne n t a l C o m m e n t a r i e sC G T C C a m br i dge G r ee k T e s ta m e n t C o m m e n t a r yC Q S C o m pa n i o n t o t he Q um r a n S cro llsC R I N T C o m pe n d i a R e r um J uda i c a r um a d N o vum T e s t a m e n t umCSC O Co rpu s sc r ip to rum chr i s t i a no rum or i en t a l ium , ed . I . B .

Ch abo t e t a l. Pa ri s, 1 9 03 -DJD Discover ies in the Judaean Dese r tDSD Dead Sea DiscoveriesEBib Etudes bibliques

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EDSS Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls,ed. L. H . Schiffman an dJ. C. VanderKam. 2 vols. New York,2000

G A P G u i d e s t o A p o c r y p h a a n d P se u d e p i g r a p h aH D R H arv ard Disser ta t ions in Rel ig ionHS Hebrew StudiesH S M H a r v a r d S e m it ic M o n o g r a p h sHTR Harvard Theological ReviewH U C M M o n o g r a p h s o f t h e H e b r e w U n i o n C o ll eg eICC In te rna t iona l Cr i ti c al C om m en ta ryIE] IsraelExploration JournalJBL Journal of Biblical LiteratureJBLMS Jou rnal of Biblical Literatu re M on og rap h SeriesJJS Journal of Jewish StudiesJR Journal of ReligionJSJSup Journ a l for the Study of Juda ism Su p p lem entJSO TSup Journ a l for the Study of the O ld Testament : Su pp leme nt Se

riesJSP Journal for theStudy of the Pseudep igraphaJSPSup Jou rna l for the Study of the P seude pig rap ha : Sup p lemen t Se

riesJSSSup Jou rna l of Semit ic Studies Su p p lem entLCL Lo eb Classical Lib raryLD Lectio divin aLH B/O TS Library of Heb rew Bible /Old Testament StudiesLSTS Libra ry of Second Tem ple StudiesN I C N T N e w I n t er n a t io n a l C o m m e n t a r y o n t h e N e w T e s ta m e n tN o v T S u p S u p p l e m e n t s t o N o v u m T e s t a m e n t u mN RSV N ew Revised Stand ard VersionN T O A N o v u m T e s t a m e n t u m et O r b i s A n t i q u u sNTS New TestamentStudiesO TL O ld Testament LibraryPAAJR Proceedings of theAmerican Academy of Jewish ResearchRB Revue bibliqueRevQ Revue de QumranSBLEJL Society of Biblical Lit eratu re E arly Jud aism an d Its Lite ratu reSBLMS Society of Biblical Literature M on og rap h SeriesSBLSCS Society of Biblical Literatu re Sep tuag int an d C og nate StudiesSBLTT Society of Biblical Lite ratu re Texts an d Tr ans lation sSBT Stu dies in Biblical Th eo log y

Xlll

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SDSSRL Studies in theDead SeaScrolls andRelated LiteratureSNTSMS Socie tyfor NewTestament Studies M on og rap h SeriesSTDJ Studieson theTextsof the Deser t of JudahStPB Studia p ost -b ib l icaSVTP Studia in Veteris Testament i ps eudep igrap hicaTDNT Theological Dictionary of theNewTestament,ed. G.Kitteland

G. Fr iedr ich . 10 vols. G rand Rap ids , 1964-1976Text TextusTSAJ Texte und Studien zuman t iken Jud en tumVT Vetus TestamentumV T S u p S u p p l e m e n t s toVe tus T es tamen tum

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C H A P T E R 1

The "Biblical" Scrolls and Their Implications

F o r m a n y t h e f i r s t r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f t h e D e a dSea Sc ro l l s t o modern b ib l i ca l s t ud ies wou ld be the cop ies o f sc r i p tu ra lw o r k s f o u n d a m o n g t h e m . T h e f a c t t h a t m a n y c o p i e s o f b o o k s t h a t l a t e rb e c a m e p a r t o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d a m o n g t h e f r a g m e n t s r e m o v e d f ro m t h e c av es a t Q u m r a n h a s b e e n t r u m p e t e d a b o u t a s t h e i r g re a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o c o n t e m p o r a r y a n a l y s i s a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e .There have been numerous su rveys o f t he sc ro l l s f i nds t ha t have been l a b e l e d " b i b l ic a l ," a n d t h e p r e s e n t c h a p t e r a d d s to th a t s u r v e y b u t j u s tb r ie fly. It is w o r th cov er ing the en t i r e co rp us i f on ly beca use th e s i t u a t io nh a s c o n t i n u e d t o c h a n g e s li g h tl y r i g h t u p t o t h e p r e s e n t . M o r e s p a c e w i ll b ed e v o t e d to e x a m i n i n g t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e u n q u e s t i o n a b l y s i g n if i ca n tf inds.

I t is a f ac t t h a t , a m o n g t h e m o r e t h a n 9 0 0 m a n u s c r i p t s i d e n t if i e d b yed i to r s o f t he sc ro l l s , ap p rox im ate l y 20 0 - 21 0 qua l i fy a s cop i es o f on e o rm o r e s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s ( a l t h o u g h t h e s t a t u s o f t h e b o o k s i n q u e s t i o n i s n o ta lways c l ea r ) tha t is , cop i es o f w ork s w hic h a t so m e , ap p a re n t ly l a t e rt i m e b e c a m e p a r t s o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l e . 1 I f one adds those d i scovered a to t h e r J u d e a n D e s e r t s it es , t h e n u m b e r j u m p s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 3 0 . T h eh i s t o ri c a l p e r i o d i n w h i c h t h e s c ro l ls f ro m t h e Q u m r a n c a v e s w e r e t r a n s c r i b e d b e g i n s i n t h e t h i r d c e n t u r y B . C . E . a n d c o n t i n u e s t o t h e fir st c e n t u r yC E . , w i t h m o s t o f t h e m h a v i n g b e e n c o p i e d i n t h e f i r s t c e n t u r y B . C . E . o r

1 . T h e remains o f these copies have been gathered b y E u g e n e U l r i c h into a s ing lev o l u m e : The Biblical Qumran Scrolls: Transcriptions and Textual Variants ( V T S u p 1 3 4 ;L e i d e n : Br i l l , 2 0 1 0 ) .

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the f i rs t C . E . 2 T h e y c o m e fr o m a t i m e m a n y c e n t u r i e s b e f o r e t h e e a r l ie s tr ep resen ta t i ve o f t he Masore t i c Tex t (= MT, ca . 900 C E . ) a n d t h e m o s t a n c i e n t c o d e x o f t h e O l d G r e e k t r a n s l a t i o n ( = L X X , 4 th c e n t u r y C . E. ) . It isl ike ly t ha t t he Q u m ra n co p ies re f lec t t he s i t ua t ion w i th r e spec t t o t he t ex to f s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s n o t o n l y a t t h e s m a l l s i t e o f Q u m r a n b u t a l s o t h r o u g h ou t t he l an d o f I s rae l , a s so m e of t he sc ro l ls ce r t a in ly t he ea r l ie s t one s w e r e b r o u g h t t o Q u m r a n f ro m e l se w h e r e .

N U M B E R O F C O P I E S F R O M T H E Q U M R A N C A V E S

O n l y o n e o f t h e m a n y s c r i p t u r a l s c ro l ls c a n b e c a ll e d c o m p l e t e , a p a r t f r o ma fe w s c r a p s : i Q I s a a c o n t a i n s t h e e n t i r e b o o k o f I s a i a h . A ll o f t h e o t h e r r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s of " b i b l i c a l " b o o k s a r e f r a g m e n t a r y t o o n e d e g r e e o r a n o t h e r ,u su a l ly t o a ve ry h ig h deg ree . E xcep t f or on e , eve ry b o o k in t he H eb re w Bi b l e i s r ep resen ted by a t l eas t one f r agment among the Dead Sea Sc ro l l s ; t hem iss in g on e is , o f co u r s e , t h e b o o k o f E s the r . U n t i l r ecen t ly o ne a lways ha dt o a d d t h a t th e r e w a s n o c o p y o f N e h e m i a h e i t h e r a n d t o n o t e t h a t t h e r e isa n a b s e n c e o f e v i d e n c e f r o m Q u m r a n t h a t N e h e m i a h w a s c o n s i d e r e d o n eb o o k w i th E z ra , a s it wa s l a t e r ; i n fac t, t he re i s p r a c t i ca l l y no ind ica t ion o ft h e p r e s e n c e o f e i t h e r b o o k a t Q u m r a n , w h e t h e r o f t h e t e x t o r i n f l u e n c ef rom i t . 3 A f r a g m e n t w i t h t h e t e x t o f N e h 3 :14-15 h a s t u r n e d u p , a l t h o u g h itr e m a i n s u n p u b l i s h e d ( p o s s i b ly m o r e t h a n o n e f r a g m e n t o f t h e m a n u s c r i p th a s s u r v i v e d ) . S o m e o f t h e o t h e r b o o k s i n t h e H e b r e w B i b le , i t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d , ju s t ba re ly m ak e the l is t: a p a r t o f t he t ex t o f H ab ak ku k , f o r i n s t a n c e , m a y a p p e a r o n o n e s m a l l f r a g m e n t ( 4 Q X I I 8 f rg . 10 2 ) w he re t he e d i tor , Russe l l Ful ler , reads 1 [. H e ident i f ies the two w o rd s asco m in g from " H ab 2 :4? " ( t he f ir st t h r ee l e t t e r s an d the l a s t a r e a do rn ed

2 . S e e B .Webster, Chronological Index o f the Texts from the Judaean Desert, in . , e d . , The Textsfrom the Judaean Desert: Indices and an Introduction to the D i s c o v eries in the Judaean Desert Series ( D J D 3 9 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 2 ) , 3 5 1 - 4 4 6 . H e in cludesfourteen biblical scrolls in the Archaic period ( 2 5 0 - 1 5 0 B . C . E . ) , places 23 in theLate Herodian period (30-68 C . E. ) , and two in the Late to Post-Herodian period ( 4 Q 2 ,4 Q 2 1 ) ( s ee p p . 3 7 1 , 3 7 5 , f o r example). A l l o f th e earliest scriptural copies are ofpentateuchal books, other than 4 Q J e r a .

3 . 4QEzra ( 4 Q 1 1 7 ) consists o f three fragments preserving bits a n d pieces o f E z r a4 : 2 - 6 , 9 - 1 1 ; 5 : 1 7 - 6 : 5 ( s e e E . Ulrich. 4QEzra, in Ulrich e t a l . , eds . , Qumran Cave 4: XI,Psalms to Chronicles [ D J D 1 6 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ] , 2 9 1 - 9 3 a n d p i . 3 8 ) . I n a n oddlyanachronistic move, th e text is labeled 4QEzra ( = Ezra-Nehemiah) in the list o fQumran m s s . i n D J D 3 9 ( p . 4 8 ) .

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w i t h s u p r a l i n e a r c i r c l e t s i n d i c a t i n g a h i g h d e g r e e o f u n c e r t a i n t y i n r e a d i n gt h e m ) . 4 S o m e o t h e r s , l i k e C h r o n i c l e s , d o n o t f a r e m u c h b e t t e r : 4QChr( 4 Q 1 1 8 ) c o n s i s ts o f o n e f ra g m e n t w i t h le t t e rs f r o m t w o c o l u m n s , w i t h t h et ex t o f t he f i r s t co lumn be ing un iden t i f i ed and the second o f f e r ing a f ewle t t e r s f rom fou r ve r ses i n 2 Ch ron ic l e s (2 C hr 2 8 :2 7 -2 9 :3 ) . 5

Almos t a l l t he cop ies a re i nsc r ibed in va r ious s ty l e s o f t he square (o rA s s y r i a n ) s c r i p t , b u t t w e l v e m a n u s c r i p t s w e r e w r i t t e n i n p a l e o - H e b r e w( w i t h t h r e e u n i d e n t i f i e d o n e s 4 Q 1 2 4 - 1 2 5 ; 1 1 Q 2 2 ) and at least f ive inGreek . The l i s t be low g ives t he numbers o f i den t i f i ed cop ies f o r each bookof t he H eb re w Bib le . T h e nu m b e rs i n t he li st m ay no t be exac t , s i nce the rea r e a t t i m e s p r o b l e m s in d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r a f r a g m e n t b e l o n g s t o a p a r t i c u l a r m a n u s c r i p t o r w h e t h e r o n e is d e a l i n g w i t h p i e ce s f r o m w h a t w a so n c e a n e n t i r e b o o k , b u t t h e y s h o u l d b e n e a r l y c o r r e c t . T h e t o t a l s r e p r e sen ted as " 1 9 - 2 0 " o r " 8 - 9 " c o p i e s f or a b o o k i n d i c a t e s o m e u n c e r t a i n t ya b o u t w h e t h e r a fe w f r a g m e n t s c o m e fr o m o n e o r t w o c o p i e s ; t h e n u m b e r sin pa ren theses exp res s t he ac tua l number o f sc ro l l s i nvo lved , i n casesw h e r e m o r e t h a n o n e b o o k w a s c o p i e d o n a s i n g le s c r o ll ( t h e y a r e c o u n t e do n c e f o r e a c h b o o k , t h u s t h e l a r g e r t o t a l s f o r s o m e b o o k s ) . 6

Genes i s 1 9 - 2 0 M i n o r P r o p h e t s 8-9E x o d u s 17 (15) P s a l m s 36Levi t icus 13 (12 ) Job 4N u m b e r s 7 ( 5 ) P r o v e r b s 2D e u t e r o n o m y 30 R u t h 4J o s h u a 2 Song 4Judges 3 Eccles ias tes 21 -2 S a m u e l 4 L a m e n t a t i o n s 41 -2 Kings 3 Danie l 8Isa iah 21 Ezra 1J e r e m i a h 6 N e h e m i a h 1Ezekie l 6 1 -2 C h r o n i c l e s 14 . R . E . Fuller, " T h e T w e l v e , " i n E . Ulrich e t a l . , eds . , Qumran Cave 4: X, The

Prophets ( D J D 1 5 ; Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 9 7 ) ,3 1 6 .5. See J . Trebolle Barrera, 4QChr, i n E .Ulrich e t a l . , e d s . , D J D 1 6 : 2 9 5 - 9 7 .6 . . writes: Although most o f the scrolls contain only o n e biblical book, 5

Torah scrolls contain t w o consecutive books. . . . L i ke w ise , the individual books of theMinor Prophets were considered a s o n e book contained in o n e s c r o l l " ; Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible ( 2 n d r e v . e d . ; Minneapolis: Fortress/Assen: V a n Gorcum,2 0 0 1 ) , 1 0 3 - 4 .

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The to ta l fo r the se f igure s , us ing the l a rge r numbers in the unce r t a in ca se s ,i s 208 ; work ing wi th the sma l l e r numbers in those in s t ances , i t i s 2 0 1 .I f on ea d o p t s t h e l a r g e r n u m b e r i n e a c h c a se a n d g r o u p s t h e m b y c a t e g o r i e s f a m i l i a r fr o m t h e l a te r H e b r e w B i b le , t h e r e a r e 8 7 m a n u sc r i p t s c o n t a i n i n gp e n t a t e u c h a l te x t s , 54 w i t h m a t e r a i f ro m t h e P r o p h e t s ( F o r m e r P r o p h e t s ,1 2 , a n d L a t te r P r o p h e t s , 4 2 ) , a n d 6 7 w i t h r e m a i n s o f t h e Wr i t i n g s . T h eb o o k s m o s t f r e q u e n t ly r e p r e se n t e d a r e : P sa l m s , D e u t e r o n o m y , I s ai a h , G e n esis, E x o d u s , L e v it ic u s a g r o u p a m o n g w h i c h p e n t a t e u c h a l b o o k s a res t ron g ly in ev ide nce , w i th the o th e r cano n ica l d iv i s ion s o f the He br ew B i b l e r e p r e se n t e d b y o n e m e m b e r e a c h .

O T H E R C O P I E S

T h e n u m b e r s a r e q u i t e i m p r e s s i v e , y e t t h e o n e s l is t e d a r e n o t t h e o n l yw i t n e s se s t o t h e s c r i p t u r a l t e x t s f o u n d i n t h e Q u m r a n c a v e s . A s m e n t io ne d abo ve , the re a re a t l e a s t five cop ie s o f G reek t ra ns la t io ns o f sc r i p t u r a l b o o k s : o n e o f E x o d u s , t w o o f L e v i t ic u s , o n e o f N u m b e r s , a n d o n eo f D e u t e r o n o m y a ll o f t h e m a r e p i e c e s fr o m G r e e k c o p i e s ofp e n t a t e u c h a l b o o k s . O t h e r sm a l l f r a g m e n t s m a y c o m e f r o m s ti ll m o r ec o p i e s , t h o u g h n o t e n o u g h t e x t h a s su r v i v e d t o c l in c h t h e ca se ( se e 7Q 3 - 5a n d t h e d i s c u s s i o n i n C h a p t e r 4 b e l o w ) . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e t h r e em a n u sc r i p t s t h a t h a v e b e e n i d e n t if i e d a s t a r g u m s : o n e o f L e v i t ic u s(4Q156) and two o f Job ( 4 Q 1 5 7 , 1 1 Q 1 0 ) , the l a s t o f wh ich ( 1 1 Q 1 0 ) i s ex ten s ive ly p re se rved .

Bes ides the se sc r ip tu ra l cop ie s , t he re a re o t he r k ind s o f w or ks tha t a reva lu ab le fo r a s tu dy o f the sc r ip tu ra l t ex t an d i t s h i s to ry . A s is we l l k n ow n ,t h e c av e s a t Q u m r a n h a v e y i e l d e d a s e r ie s o f c o m m e n t a r i e s o n p r o p h e t i cw o r k s . T h e w r i t e r s o f t h e sepesharim c i te a pa s sage f rom a sc r ip tu r a l b oo k( o c c a s i o n a l ly b o o k s ) a n d t h e n e x p l a i n t h e m e a n i n g of i t. H a v i n g c o m p l e t e d t h e c o m m e n t a r y o n t h a t p a s s a g e , w r i t e r s o f t h e c o n t i n u o u spesharim t h e n m o v e o n t o t h e n e x t o r a n o t h e r o n e f o u n d f a r t h e r a l o n g i nt h e b o o k . 7 T h e se c i t a t i o n s f r o m sc r i p t u r a l b o o k s a n d t h e m a n y " b i b l i c a l "q u o t a t i o n s i n o t h e r w o r k s ( e. g ., t h e Damascus Document) c o n s i d e r a b l ya u g m e n t t h e f u n d o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s c r i p t u r a l t e x t i n t h e D e a d

7 . T h e texts a n d translations with extensive commentary can be found in M . P .Horgan, Pesharim: Qumran Interpretations of Biblical Books ( C B Q M S 8; Washington:Catholic B i b l i c a l Association o f America, 1 9 7 9 ) .

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S ea S cr o ll s. I t s o h a p p e n s t h a t , w h i l e o n l y o n e t i n y p i e c e p o s s i b l y c o n t a i n i n g H a b a k k u k s u r v i v e s f r o m t h e r e l e v a n t p a r t o f a m a n u s c r i p t o f t h eTwelve P rophe t s , t he t ex t o f t he f i r s t two chap te r s o f t he book i s ex t ens ive ly p rese rve d in t h e c o m m e n ta ry o n i t. Th ere a re a l so Tefi ll in ( p hy lac t e r ie s ) a n d M e z u z o t , c o l l e c t i o n s o f s c r i p t u r a l te x t s p l a c e d i n a s m a l l c o n t a i n e r a n d a t t a c h e d t o o n e ' s a r m ( a n d h e a d ; s e e, f or e x a m p l e , E x o d 1 3 :9 )o r d o o r w a y ( s e e D e u t 6 : 9 ; 11 : 20 ) . S ince i t i s not a lways poss ible to d i s t ing u i s h t h e t w o t y p e s w h e n o n l y f r a g m e n t s a r e e x t a n t , t h e n u m b e r s m a y n o tbe exac t . Bu t 28 t ex t s i den t i f i ed a s Tefi ll in w ere fou nd a t Q u m r a n ( 21 inc a v e 4 4 Q 1 2 8 - 4 8 ; t h e o t h e r s a r e 1 Q 1 3 ; 5Q8 ; 8Q3 ; X Q 1 - 4 ) 8 a n d t h r e e a to t h e r si te s ; t h e r e a re e i g h t M e z u z o t f r o m Q u m r a n ( 4 Q 1 4 9 - 5 5 ;8Q4)9 a n do n e f ro m M u r a b b a ' a t .

T E X T S F R O M O T H E R J U D E A N D E S E R T S I T E S

Severa l add i t i ona l p l aces i n t he Judean Dese r t have y i e lded cop ies o f sc r i p t u r a l b o o k s . N o t n e a r l y a s m a n y w e r e f o u n d in t h e m a s a t Q u m r a n , b u tt h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e n o t e w o r t h y n e v e r t h e l e s s .

M asa da (7 ) : T he f inds a t t he f am ou s s i te a r e secu re ly da t ed in t h a t t heyca n n o t be l a t e r t h an 73 o r 74 C . E . , t he yea r when the fo r t r e s s was t aken byt h e R o m a n s . T h e n u m b e r s a r e m a r k e d l y lo w e r t h a n fo r t h e s m a l l e rQ u m r a n s i t e, c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e fa ct t h a t a d i ff e re n t k i n d o f c o m m u n i t yu s e d i t . 1 0

8 . T h e rabbinic rules regarding Te f i l l in o r Phylacteries prescribe that four passages b e included: E x o d 1 3 : 1 - 1 0 ; 1 3 : 1 1 - 1 6 ; Deut 6:4-9; a n d Deut 1 1 : 1 3 - 2 1 . These passagesalso appear o n th e Qumran examples, though some o f them contain other o r ratherexpanded passages (e.g., the Ten Commandments) . S e e L . H . S c h i f f m a n , Phylacteriesa n d Mezuzot, in Sc h i f fm a n a n d J . C . VanderKam, e d s . , Encyclopedia of the Dead SeaScrolls ( 2 v o l s . ; N e w Y o r k : Oxford University Press, 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 : 6 7 5 - 7 7 ; D - Nakman,Tefillin a n d Mezuzot at Qumran, in M . Kis te r , e d . , The Qumran Scrolls and Their

World (Between B i b l e a n d Mishnah; 2 v o l s . ; Jerusalem: Y a d B e n - Z v i , 2 0 0 9 ) , 1 : 1 4 3 -5 5(Hebrew).

9 . S c h i f f m a n , Phylacteries a n d Mezuzot, 2 : 6 7 5 - 7 7 . T h e prescribed passages areDeut 6 : 4 -9 a n d 1 1 : 1 3 - 2 1 , though th e Qumran copiesalso have extra onessuch as the TenCommandments.

1 0 . T h e texts were published in S. Talmon, Hebrew Fragments from Masada(Masada V I : Y i g a e l Y a d i n Excavations 1 9 6 3 - 1 9 6 5 :FinalReports; Jerusalem: Israel E x p l o ration So c ie ty , Hebrew University o f Jerusalem, 1 9 9 9 ) , 3 1 - 9 7 .

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G e n e s i s Lev i t i cus 2D e u t e r o n o m y 1Ezek ie l 1P s a l m s 2

M u r a b b a ' a t (7 [ 6 ] ) 1 1G e n e s i s 2E x o d u s 1(on thes a m e m a n u s c r i p t asoneofthe

Genes i s cop i es )N u m b e r s 1D e u t e r o n o m y 1Isa iah 1M i n o r P r o p h e t s 1(ar e l a ti ve ly w e l l -p rese rv ed sc ro l l)

N a h a l H e v er ( 3 ) 1 2N u m b e r s 1M i n o r P r o p h e t s 1( G r e e k , e x te n si ve ly p r e s e r v e d ) 1 3P s a l m s 1

N a h a l H e v e r / S e ' e l i m(2)N u m b e r s 1D e u t e r o n o m y 1

Se 'e l im(1)1 4N u m b e r s 1

Sde i r(1)1 5G e n e s i s 1

T h e r e area l so cop iesofJ o s h u a (1)andJ u d g e s (1)f rom anu n k n o w n lo ca t i o n . As at Q u m r a n , so at theo t he r s i te s theb o o k s a t te s t e d are p e n t a t e u c h a l andp r o p h e t i c w o r k s a l o n g w i t h P s a l m s .

1 1 . For the texts, seeJ.T. Milik inP.Benoit, M ilik, and R. de Vaux, eds.,Les Grottesde Murabba t (DJD2;Oxford: Clarendon, 1 9 6 1 ) , 7 5 - 8 0and 1 8 1 - 2 0 5 .1 2 .Thecopies from Nahal Hever (other thanthe Minor Prophets scroll)andNahal Hever/Se'elim were editedby P.Flint in J. H.Charlesworth et al., eds.,J. VanderKamand M.Brady, consulting eds., Miscellaneous Texts from the JudaeanDesert (DJD 3 8;Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 0 0 ) , 1 3 3 - 6 6 , 1 7 3 - 8 2 .

1 3 .The edition is . , ed., The Greek Minor Prophets Scroll from Nahal Hever(SHevXIIgr) (TheSeiyl Collection 1 ;DJD8;Oxford: Clarendon,1 9 9 0 ) .

1 4 .See M. Morgenstern in DJD 3 8 : 2 0 9 .1 5 .See C. Murphy in DJD3 8 : 1 1 7 - 2 4 .

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t h e m e t i c u l o u s p r o c e d u r e s u se d l a t e r in c o p y i n g s c r i p t u r a l t e x t s ;it seemsgrea t ca rewasa l so t ak enat an ea r l i e r t ime ,as theJud ean D ese r t t ex t s suggest . The sc r ibe s we re not t r a n s m i t t i n g o n l y one f o r m of the t ex t s ;yet,f r o m w h a t e v e r s c r i p t u r a l m o d e l t h e y w e r e c o p y i n g , t h e y p r e su m a b l y didt h e w o r k w i t h c a r e a c c o r d i n g to p r e v a i l i n g r u l e sof the p r o f e s s i o n .An int e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n is e x a c tl y w h a t the s c r ib e s r e sp o n s i b l e for the Q u m r a ns c r o l l s u n d e r s t o o d p r o p e r t r a n s m i s s i o n of a t ex t to invo lve .The q u e s t i o nwi l l be c o n s i d e r e d b e l o w .

T h i r d , d e s p i t e the m o r e r e c e n t f i n d s , o n l y a v e r y l i m i t e d set of da tah a s su r v i v e d , and it y ie lds a c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y l i m i t e d p e r s p e c t iv e on theh i s t o r y andv a r i e t ie s of the s c r i p t u r a l t e x t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , the a d m i t t e d l yc h a l l e n g e d p e r sp e c t i v e a v a i l a b l e t o d a y is a b r o a d e r one t h a n was access i b leto allt h o s e ta l e n t e d t e x t cr i ti c s w h o se w o r k p r e c e d e d theQ u m r a n ando the r Judean Dese r t f inds . Be fo re 1947 ,the t e x t u a l e v i d e n c e at the i r d i s p o s a lwas of re la t ive ly recent da te : the m a n u s c r i p t t ra il for MT c o u l d bet r a c e d b a c kno f a r t h e r t h a n ca. 900 C . E . , 1 6 and t h a tfor theS a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h (SP) g o e s b a c k to an e v e n m o r e r e c e n t d a t e . 1 7 T h e r e are m a n yG r e e k w i t n e s se s t h a t are c e n t u r i e s o l d e r t h a n the ea r l i e s t cop ie s of MTa n d SP,1 8yet, h o w e v e r v a l u a b l e , t h e y are t r a n s l a t i o n s , not c o p i e s in theo r i g i n a l l a n g u a g e s . O t h e r t h a n the s e c on d - f ir s t c e n t u r y N a s h P a p y r u s , 1 9t h e r e was l it tl e a n c i e n t H e b r e w e v i d e n c e on w h i c h to bas e one ' s s tudy .P r o b e s w e r e m a d e u s i n g s c r i p t u r a l c i t a t i o n s in t ex t s such asJubilees, butt h e m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e for it is a lso re la t ively la te . The Ju d e a n D e se r td i s c o v e r i e s , h o w e v e r f r a g m e n t a r y ,are aw o n d e r fu l s u p p l e m e n t to the t e x t u a l b a seand av e r y u n e x p e c t e d o n e . A m o n g theg r e at e st c o n t r i b u t i o n s oft h e newm a t e r i a l ist h a t in a n u m b e r of ca ses the r eis nowH e b r e w m a n u -

1 6 . The Cairo C o d e x , containing only the Prophets, dates from 895 C .E. , while theAleppo C o d e x , which once contained the entire Hebrew B i b l e but from which largeparts are missing, comes from the first half of the tenth century. Codex Leningradensis,which underlies the latest editions of the Hebrew B i b l e , was copied in 1008 C . E. See,e.g., E. Wurthwein, The Text of the Old Testament (2nd ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1995)> 35 -37

1 7 . The earliest copy may have been made in 1 1 5 0 C .E. ; Wurthwein, The Text of theOld Testament, 47.

18 . Some papyri fragments date from before the turn of the eras (e.g., JohnRylands Library 458, from the second century). The oldest ful l copy, Vaticanus ( B ) ,wascopied in the fourth century C.E.

1 9 . The papyrus bears the text of the Ten Co mma ndments, with elements fromboth Exodus 20 and Deute ronomy 5, and Deut 6 : 4 - 5 ; see , Textual Criticism of theHebrew Bible, 1 1 8 .

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s c r i p t e v i d e n c e f or re a d i n g s p r e v i o u s l y k n o w n o n l y f r o m t h e v e r s i o n s , e s pecia l ly LXX.

T h e T e x t u a l P i c t u r eA s t h e e x p e r t s h a v e n o t e d , t h e Q u m r a n t e x t s p e r m i t o n e t o s ee t h a t a t t h et i m e w h e n t h e y w e r e p e n n e d ( t h i r d c e n t u r y B. c .E . - f i r s t c e n t u r y C.E. ) t h e r ewas , f rom cop y to copy , a deg ree o f f l u id i ty i n t he wo rd in g o f sc r i p tu ra lt ex t s jus t exac t ly a s one migh t have expec t ed . There was no t a s ing l e ,c o m p l e t e ly u n i f o r m , a c c e p t e d w o r d i n g o f a s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s u c h as G e n e s i s o r I s a i a h s o m e t h i n g t h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e w h e na l l copy ing was done by hand . Th i s i s no t t o say tha t t he re was f r ee va r i a t i on in t he word ing o f t ex t s . Ra the r , w i th in f a i r l y na r row l imi t s ( i n mos tc a s es ) t h e r e a r e n o t i c e a b l e d i ff e re n c e s f ro m m a n u s c r i p t t o m a n u s c r i p t .Some examp les wi l l i l l u s t r a t e d i f f e r ing measu res o f va r i a t i on .

T o p r e s e n t a n o v e r v i e w o f t h e r a n g e o f e v i d e n c e , t h e l a n g u a g e e m p loyed by Eugene Ul r i ch fo r wha t he ca l l s t he " fou r p r inc ipa l ca t egor i e s o fv a r i a ti o n d e t e c ta b l e t h r o u g h c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t s ,M T, SP , a n d O G " w i ll b e u s e f u l . 2 0

Orthography

A n y o n e w h o h a s r e a d t h e s c ro l ls f o u n d i n t h e c av e s o f Q u m r a n is a w a r et h a t t h e s c r i b e s m a d e m u c h m o r e f r e q u e n t u s e o f c o n s o n a n t s t o m a r k t h ep r e s e n c e o f c e r t a i n v o w e l s (matres lectionis) th an o n e f inds in M T. A ss o m e o n e s a id r e c e n tl y , t h e y w e r e r a t h e r m o r e B r it is h t h a n A m e r i c a n i nt h e i r s p e l l i n g . O r t h o g r a p h y is a c a t e g o r y o f t e x t u a l v a r i a t i o n t h a t c a n e a si lyb e d i s m i s s e d a s d e v o i d o f s i g n if ic a n c e a s d o c u m e n t a t i o n f o r a p h a s e i nH e b r e w s p e ll in g a n d p r o n u n c i a t i o n , n o t h i n g m o r e . B u t , b y t h e i r v e r y n a t u r e , matreslectionis r e p r e s e n t a d e c i s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e p r o p e r p a r s i n g o f af o r m w h e n e v e r t h e c o n s o n a n t a l te x t is a m b i g u o u s o r p o t e n t i a ll y a m b i g u ous . A t t i m e s t h e a n a ly s i s is t h e o n e a n y H e b r e w r e a d e r w o u l d h a v e m a d e ,b u t a t o th e r s dec id in g on the p re f e r r ed r ead ing an d m ar k in g it by a f u ll er

2 0 . E . Ulrich, " T h e J e w i s h Scriptures: T e x t s , Versions, Canons, in J .Collins a n dD . Harlow, e d s . , The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,2 0 1 0 ) , 9 7 - 1 1 9 , here 1 1 0 . O G = O l d Greek.

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spe l l ing o ffe red m o re o f a cha l l enge . Fo r ex am p le , in Isa 40 :6 the con so n a n t a l t e x t o f M T h a s T h e M a so r e t e s u n d e r s t o o d t h e f o r m t o b e

T he tex t of th e verse so ana lyze d re ads : "A voice says , 'C ry ou t ' Andhe said, ' W h a t sh a ll I c r y ? ' " I n i Q I s a a the spe l l ing o f the word i s : 1 1 .A ccord ing to th i s r ead ing th e ve rse is w or ded : "A vo ice says , 'C ry ou t ' AndIsaid, 'W ha t sha ll I c ry ? ' " T he co p y i s t / in t e r p re te r o f M T saw the ve rse a s ar e p o r t a b o u t a c o n v e r sa t i o n b e t w e e n t h e v o i c e a n d a " h e " ; t h e s p e l l i n g i nthe I sa iah sc ro l l p re sen t s i t a s d i rec t addre ss and f i r s t pe r son re sponse . Ther e a d i n g o f t h e Is a ia h sc r o ll is t h e o n e t r a n s l a t e d i n L X X : .

Individual Textual Variants

M a n y d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e a d i n g s b e t w e e n m a n u sc r i p t s c o n c e r n sm a l l i t e m st h a t a r e n o t m a t t e r s of o r t h o g r a p h y . T h e se p o p u l a t e e v e r y m a n u s c r i p t a n dcan a r i se fo r va r ious rea sons . He re a re a f ew example s .

Isa 6:3 M T: Holy, holy, ho lyi Q I s a a Holy , ho ly

Fo r w h a t e v e r r e a so n , t h e Q u m r a n c o p y h a s o n l y t w o i n s t a n c e s o fholy ( thisi s not the only var ian t in I sa 6:3).2 1 The absence o f one e l emen t f rom thefami l i a r th ree fo ld fo rm ula is su p p or te d by n o o th e r anc ien t cop y o f I sa iah .

G en 1 :9 M T /SP Let the wa ters be ga th ered in t o on e place( = m p a )

4QGenh l LXX Let the wa ters be ga th ered in to on e gathering (- m p B )

I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , t w o H e b r e w w o r d s l o o k i n g a l m o s t a l i k e w e r e i n t e r c h a n g e d . T h e r e a d i n g o f M T / S P sh o w s g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n i n w o r d c h o i c e i nth e c l ause ; the o th e r r ead ing invo lves us in g a n o u n a ssoc ia ted w i th thesame roo t a s the ve rb ( the roo t D i p ) of the sentence .

Isa 45:7 M T: I m ak e weal [ ^ W ] and c rea t e woe [VI]i Q I s a a I m ake go od and c rea t e wo e[ 3 ]

2 1 . See P . W. Flint a n d E .Ulrich, eds . , Qumran Cave : II, The Isaiah Scrolls ( 2 v o l s . ;D J D 3 2 ;Oxford: Clarendon, 2 0 1 0 ) , 2 :125 .

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The cave m a n u s c r i p t us es an a n t o n y m to c o n t r a s t w i t h 5 ,not the lessd i r e c t l y o p p o s e d D l ' r W .

Isa 40:12 MT: m e a s u r e d thewa te r s [ D ' Q ]i Q I s a a m e a s u r e d thewa te r sof the sea [W 72]

T h e two rea din gs d i ffe r on ly in the p r e s e n c e or a b se n c e of a s e c o n d yod.A r g u m e n t s c o u l d be m o u n t e d for the o r i g i n a l i t y of e i t h e r , t h o u g h seac o u l d be a m o r e a p p r o p r i a te c o u n t e r p a r t to the o t h e r e l e m e n t s of n a t u r ein the v e r s e . 2 2

Isolated Interpretive Insertions

Ulr ich saysofth i s ca tego ry : "Le a rn ed sc r ibes occas iona l ly in se r t ed in tothet e x t t h e y w e r e c o p y i n g w h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r e d an a p p r o p r i a t e p ie c eof a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l . " 2 3 In the Q u m r a n p e r io d at l ea s t , sc r ibe s , wh i l e copy ingwith d i l igence , s t i l l fe l t some f reedom to t ake a more ac t ive ro le wi th reg a r d to as c r i p t u r a l t ex t t h a n s i m p l y t r a n sc r i b i n g it. One w e l l - d o c u m e n t e dp a t t e r n in a se r ies of sc ro l l sis to b l e n d or c o m b i n e w o r d i n g fr o m p a r a l l els c r i p t u r a l p a s sa g e s . For e x a m p l e , a p e r so n f a m i li a r w i t h the B ib le knowst h a t the Ten C o m m a n d m e n t s are p r e s e r v e d in two p l a c e s E x o d u s 20a n d D e u t e r o n o m y 5. In E x o d 20:11 the r e a so n for k e e p i n g s a b b a t h is them o d e l set by Go d in the first week of the wor ld :

E x o d 20:11 MT For in sixdaysthe LORD m a d e h e a v e n and e a r t h ,thesea,and all t h a t is in t h e m ,but res ted the seventhday; there fore the LORD b lessed the s a b b a t h day andconsec ra ted it.

D e u t 5:15 m o t i v a t e s itw i t htheI s rae li t e s ' e x p e r i enceofs laveryinE g y p tandt he Lord ' s de l ive rance of t h e m f r o m it:

D e u t 5:15 MT R e m e m b e r t h a t youwe re a slave in the l a n d ofE g y p t ,and the LORD y o u r Godb r o u g h tyou out

22 . See the discussi on by Z. Talshir, " B i b l i c a l Texts from the Judaean Desert, inKister, ed., The Qumran Scrolls and Their World, 1 : 1 1 8 - 1 9 (Hebrew).

23. The J e w i s h Scriptures, 1 1 1 .

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f rom the re wi th a migh ty hand and an ou t s t re t cheda rm; the re fo re the LORD y o u r G o d c o m m a n d e d y o uto keep the sabba th day.

N e a r t h e e n d of D e u t 5:15, o n e o f t h e Q u m r a n c o p i e s (4QDeutn) has ad d i t i o n a l w o r d s c o m p a r e d t o M T : " . . . t o k e e p t h e s a b b a t h d a y a n d t o h a l lo wit. For in six days th e LORD made heaven and ear th , the sea , and a l l tha t i s inthem and re s t ed the seven th day ; so the LORD b lessed the sabba th day andha l low ed i t " (4 :4 -7) . T he wo rds add i t io na l to th e form in M T are f rom th epara l le l vers ion in Exod 20:11. C om bi n i ng ma te r i a l f rom pa ra l l e l pa ssages is acha rac te r i s t i c no t on ly o f some sc r ip tu ra l cop ie s f rom Qumran bu t a l so o fSP ( and the 4QReworked P e n t a t e u c h m a n u s c r i p t s , t h e Temple Scroll, a n do t h e r te x t s ) , a l t h o u g h i n D e u t 5:15 SP does no t add ma te r i a l f rom E xod 20:11.

P sa lm 14 5 : In MT , on e ve rse is m iss ing f rom the ac ro s t i c p sa lm : a lth ou g h each ve rse beg ins wi th a w or d s t a r t ing w i th the success ive l e t t e r s o fthe Hebrew a lphabe t , t he re i s none fo r the l e t t e r nun, w h i c h sh o u l d h a v ea p p e a r e d b e t w e e n t h e mem sen ten ce in v. 13 an d th e samekh sentence inv . 14 . I t is na tu ra l to th i nk i t was d r o p p ed f rom th e tex t by sc r iba l e r ro r ,even if the m ec ha n i sm fo r the om iss io n i s no t obv iou s . A t th i s p l ace w he r eM T lacks the nun ve r se , o th e r w i tnesse s have :

n Q P s a L X X Fa i th fu l is G od [n Q P s a ] / t h e LORD [LXX] in all hiswords , and grac ious in a l l h is deeds .

T h e H e b r e w w o r d f o r " f a i t h f u l " CJQN3)b e g i n s w i t h nun; the two wi tnesse st h u s su p p l y th e m i s s i n g v e r se . T h e u n - s e n t e n c e w a s n o t s e c o n d a r i l ys t i t ched tog e the r f rom e l sewhere in th e Psa l te r a s the exp re ss ion f igure so n l y h e r e . I n t h i s c a se o n e sh o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t w h a t l o o k s t o b e a m a n i f es tly su p e r io r t ex t is no t necessa r ily the o r ig ina l r ead ing , s ince the au th oro f the poem cou ld have been the one who ca re le ss ly omi t t ed one o f thenecessa ry l ine s . I n tha t c a se , so m eo ne w ou ld have co m e a long la t e r an dm a d e t h e f a c e - s a v i n g a d d i t i o n .

New and Expanded Editions of Biblical BooksThere a re some case s whe re s i zab le and sys tema t i c va r i a t ions sepa ra te thew i t n e ss e s fo r s c r i p t u r a l b o o k s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e f ro m Q u m r a n . S o m e e x a m p l e s i n c l u d e e n t i r e b o o k s ; t h e b e s t - k n o w n e x h i b i t i s J e r e m i a h .

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T he ve rs ions o f the bo o k o f Je rem iah fo un d in M T an d in LXX a re o fm u c h d i ff e re n t l e n g t h s . M T Je r e m i a h is e s t i m a t e d t o b e so m e 1 3 p e r c e n tlong e r than th e G reek t ex t ; a l so , th e tw o loca te so m e un i t s d i f f e ren t ly . 2 4A m o n g t h e f r a g m e n t a r y H e b r e w co p i e s o f J e r e m i a h f o u n d a t Q u m r a n ,two a re s imi la r to the longe r read ings o f MT (4QJera ' c) and two a l ignc lose ly wi th the shor te r r ead ings o f LXX (4QJerb ' d). The shor te r ve r s ion i sg e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s t e x t u a l l y su p e r i o r ; su p p o r t fr o m t h e t w o H e b r e wm a n u s c r i p t s (4QJerb ' d) sh o w s t h a t t h e L XX t r a n s l a t o r ( s ) d i d n o t a r b i t r a r i l y su b t r a c t l a r g e a m o u n t s o f t e x t f r o m t h e i r H e b r e w m o d e l b u t r a t h e rr e n d e r e d a H e b r e w c o p y w i t h a m u c h s h o r t e r te x t t h a n t h e o n e n o wf o u n d i n M T Je r e m i a h . C o n v e r se l y , t h e o t h e r t w o c o p i e s sh o w t h a t t h esc r i b e s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n e v e n t u a t i n g i n M T a l so r e p r o d u c e d a n e a r l y f o r mof the text .

T h e o n l y f r a g m e n t su r v i v i n g f r o m 4QJerb h a p p e n s t o p r e se r v e a s e c t ion th a t i l lus t ra t e s som e shor te r r ead in gs an d a d i f fe r ing o rde r o f ve r se s .

MT: Je r 1 0 : 3 - 1 1 :3For the customs of the peoples are fa lse: a t ree from the forest

is cut do w n, and w ork ed wi th a n ax , by the ha nd s of an a r t i san ;4people deck it w i th s i lver an d gold ; they fas ten i t w i th h am m er an dnai l s , so tha t i t c anno t move . 5Their idols are l ike scarecrows in acucumber f ie ld , and they cannot speak; they have to be carr ied , forthey cannot walk . Do not be a f ra id of them, for they cannot do evi l ,nor is i t in them to do good.

6There isnone like you, LORD; you aregreat, and your name isgreat in might,y Who would not fear you, King of the nations?Forthatisyour due;among all the wise onesof thenations and in alltheirkingdomsthereisnonelike you. SThey arebothstupid and foolish; theinstruction given by idols is no better thanwood

9Beaten si lver is br ou g ht f rom Tarshish , an d gold f rom U p haz .They a re the work of the a r t i san and of the hands of the goldsmith ;the i r c lo th ing is b lue an d p ur p le ; they a re a ll the p ro du c t of ski lledworke rs .

oBut the LORD is the trueGod ; he is the living God and the ever-2 4 . S e e , Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 3 2 0 - 2 7 . T h e largest difference in

location invo lves the oraclesagainst the nationsthat a re chs . 46 -5 1 in M T bu t a re foundafter 25 :13 i n L X X . F o r a study o f t h e M T a n d L X Xforms of the book (written beforemost o f t h e c a v e 4 J e r e m i a h copies appeared in print), see J . G . Jan zen , Studies in theText of Jeremiah ( H S M 6 ; C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s, 1 9 7 3 )

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lasting King. At his wrath the earth quakes, and the nations cannotendure his indignation.

l iThus sha l l you say to them: The gods who d id no t make theheavens and the ear th sha l l pe r ish f rom the ear th and f rom underthe heavens .

T h e Greek vers ion of th e p assag e lacks w . 6 -8 , 1 0 ( th e p ar ts in i ta l icsa b o v e ) .

4QJerb p r e se r v e s w o r d s f r om w . 4 , 9 , 1 1 (wi th words f rom v . 5 re s to redin two p laces) , in the Greek order : 4 , 5a , 9 , 5b . In the co lumn, l ine 5 hasw or ds f rom v. 4 a t th e end , w hi le line 6 ha s w or ds f rom v. 9 a t th e end an dl ine 7 has wo rd s f rom v . 1 1 a t the end .

Line 5 an d w i th g]o ld they fas ten it w i th ha m m er s = v . 4Line 6 ]b lue an d p ur p le = v . 9Line 7 ] shal l p eris h from th e ea rth = v. 1 1

T h e H e b r e w f r a g m e n t sh o w s t h a t t h e G r e e k t r a n s l a t o r ( s ) w o r k e d w i t h aH e b r e w t e x t m u c h sh o r t e r t h a n t h e o n e i n M T .

I n g e n e r a l , o n e m a y s ay t h a t m a n u s c r i p t s a l i g n i n g f r e q u e n t l y w i t h t h et e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n s e m b o d i e d n o w i n M T , L X X , a n d / o r S P a r e f o u n d a tQ u m r a n , b u t t h e se c o n f i g u r a t i o n s d o n o t e x h a u s t t h e d a t a o r e v e n r e p r e s en t it p r o p e r ly . A s E m a n u e l h a s w r i tt e n :

If the t r ip a r t i te d ivis ion [ tha t is , tha t there a re tex ts a l igning w i thMT or SP or LXX] is mere ly a mat te r of pre judice , a t ten t ion shouldnow be d i rec ted to the ac tua l re la t ion be tween the tex tua l wi tnesses .The tex tua l rea l i ty of the Qumran tex ts does not a t tes t to threegr ou p s of tex tua l wi tnesses , bu t ra the r to a tex tua l mul t ip l ic i ty , re la t ing to a ll o f Pa les t ine to such an ex tent tha t o ne can a lm ost speaki n t e r m s o f a n u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f t e x t s . 2 5

Some copies do not fa l l in to any of the o ld , fami l ia r ca tegor ies agree ingw ith e i t her M T, SP , or LXX an d ch ar t a d i f fe rent co ur se tex tua l ly . A cop i o u s n u m b e r o f t e x t u a l o p t i o n s w e r e a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e , a n d i n d e e dm a n y o f t h e m a r e r e p r e se n t e d a t t h e o n e s i t e o f Q u m r a n . T h e d a t a a t h a n d

2 5 . Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 1 6 1 ; h e thinks, nevertheless, that a fewgroups o f closely related texts can b e detected ( s ee , e .g . , p . 1 6 3 ) .

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are l i m i t e d , b u t t h e r e is n o r e a s o n t o s u r m i s e t h a t J e w i sh e x p e r t s w e r e c o n ce rned abou t a measu re o f f l u id i t y i n t he t ex t s o f sc r i pu ra l books un t i l l a t ein t he f i r s t cen tu ry C . E . , w h e n J o s e p h u s w r o t e a s u r p r i s i n g l y s t r o n g s t a t e m e n t a b o u t a f ix e d s c r i p t u r a l t e x t (Ag. Ap. 1 . 38 -42 ; s e e C h a p t e r 3 b e l o w ) .

A n E n d t o F l u i d i t yE ach of the tex t s fo un d a t the o th er s i tes , a ll of th e m a l i t tl e l a ter th a n theQ u m r a n c o r p u s , m a y fall i n t o t h e p r e - M a s o r e t i c c a te g o r y ( t h o u g h t h ebooks p rese rved a t Masada a re ones fo r which the re were no va r i an t l i t e r a rye d i t i o n s ) , 2 6 pe rhaps sugges t ing tha t by the end o f t he f i r s t o r beg inn ing o ft h e s e c o n d c e n t u r y C . E . t h e t e x t u a l p l u r a l i t y a p p a r e n t i n t h e Q u m r a n s c ro l lshad g iven way to a f a r g rea t e r un i fo rmi ty . There may have been soc i a l andp o l i t i c a l r e a s o n s f o r t h i s d e v e l o p m e n t , i n t h a t t h e p e o p l e w h o h a p p e n e d t ouse and c op y a ce r t a in t yp e o f t ex t be ca m e the cen t r a l o r nea r ly t he on ly e le ment i n soc i e ty engaged in such ac t iv i t y a f t e r t he des t ruc t ion o f t he t emp lein 70 C . E . c o m m e n t s : " I t is n o t t h a t M [ = M T ] t r i u m p h e d o v er t h e o t h e rt ex t s ,b u t r a t h e r , t h a t th o s e w h o f o s te r ed i t p r o b a b l y c o n s t i t u t e d t h e o n l y o r g a n i z e d g r o u p w h i c h s u r v i v e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e S e c o n d T e m p l e . T h u s ,af ter the f i r s t century C E a desc r i p t i on o f t he t r ansmiss ion o f t he t ex t o f t heH e b r e w B i b le a m o u n t s t o a n a c c o u n t o f t h e h i s t o r y of M . " 2 7

C O N C L U S I O N S F R O M T H E E V I D E N C EA f te r s u r v e y i n g t h e e v i d e n c e , w h a t c o n c l u s i o n s m a y b e d r a w n f r o m i t a n dwhich ques t ions a re sugges t ed by i t ?

Severa l expe r t s have c ra f t ed comprehens ive theor i e s t o o rgan ize t heda ta n o w access ible . I t ha s be en d i ff icu l t for tex tua l c r i t i cs of the H eb re w Bib l e t o m o v e o u t f r o m u n d e r t h e i m p r e s s o f t h e o l d e r t h r e e - t e x t m o d e l t h a t p r o v i d e d b y M T , SP , a n d L X X . F r a n k M o o r e C r o s s , f o l lo w i n g W i l li a mFoxwel l A lbr igh t , p os tu l a t ed th ree l oca l va r i e t i e s o f He br ew t ex t s , each o fw hic h was r ep rese n te d by a f ami l i a r wi tnes s : SP was a p r i m e wi tness t o t he

2 6 . E .Ulrich, " T w o Perspectives on T w o Pentateuchal Manuscripts from Masada,in S.Paul e t a l . , eds . , Emanuel: Studies in Hebrew Bible, Septuagint, and Dead Sea Scrollsin Honor of Emanuel ( V T S u p 9 4 ; Leiden: B r i l l , 2 0 0 3 ) , 4 6 1 - 6 4 .

2 7 . Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 1 9 5 .

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m o r e e x p a n s i v e P a l e s t i n i a n f o r m of the t ex tfor theb o o k s it i n c l u d e s ,LXXtotheE g y p t i a n H e b r e w t ex t ,and MT( a p p a r e n t lybyde f au l t )to theB a b y l o n i a n t e x t . 2 8 Bythet i m eoft h e Q u m r a n c o p i e s , t h e s e l o c a l t e x ts w e r eno l o n ger i sola ted;allw e r e f o u n d in thel a n d of Is rae l in fact ,at the one smal lsiteofQ u m r a n ,sot ha t each typ e cou ld in f luence theo t h e r sforg o o dor ill.

S h e m a r y a h u T a l m o n f o c u s e d m o r e on the ro l e of d i f fe r e n t g r o u p s int h e s u r v i v a l of the t e x t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m and the c o r r e s p o n d i n g lo sso f m a n y o t h e r k i n d s : J e w s p r e s e r v e d MT,S a m a r i t a n s c o n t i n u e d to c o p ySP,and C h r i s t i a n s t r a n s m i t t e d L X X . 2 9 E m a n u e l b r o a d e n e d the h o r i z o n s o m e w h a t , a l t h o u g h he too has re c k o n e d w i t h the t r a d i t i o n a l w i t n e s s e sin n a m i n g f i v e c a t e g o r i e sof te x t s , t h o u g h t h e yare a s t ra n g e c o m b i n a t i o n in s o m e r e s p e c t s . T h e y are:P r o t o - M a s o r e t ic (or P r o t o - R a b b i n i c ) ,i n w h i c h c a t e g o r y , on his r e c k o n i n g , 47 p e r c e n t of the c o p i e s f r o mQ u m r a n fall; P r o t o - S a m a r i t a n (6.5 p e r c e n t ) ; C l o s e to the H e b r e w S o u r c eo fthe LXX (3.3p e r c e n t ) ; N o n - A l i g n e d t ex t s (47 p e r c e n t ) . He a l so sp eak so f a f if th ca teg or y t e x t s c o p i e d in the Q u m r a n p r a c ti ce (or s p e l l i n g ) ,t h o u g h he d o e s not givea p e r c e n t a g e for t h e m s i n c e t h e y are i n c l u d e d int h e o t h e r f o u r .An o b v i o u s c r i t i c is m of T o v' s p e r c e n t a g e s ist h a the has inf lated the n u m b e r s for the M T - l i k e c a t e g o r y , p l a c i n g in it any t e x t t h a t isequa l ly c lose to MT and SP or LXX.P e t e r F l in t ca l cu l a t e s t h a t of thef i f ty-seven (47 p e r c e n t ) a n a ly z a b l e Q u m r a n b i b l ic a l s c ro l ls t h a t s u p p o s e d l y f a l l i n t o t h i s [ p r o t o - M T ] c a t e g o r y , o n l y t w e n t y - f o u r . . . are s t r ic t lyc loseto the t r a d i t i o n a l t e x t , w h i l e theo t h e r t h i r t y - t h r e e . . . are asc lose tot h e M a s o r e t i c T e x t and e i t h e r the S a m a r i t a n P e n t a t e u c h or the H e b r e ws o u r c eof the S e p t u a g i n t . " 3 0 U l r i c h has f o c u s e d on theh i s t o r y of t e x t s for

2 8 .See, e.g., Cross' sessay , The Evolutio n of a Theo ry of L o c a l Te x t s , " in Cross andS. Talmon, eds., Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text (Cambridge, M a s s . : Harvard University Press, 1 9 7 5 ) , 3 0 6 - 2 0 .

2 9 . For a summary of his approach, see Talmon's essay , The Textual Study of theB i b l e A New Outlo ok, in Qumran and the History of the Biblical Text, 3 2 1 - 4 0 0 . In hislengthy study he proposed that a majo r pro blem to be invest igated with regard to thehistory of the B i b l e text is not so much the existence of a limited plurality of text-types,but rather the loss of other presumably more numerous textual traditions. Thusphrased, the issue of whether a single Urtext broke up into 'threedistinct lo c a l f a mi l i e s 'in which subsequently and separately manuscript variants emerged, or whether conve r s e ly , primal traditions which varied among themselves to a limited degree progress ive ly lost their lease on life and ultimately crystallized in a restricted number ofGruppentexte should be studied from a new angle ( 3 2 7 ) .

3 0 .P. Flint, The B ib l i c a l Sc r o l l s and the T e x t of the Hebrew B i b l e / O l d Testament,in J. Van derKa m and Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Significance for

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i n d i v i d u a l b o o k s a n d t h i n k s th e p e r i o d s in w h i c h t h e y w e r e c o m p o s e da n d t r a n s m i t t e d o v e r l a p p e d . I n a n u m b e r o f c a se s , w h a t h e c alls v a r i a n tl i t e r a r y e d i t i o n s a r o s e , w i t h t h e n e w e r s o m e t i m e s b u t n o t a lw a y s r e p l a c i n g t h e o l d e r . 3 1 O n e o f t h e m a n y s t r e n g t h s o f h i s a p p r o a c h i s t h a t it is n o ta s c o n s t r a i n e d a s t h e o t h e r s a r e b y t h e o l d e r t h r e e - w i t n e s s m o d e l .

N E W E V I D E N C E A N D T H E T E X T - C R I T I C A L Q U E S T

D i s c o v e r i n g w h a t t h e b i b l i c a l a u t h o r s a n d e d i t o r s a c t u a l l y w r o t e w o u l ds e e m t o b e a n o b l e a i m , o n e t o w h i c h m a n y h a v e d e v o t e d g r e a t i n d u s t r y . I ts h o u l d b e a c k n o w l e d g e d , o f c o u r s e , t h a t e v e n t h e m o r e r e c e n t l y a c c e s s i b l em an u sc r i p t ev id enc e is f ar r em ov ed in t im e f rom t he ea r l ie s t f o rm s o f t h et ex t s o f sc r i p tu ra l books and sec t ions , even i f t he re i s d i spu te ap l en tya b o u t w h e n t h e v a r i o u s c o m p o s i t i o n s a n d se c t io n s o f t h e m w e r e p e n n e da n d a r r a n g e d . I f o n e f o l l o w s t h o s e w h o t h i n k m u c h o f t h e H e b r e w B i b l er e a c h e d it s u l t i m a t e f o r m i n t h e P e r s i a n p e r i o d , t h e J u d e a n D e s e r t m a n u sc r i p t f i nds t ake one back on ly to a po in t a f ew cen tu r i e s l a t e r . Tha t , o fc o u r s e , is m u c h b e t t e r t h a n t h e s i t u a t i o n c o n f r o n t i n g e a r l ie r s c h o l a r s , b u tt h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l g a p b e t w e e n t h e ea r li e s t w r i t t e n f o r m ( s ) a n d t h e s u r v i v i n g m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e r e m a i n s c o n s i d e r a b l e . W h i l e t h a t g a p is a f ac t, it isa l so a f ac t t h a t t he s tud en t o f t he H eb re w Bib le i s, co m p ara t ive ly sp eak ing ,i n a r a t h e r a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e t e x t o f P l a t o ' s w o r k s ,a p a r t f r o m s o m e f r a g m e n t a r y s e c o n d - t h i r d c e n t u r y C . E . p a p y r i , i s b a s e do n fifty -o ne m a n u s c r i p t s c o p i e d i n t h e n i n t h c e n t u r y a n d l a t e r . 3 2

To see ho w i t is p oss ib l e t o d o be t t e r t h an on e cou ld be fore a l t h ou ghp u z z l e s r e m a i n ( w i t h t h e Q u m r a n e v i d e n c e s u p p l y i n g s o m e n e w o n e s ) , itis i n s t r u c t i v e t o e x a m i n e t h e p a s s a g e t h a t is p e r h a p s t h e b e s t - k n o w n t e x t u a l v a r i a n t i n t h e Q u m r a n s c r o ll s t h e lo n g e r r e a d i n g p r e s e r v e d i n

Understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity ( S a n Francisco: HarperSan-Francisco, 2 0 0 2 ) , 1 4 6 .

3 1 . A number o f Ulrich's e s s a ys o n th e subject appeared in his The Dead Sea Scrollsand the Origins of the Bible ( S D S S R L ; Grand R a p i d s : Eerdmans, 1 9 9 9 ) . Fo r a recentstatement o f h is theory, se e " T h e Evolutionary Production a n d Transmission of theScriptural B o o k s , " i n S .Metso, H . Najman, a n d E . Schuller, e d s . , The Dead Sea Scrolls:Transmission of Traditions and Production of Texts ( S T D J 9 2 ;Leiden: B r i l l ,2 0 1 0 ) , 2 0 9 - 2 5 .

3 2 . Se e G . F in e , e d . , The Oxford Handbook of Plato ( N e w Y o r k : Oxford Universi tyPress, 2 0 0 8 ) , 7 1 ; th e oldest manuscript is dated to 895 C . E. ( th e ve r y date o f th e oldestsurviving witness o f M T ) .

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4QSama at the t r a n s i t i o n f r o m S a m u e l 10 to S a m u e l 1 1 .T h o u g h it involves a longe r s t r e t ch of t ex t , it may be t h a t a s imp le sc r iba l e r ro r led tot h e o m i s s i o n of an e n t i r e p a r a g r a p h t h a t is f o u n d in 4QSama, a g e n u i n ec o p yof theb o o k s of Samue l . F i r s t the da ta w i llbe p r e s e n t e d f o ll o w e dby al o o k at p l a u s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s for the a v a il a b le m a n u s c r i p t e v i d e n c e .

F o r the p a s sa g e in q u e s t i o n , Sam 1 0 : 2 7 - 1 1 : 1 , t h e r e are four r a the r oldc o n f i g u r a t i o n sof thet ex t tha t con f ron t ther e a d e randt h a t m u s tbe c o n s i d e red in i n t e r p r e t i n g it. Ast h o s ewhoha v e e x a m i n e d thepa ssage have no ted ,t h e p h r a seat the end oft h eMTf o r m of1Sam 1 0 : 2 7 W l f l D T P I andt h e H e b r e w e x p r e s s i o n p r e s u p p o s e dby the LXXr e n d e r i n gof the b e g i n n i n gof 1 1 : 1 1 f t D T P 1 have suf f ic ien t look-a l ike qua l i t ies tha t , if theyo c c u r r e d in the sa m e copy , cou ld have caused t ex tua l m isch ie f for a sc r ibew h owas not pa r t i cu la r ly a l e r t . He reis how thew i t n e s se s h a n d l e the sec t ion( w i t h the l o o k - a l i k e p h r a se s in i ta l ics) .

M T : 10 :27 The y desp i sed him [Saul] and b r o u g h t him no p r e s en t . But he held hispeace. 1 1 : 1N a h a sh the A m m o n i t e w e n t up. . . .4QSama (X frg. a 5-9): . . .T h e y d e sp i s e d him andb r o u g h t him nop r e se n t , blank

[ N o w N a ] h a s h , k i n g of the A m m o n i t e s , had be en gr ievouslyo p p r e s s i n gtheGad i t e sand theR e u b e n i t es .Hew o u l d g o u g eout ther i g h t [ey]e of e [ a c h ] of t h e m and w o u l d not g r an t [ I ] s rae l a[del iv]erer . No one was left of the Israel i tes ac[ross the Jordanw h o ] se r i g h t eye N a h a [ s h , k i n g of] the [ A ] m m o n i t e s , had not[ g o ] u g e dout. B[u]t the re we re seven thousand men who [had escaped f rom] theA m m o n i te s and had en te re d Jabesh- gi lead .

About amonth later,N a h a sh the A m m o n i t e w e nt up . . .3 3

LXX. . .T h e y d e sp i s e dhim andb r o u g h thim no p r e se n t . 1 1 : 1 Abouta month laterN a h a sh the A m m o n i t e w e n t up. . . .J o s e p h u s ,Ant. 6 .67-71:he s e e m sto a s s u m e the e n d i n g of 1 0 : 2 7 as itis in 4QSama and LXX( tha t is,w i t h o u t But he held hispeace), followed by the s t a t e m e n t About amonth later,af ter w hic h he offersthe add i t iona l ma te r i a l in afo rm re sem bl ingbut notiden t i ca lto the

3 3 . The translation of the section is from the N R S V ;brackets have been inserted toshow where there are gaps in the fragment.

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e x t r a p a r a g r a p h i n 4QSama. H e t h e n r e su m e s w i t h 1 1 : 1 w i t h o u t r e p e a t i n g t h e i n t r o d u c t o r y About amonth later.

The t ex tua l s i tua t ion may be c l ea re r i f t he th ree key i t ems a re rep re sen tedw i th l e tt e r s , y i e ld ing the fo l lowing d ia gr am :

X = But he he ld h is peace ( 1 3 VPI)Y = t h e e x t r a p a r a g r a p h = A b o u t a m o n t h l ate r (Win TPI)

T h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t n e s se s c o n t a i n t h e se e l e m e n t s :MT: X4QSama: + LX X: J o s ep h u s : + Y

T ha t i s, no s urv iv ing t ex t p re se rves a ll t h re e i t ems rep re se n ted b y the l e t t e r s . Y et, if t h e lo o k - a l i k e r e a d i n g s X a n d a n d t h e a d d i t i o n a l p a r a g r a p hwe re p re se n t in an ea r l ie r cop y (one tha t is n o long e r ex tan t ) a nd X an d we re the t r igge rs fo r the omiss ions tha t y ie lded the va r i ed t ex t s now ava i l ab le , one cou ld say about the ve rs ions :

MT: the copy i s t whose work gave r i se to the fo rm o f the t ex t now rep r e se n t e d in M T sk i p p e d f r o m t h e e n d o f X t h r o u g h Z , t h u s o m i t t i n gY an d Z . Th i s m ay no t be a s t a nd a r d fo rm o f hap log rap hy , bu t i tc o u l d h a v e h a p p e n e d .

4QSama: t h e c o p y i st o m i t t e d X b u t tr a n s c r i b e d Y a n d a p r o c e d u r e t h a t s e e m s s t r a n g e .

L X X: t h e c o p y i s t sk i p p e d X a n d Y a n d p r e se r v e d o n l y a s t a n d a r dcase o f hap log rap hy .

Jo se p h u s : sk i p p e d X a n d p l a c e d b e f o re Y ( t h a t is , h e c h a n g e d t h e p o s i t ion o f a da te in the t ex t , some th ing tha t he does e l sewhere ) . 3 4

Wi t h i d e n t i f i a b l e m e c h a n i sm s f o r h a p l o g r a p h y , i t i s r e a so n a b l e t o su p p ose , g iven the surv iv ing read in gs , tha t om iss io ns o f d i f fe ren t p o r t io ns o ft ex t occur red . But th i s does no t accoun t fo r the fo rm o f the 4Q copy .

3 4 . E . C . Ulrich, J r . , The Qumran Text of Samuel and Josephus ( H S M 1 9 ; Missoula:Scholars, 1 9 7 8 ) , 1 6 8 ( s e e 1 6 6 - 7 0 for h is analysis of the text-critical issues).

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D e s p i t e a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n 4QSama and J o s e p h u s in a t t e s t i n g a d d i t iona l mater ia l c lose ly re la ted in c o n t e n tand at the s a m e s p o t ,the two areno t iden t i ca l .Thepa ra l l e l sec t ion in J o s e p h u s ism u c h l o n g er and inc ludess o m e i t e m s not p r e s e n t in the Q u m r a n m a n u s c r i p t , s u ch as the r e p o r ta b o u t the m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s e rv e d by K ing Nahash ' s g r i s ly po l i cyof g o u g in g out the r ight eyes of I srae l i tes ac ross the J o r d a n . Yet, as U l r i c h hass h o w n , the e l e m e n t s f o u n d in the Q u m r a n p l u s a p p e a r in Jo se p h u s ' s Antiquitiesand in the s a m e o r d e r . T h e r eis onee x c e p t io n to thec o m m o n ord e r Jo se p h u s p l a c e s the " A b o u t a m o n t h l a t e r " s t a t e m e n t b e fo r e thep l u s ,notafter it as in 4QSam

a

. In the DJDe d i t i o n of 4QSama

, C r o s s w r o t e :" I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t the p h r a s e 1 3 VP1o c c u r r e d in a H e b r e w t e x tb o t h t h e r e [ i. e. , w h e r e Jo se p h u shas it,be fo re thep l u s ] and in 1 1 : 1 , t h e r e b yt r i g g e r i n g the h a p l o g r a p h y of the w h o l e p a r a g r a p h . In any ca se , theW ) n t t D TP1of M is best seen as a c o r r u p t i o n of VP1after theh a p l o g r a p h y . " 3 5 If he is c o r r e c t , MT w o u l d p r e se r v e o n l y a m i s r e a d i n g ofo n e t r i g g e r for o m i s s i o n w h i c h it m i s t a k e n l y a t t a c h e s to the end of 10:27.N o n eof thev e r s i o n s s e e m sto offer the ear l ies t form of the t e x t , a l t h o u g h ,w i t h the e x t a n t e v i d e n c e ,one can s u r m i s e how it mayhav e read .

T h e m o s t p a r s i m o n i o u s e x p l a n a t i o n may be the one sugges ted byC r o ss :the" A b o u t a m o n t h l a t er " p h r a s e o c c u r r e d on b o t h s i d esof thep l u s .T h e t e x t r e p r e se n t e d in LXX is eas ily ex p la ined as a resul t of h a p l o g r a p h y ,f r o m i n s t a n c eone to i n s t a n c etwo of thep h r a s e , w i t h o m i s s i o n ofthe in te r v e n i n g m a t e r i a l .The t e x t u a l t r a d i t i o n now f o u n d in MT did the s a m e butw a s f u r th e r c o r r u p t e d w h e n 1 3 VP1 was m i s r e a d a s / a l t e r e d to ' ^ TPIto fit the c o n t e x t . Jo se p h u s r e t a i n e d the f i rs t ins tance of thet r i g g e r p h r a seand the ex t ra ma te r i a l , wh i l e he lacksthes e c o n d i n s t a n c eoft h e p h r a se , p o s s i b lytoa v o i d r e p e t i t i o nof ad a t ehe hadj u s t m e n t i o n e d .Them os t di ff icu lt t ex tua l w i tnesstoe x p l a inis 4QSama. Itlacksthef i rst ins tan ceof the t r igge r but i n c l u d e s the ex t ra ma te r i a l and the s e c o n d i n s t a n c e . 3 6

3 5.F. M. C r o s s , D. W. Parry, R. J.S a l e y , and E. Ulrich, eds., Qumran Cave 4: XII, 1-2 Samuel (DJD 1 7 ;Oxford: Clarendo n, 2 0 0 5 ) , 66.

3 6 .The passage as represented in the vari ous witnesses has, of course, received extensive analysis, with vari ous solutio ns pro posed. See the lengthy bibl iog. in DJD 1 7 : 1 - 2 .A . R o f has taken a different approach to the plus in 4QSam a and Antiquities: he judgesit to be neither an original reading nor a textual variant but a midrash on points unclear in the passage and based on material located inother places in the scriptures. See,e.g., his essay, The Acts of Nahash according to 4QSam a , I E / 3 2 ( 1 9 8 2 ) : 1 2 9 - 3 3 . isamong those who consider the longer form of the text in 4QSam a to be original; Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, 3 4 2 - 4 4 .

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T h e Q u m r a n c o p y i t s e l f s h o w s a h a p l o g r a p h y w i t h i n b u t n o t t h es a m e a s t he one u nd e r d i s c us s i on . I n it t h e w or d s " A bou t a m o n t h l a te rN a h a s h t h e A m m o n i t e w e n t u p a n d b e s i e g e d J a b e s h - " a r e w r i t t e n i n as up r a l i ne a r pos i t i on , bu t by t he s c r i be w ho r e c o r de d t he t e x t , no t by a n o t he r ha nd . T he c a us e f o r om i s s i on o f t he s e w or ds w a s t he r e pe a t e d na m e

A no t he r k i nd o f i s s ue t ha t ha s be c om e m or e p r e s s i ng w i t h t he a va i l ab i l i t y o f t he sc r ip tu ra l cop ies f rom the Judean Dese r t i s t he d i s t i nc t ion be tween t ex tua l and exege t i ca l va r i an t s . The ques t ion a r i ses e spec i a l ly i nw o r ks t ha t one w ou l d n o t c la ss ify a s " b i b l i c a l " m a n us c r i p t s bu t in w h i c hs c r i p t u r a l t e x t s a r e a dduc e d i n s om e f o r m . I t i s a p r ob l e m one e nc oun t e r si n de a l i ng w i t h t he m a ny c i t a t i ons a nd a da p t a t i ons o f s c r i p t u r a l t e x t s i n aw or k s uc h a s t he book o f Jubilees. T he w r i t e r ve r y f r e que n t l y quo t e s m a t e r i a l f rom Genes i s o r Exodus , a t t imes whole l i nes , a t o the r t imes jus tp h r a s e s . 3 7 The i s sue i s whe the r d i f f e rences i n word ing f rom, say , MT orL X X r e f l e c t r e a d i ngs o f G e ne s i s a nd E xodus m a nus c r i p t s o r w he t he r t he ya r e du e t o the w a y i n w h i c h t h e w r i t e r a da p t e d t he m a t e r i a l t o t he ne w c o n texts in Jubilees. W hi c h a r e t e x t ua l va r i a n t s i n d i s t i nc t i on f r om t e x t ua l i n t e r p r e t a t i ons a nd m od i f i c a t i ons ? A t e x t ua l va r i a n t w ou l d be one t ha t a r i s e si n t he c ou r s e o f m a nus c r i p t t r a n s m i s s i on ; a n i n t e r p r e t i ve va r i a n t w ou l dl ikely ar ise in a different way.

The i s sue becomes more compl i ca t ed because , i t s eems , sc r ibes f e l t i twas wi th in the i r r i gh t s t o he lp the t ex t a long a l i t t l e . U l r i ch has de f inedwha t he ca l l s " ind iv idua l t ex tua l va r i an t s " ( see the l i s t above , where theyare t he second type ) a s ones d i f f e r ing f rom the pa ren t t ex t be ing cop ieda n d c o n s i s t in g o f u n i n t e n t i o n a l c h a n g e s " e. g. , n u m e r o u s t y p e s o f e r r o r s , i n a d v e r t e n t s u b s t i t u t i o n o f lectiones faciliores, loss of let te rs , loss ofo n e o r m o r e w o r d s t h r o u g h i n a t t e n t i o n o r p a r a b l e p s i s " a n d i n t e n t i o n a lone s " c l a r i f y i ng i n s e r t i ons , s c r i ba l c o r r e c t i on ( w he t he r c o r r e c t o r no t ) ,a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n , l i n g u i s t i c s m o o t h i n g , e u p h e m i s t i c s u b s t i t u t i o n s ,l i t e r a r y f l ou r i s he s , t he o l og i c a l i de a s . " 3 8

W ha t U l r i c h i nc l ude s und e r h i s c a t e go r y " i n t e n t i ona l va r i a n t s " is a n i n t r i gu ing se t o f d i ff e rences v i s - -v i s t he pa r en t t ex t va r iou s k ind s o fchanges such as "c l a r i fy ing inse r t i ons . " Some examples occur i n t he TempleScroll. A s pe c ts o f t he r e l a t ions h i p be t w e e n t h i s l e ng t hy c o m po s i t i o n a nd t he

3 7. S e e J . C . VanderKam, Textual an d Historical Studies in the Book of Jubilees( H S M 1 4 ;Missoula: Scholars, 1 9 7 7 ) , 1 0 3 - 2 0 5 , for a listing a n d study of the material.

3 8. Ulrich, " T h e J e w i s h Scriptures, 1 1 1 .

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l ega l sec t ions o f t he Pen ta t euch a re we l l known: i t o f t en co l l ec t s e l ement sf rom all t exts on a to pic (e .g ., a fest iva l ) an d wo rks th e m in to the f ir st m e n t ion o f t he sub jec t i n t he sc r ip tu ra l tex t t h a t is be ing t r e a t ed . 3 9 But the re lat i o n s h i p c h a n g e s i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t s o f t h e s c r o l l i n t h e D e u t e r o n o m i cP a r a p h r a s e , w h e r e D e u t e r o n o m y 1 2 - 2 3 serves as the base for cols . 53-58 and60-62 and where t he sc ro l l adheres more c lose ly t o t he base t ex t . Regard ingt h e Temple Scroll as a w ho le , La wr enc e Schi f fman ha s w r i t ten : I t is c leart h a t t h e a u t h o r / r e d a c t o r a n d h i s s o u r c e s h a d b e f o r e t h e m Vorlagen of th ec a n o n i c a l T o r a h , i n its p r e s e n t s h a p e , w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e d g e n u i n e t e x t u a lv a r i a t i o n w h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e M a s o r e t i c T ex t ( M T ) . T o t h i s t e x t u a lb a s e , t h e a u t h o r ( s ) a d d e d t h e ir o w n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a n d a d a p t a t i o n s . O n eof t he cha l l enges o f sch o la r s h ip i s t o d i s t i ng u i sh the se l ay e r s . 4 0

F r o m t h e D e u t e r o n o m i c P a r a p h r a s e S c h if fm a n e x a m i n e d a s e ri es o fr ead ings i n which i t s t ex t agrees wi th LXX aga ins t MT and the r ead ing hasha l akh ic s ign i f i cance . These a re good t e s t cases fo r d i s t i ngu i sh ing t ex tua lf r o m i n t e r p r e t i v e v a r i a n t s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t t h e o r i g i n a l w o r d i n g o ft h e t e x t m i g h t h a v e b e e n .

Co ns ide r , fo r ex am ple , t he va r i a n t s i n TS 54 : i9 -55 : i //Deu t 13:7(E ng . v. 6) ,w he re M T reads : I f an yo ne secre tly ent ices yo u even if i t is yo ur b ro th er. . . o r y o u r m o t h e r ' s s o n . . . . T h e e n t i c e m e n t is t o i d o l at r y , a n d in t h i s c a se ,how eve r c lose t he r e l a t ive o r ne ig hb or gu i l t y o f t he o f fense m a y b e , he is t o b eexecu ted . Pre sum ab ly those c loses t t o t he o f f end ing pa r ty a re t o be wi tnessesaga ins t h im, someth ing no t a l l owed in o the r k inds o f l ega l cases .

L X X D e u t 13:7:

A n a d d e d b o n u s i n th i s ca s e is t h a t 4QDeutc f rgs . 22 -2 3 l ine 1 rea ds th ew o r d T D K , s u g g e s t i n g it c o n t a i n e d t h e l o n g e r r e a d i n g , a n d SP a l so s u p p or t s it . T he long er r ead ing speci fi e s t ha t b o th t he b ro th e r w h o is t he s onof t he m o th e r an d a l so t he b ro th e r w h o is t h e son o f t he f a the r a r e r e l a ti ves

3 9 . See, e .g . , F. Garcia Martinez, Temple S c r o l l , i n Schiffman a n d VanderKam,e d s . , EDSS, 2 : 9 2 7 - 3 3 .

4 0 . L . H . Schiffman, T h e Septuagint a n d t h e Temple S c r o l l : Shared 'Halakhic'Variants, in G. J .Brooke a n d B .Lindars, e d s . , Septuagint Scrolls and Cognate Writings( S B L S C S 3 3 ;Atlanta: Scholars, 1 9 9 2 ) , 2 7 8 ; repr. in The Courtyards of the House of theLord: Studies on the Temple Scroll ( S T D J 7 5 ;Leiden: B r i l l , 2 0 0 8 ) , 8 6 .

TS 54:19: XM T D e u t 13:7: -|K p1K ^ *

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t o w h o m t h e la w a p p l i e s . Pe r h a p s o n e w o u l d h a v e in f e r r e d t h i s f r o m