use of solar passive concepts in the avadh architectural...

Project Report

Use of Solar Passive Concepts in the Avadh ArchitecturalBuildings and their Modified Impact*

Usha Bajpai and Sachin Gupta**

* The project was accomplished under the sponsorship of Indian National Commission for History of Science between December2009 and June 2013.

**Coordinator, Renewable Energy, Centre of Excellence in Renewable Energy Education and Research (New Campus), Departmentof Physics, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, 226 007, Email: [email protected]

The sun and its energy supply has been afundamental influence since the origin of thehuman species. The rise of the first cities between5000 to 6000 years ago reflected the culminationof a gradual process of proto-urbanization whichhad been taking place for many thousands of yearsprior to the formation of urban concentrations. Thesun, wind and water were the guiding principlesfor urban planning. The early settlements in Syria,Egypt, Iran, China, Greece and South and NorthAmerica were the examples of the period rangingfrom 3500 BC to 900 AD. The architecture forthe agricultural age developed in terms ofsimulation and comforts. In early modernarchitecture in India, the building technologies ofthe Mughals drew considerable attraction. Thedream of Mughal architects was to create theultimate diaphanous wall and powerful rulersspared no expense in creating their palaces. Themulti-functional membrane/screen carved out ofwhite marble allowed the greatest comfort ininside/outside spaces.

There was a sudden stalemate in the fieldof architecture after Shahjahan’s death. But, theNawabs of Avadh kept it alive. In Avadh Rulersera, the field of architecture saw re-interpretationof the existing styles and experimentation in thefusion of the occidental and the oriental style of

architecture. The Avadh Rulers beginning fromMuhammad Amin Saadat Khan to Wajid Ali Shahbuilt many fascinating structures in themagnificent cities of Faizabad and Lucknow inthe period 1720 to 1856. In the beginning, thebuildings constructed by them were confined toFaizabad alone, but later on the main centre ofarchitectural activity shifted to Lucknow. Thesebuildings included Gulab Bari, Moti Mahal andTomb of Bahu Begum in Faizabad and BaraImambara, Chhota Imambara, ShahnajafImambara, Sikander Bagh, Saadat Ali’s Tomb,Lakshman Tila, Rumi Darwaza, Jama Masjid,Mausoleum in Kaiserbagh, Dilkusha Gardens andMoti Mahal in Lucknow.

The style of these buildings may bedecadent and hybrid but it has its own specialcharacteristics such as fish motif at the gates,domes with golden umbrellas, vaulted halls,arcaded pavilions, underground chambers andlabyrinths.

After the Avadh Rulers, came the Britishera. There was little left in the treasury of theNawabs of Lucknow to be invested in architecturalprojects and their days of glory were fast comingto a sad end, precipitated by the British presence.The group of buildings became the stage for the

Indian Journal of History of Science, 50.1 (2015) 163-181 DOI: 10.16943/ijhs/2015/v50i1/48120

164 INDIAN JOURNAL OF HISTORY OF SCIENCE

most dramatic events of the 1857 Mutiny orUprising and the siege of Lucknow.

The British Rulers built or modified manybuildings at Lucknow, which included theResidency, La Martinere College (built by Frenchadventurer General Claude Martin, it presents acurious mélange of Indian and Europeanarchitectural features), Clock Tower, ChattarManzil (at present housing the Central DrugResearch Institute), Canning College (which is atpresent the University of Lucknow), MedicalCollege (which is at present the ChhatrapatiShivaji Maharaj Medical University), theCharbagh Railway Station, the Council House andBanarsi Bagh. General Claude Martin built hisown residence now known as Kothi Farhat Baksh.This small but beautiful building is a uniqueexample of Indo-European architecture. The KothiHayat Baksh was also built in this era whichbecame the residence of the Governor and cameto be known as Governor House.

Some of the concepts used in the planningand construction of the above buildings may bethe passive solar cooling or heating techniquesbeing used on modern day architectural buildingsfor the purpose of energy conservation and use ofrenewable energy. They may also be bioclimaticconcepts for climatic region of Lucknow andFaizabad. However, the British Architecturalbuildings have some modified or advancedfeatures than those used in Avadh Architecturalbuildings.

The project is aimed to study the solarpassive heating and cooling concepts used inAvadh architectural buildings and also thebioclimatic concepts. The project also aims toanalyze the modifications in these concepts inEuropean and British architectural buildings. Theproject was undertaken by detailed studies ofAvadh, European and British era buildings inFaizabad and Lucknow. The Project was carriedout under the following chapters:

1. Introduction

2. Climatic Condition

3. Comfort and Solar Passive Techniques

4. Avadh Buildings

5. European Buildings

6. British Buildings

7. Conclusion

1. IntroductionIn early years in India there was no

electricity but people created shelters in such away that they fulfilled their need of comfort inthe habitat. But today’s buildings are energydazzling. They consume more and more energyto fulfill the need of comfort and also increaseemission of greenhouse gases, caused by fossilfuels to power the heating and coolingrequirements of the buildings. The design andmodeling of low-energy buildings is a challengingand complex problem of increasing importance.Informing the uncertainty of architects duringearly design stages for decision making is veryimportant. But old architects had the solution ofthese problems. They had used lots of passivetechniques to restrict heat flow to-and-from abuilding. But today’s architects have forgotten allthese techniques, so there is a need to study thesetechniques for modern buildings. The energycrisis, along with concern of emission ofgreenhouse gases has again brought thesetechniques in the limelight. Economic benefits ofthe use of these techniques are also being seen,especially in Third World countries facing energycrisis. Passive solar heating is a well-establishedconcept used in buildings in regions with colderclimates. Concepts of passive solar heating areused while developing passive cooling techniques.Passive cooling can be defined as the removal/restriction of heat from/to the environment ofbuilding by utilizing the natural processes of

USING SOLAR PASSIVE CONCEPTS IN THE AVADH ARCHITECTURAL BUILDINGS 165

rejecting heat to the ambient atmosphere byconvection, evaporation and radiation or to theadjacent earth by conduction and convection.Buildings can be designed and oriented in such away that windows, doors, indoor spaces, etc. arelocated and oriented to take maximum advantageof the local climate. The role of landscapingaround the building, e.g. trees, vegetation andwater ponds have also been used to maximumeffect.

In region falling around the tropic-of-cancer, the summer is very hot and indoor airtemperatures in single story buildings are wellabove comfort zone. As an example, in developingcountries, in villages where people have startedto build houses with reinforced-cement-concrete(RCC) roofs, instead of traditional designsinvolving high sloping roofs with earthenMangalore tiles (baked clay roof tiles). These newbuildings now need cooling and with power crisisand high energy cost the only option remaining isthe adoption of passive cooling techniques. Thestate-of-art of solar passive cooling techniques hasbeen given by many researchers. Some of theknown techniques for passive cooling, viz. Sky-therm, insulated roof and wall, roof pond, earth–air tunnel and ventilation. The discussionregarding such techniques has been widelyaddressed in a number of experimental andnumerical studies. The project reviews variouspassive-cooling and heating techniques used in ourAvadh architectural buildings and how they havebeen modified in European and British buildingsin the composite climate of Lucknow andFaizabad.

2. ClimateClimate (from Greek Klima) is defined as

certain conditions of temperature, dryness, wind,light, etc. of a region. Different regions of theworld have diverse characteristic climates. A placeor region’s climate is determined by both naturaland manmade factors. The natural elements

include the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphereand biosphere; while the human factors caninclude land use and consumption of other naturalresources. Changes in any of these factors cancause local, regional, or even global changes inthe climate.

The relationship between people, climateand buildings is non-linear and complexlyinterdependent. Climate also affects the use ofland, the type of crop that can be grown or theanimal husbandry that can be practiced. Thesevariations in the use of land can cause regionalclimatic changes- such as the spread of desertconditions due to deforestation. Microclimatevariations can be caused by presence of trees, grassand water. Built up areas and cities would tend tohave their own microclimate which would differsignificantly from the climate of the region.Ground reflecting surfaces and artificialtopographical features can affect wind flow, solarradiation and hence temperature patterns. It is nowestablished that the consumption of energy in citiesfor buildings and transport etc. can make verysignificant changes to temperature.

The most important strategy for low-energy design of buildings is to design and buildaccording to the climate where the building islocated. Geographically, the climatic conditionsare diverse and hence the designer is required todescribe and interpret climate in ways that arerelevant to building design.

2.1 Climatic zones in India

India possesses a large variety of climatesranging from extremely hot desert regions to highaltitude locations with severely cold conditionssimilar to northern Europe. Within India it ispossible to define six regions with distinctclimates. The six climates are normally designatedas Hot and Dry, Warm and Humid, Moderate, Coldand Sunny, Cold and Cloudy and Composite. Thecriteria of allocating any location in India to one


of the first five climate zones are that the definedconditions prevail for more than six months. Incases where none of these categories can beidentified for six months or longer, the climaticzone is called Composite. On this basis, Bansaland Minke, 1988, originally produced the ClimaticZones in India Map by evaluation of the meanmonthly data from 233 weather stations and thendelineating the six climatic zones:

1. Hot and Dry

2. Cold and Sunny

3. Warm and Humid

4. Cold and Cloudy

5. Composite

6. Moderate

Thermal comfort is affected by heatconduction, convection, radiation, and evaporativeheat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained whenthe heat generated by human metabolism isallowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermalequilibrium with the surroundings. Any heat gainor loss beyond this generates a sensation ofdiscomfort. It has been long recognized that thesensation of feeling hot or cold is not justdependent on air temperature alone.

The human body continuously producesheat by its metabolic processes. The heat outputof an average body is often taken as 100 W, but itcan vary from about 70 W (in sleep) to over 700W in heavy work or vigorous activity (e.g. playingsquash). This heat must be dissipated to theenvironment, or else the body temperature willincrease. This deep-body temperature is normallyabout 37°C, whilst the skin temperature can varybetween 31°C and 34°C.

A condition of equilibrium is that the heatinput and the heat output is zero such equilibriumis a precondition of thermal comfort. However,comfort is defined as ‘the condition of mind thatexpresses satisfaction with the thermalenvironment, it requires subjective evaluation(ASHRAE, 1997). This clearly embraces factorsbeyond the physical/physiological conditions.Thermal Comfort can only be maintained whenheat produced by metabolism equal to the heatlost from body.

3.2 Factors of Comfort

The variables that affect heat dissipationfrom the body (and thus also thermal comfort) canbe grouped into three sets:

Environmental Personal factors Contributing

Air temperature Metabolic rate Food and drink(activity)

Air movement Clothing Body shapeHumidity State of health Subcutaneous

fatRadiation Acclimatization Age and gender

Fig.1. Climatic Zones of India

3. Comfort and Solar Passive Techniques

3.1 Thermal Comfort

Human thermal comfort is defined byASHRAE as the state of mind that expressessatisfaction with the surrounding environment(ASHRAE Standard 55). Maintaining thermalcomfort for occupants of buildings or otherenclosures is one of the important goals of HeatingVentilation and Air-Conditioning DesignEngineers.


3.3 Psychometric Chart and Comfort Zones

When the designer wants to assess theeffect of climatic conditions on the body’s heatdissipation processes, he is faced with thedifficulty of having to handle four independentvariables simultaneously. During the past 50 yearsmany attempts have been made and manyexperiments have been carried out in order todevise a single scale which combines the effectsof these four factors. Such scales are collectivelyreferred to as “Thermal Indices” or ‘ComfortScales’.

In most of these experiments specialrooms were built and used, in which any set ofindoor climatic conditions could be produced well.A number of experimental subjects were locatedin the room, and they were asked to record theirsubjective reactions on a questionnaire after eachvariation in the conditions, according to a set scaleextending from ‘very hot’ to ‘very cold’. The manyanswers were then evaluated statistically and theresults plotted on a graph, in most cases producinga nomogram which defines the experimentallyfound relationships. Various researchers havedevised some thirty different thermal indexscales.The first such scale was produced byHoughton and Yaglou in 1923, working at theAmerican Society of Heating and VentilatingEngineers. Their findings were plotted on apsychrometric chart.

3.4 Bioclimatic Charts

Bioclimatic charts facilitate the analysisof the climate characteristics of a given locationfrom the viewpoint of human comfort, as theypresent, on a psychometric chart, the concurrentcombination of temperature and humidity at anygiven time. They can also specify building designguidelines to maximize indoor comfort conditionswhen the building’s interior is not mechanicallyconditioned. All such charts are structured around,and refer to, the comfort zone. The range ofacceptable comfort conditions is generally referredto as the comfort zone.

3.5 Olgyay’s Bioclimatic Chart with DesignStrategies

Olgyay’s bioclimatic chart, figure below,was one of the first attempts at an environmentallyconscious building design. It was developed in the1950s to incorporate the outdoor climate intobuilding design. The chart indicates the zones ofhuman comfort in relation to ambient temperatureand humidity, mean radiant temperature, windspeed, solar radiation and evaporative cooling. Onthe chart, dry bulb temperature is the ordinate andrelative humidity is the abscissa. The comfort zoneis in the centre, with winter and summer rangesindicated separately (taking seasonal adaptationinto account). The lower boundary of the zone isalso the limit above which shading is necessary.At temperatures above the comfort limit the windspeed required to restore comfort is shown inrelation to humidity. Where the ambient conditionsare hot and dry, the evaporative cooling necessaryfor comfort is indicated. Variation in the positionof the comfort zone with evaporative cooling, highthermal mass, high thermal mass with nightventilation and mean radiant temperature is alsoindicated.

Fig. 2. Olgyay’s Bioclimatic Chart with Design Strategies


3.6 Givoni Bioclimatic Chart with ControlPotential Zone (CPZ)

Givoni’s bioclimatic chart is aimed atpredicting the indoor conditions of the buildingaccording to the outdoor prevailing conditions. Hisstudy is based on the linear relationship betweenthe temperature amplitude and vapour pressure ofthe outdoor air in various regions. In his chart andaccording to the relationship between the averagemonthly vapour pressure and temperatureamplitude of the outdoor air, the proper passivestrategies are defined according to the climaticconditions prevailing outside the buildingenvelope. The chart combines differenttemperature amplitude and vapour pressure of theambient air plotted on the psychometric chart andcorrelated with specific boundaries of the passivecooling techniques overlaid on the chart. Thesetechniques include evaporative cooling, thermalmass, natural ventilation cooling and passiveheating.

control. In most countries there are regulatoryrequirements for the insulation of envelopeelements, walls, roofs and windows. These maystipulate a maximum U-value (which must not beexceeded) or a minimum R-value (Ra-a) whichmust be achieved by the construction.

Various passive heating and coolingstrategies are:

1. Solar passive heating i.e. Direct gain2. Solar passive cooling I) The mass effect and

night ventilation II)Ventilation cooling byCross ventilation, Wind tower, Inducedventilation and Nocturnal coolingIII)Evaporative cooling IV) Earth coupling

3. Architectural techniques I) Domed and vaultedroof II) Ventilated roof III) Naturally ventilatedIV) High roof

4. Microclimatic controls

3.8 Visual Comfort

It is another important parameter forcomfort in building. It can be defined in term ofday lighting factor.

It can be defined as

DF= (Ei /Eo )X100%

where

Ei = Illumination due to daylight at a point on theindoors working plane.

Eo = Simultaneous outdoor illumination on ahorizontal plane from an unobstructed hemisphereof overcast sky.

The outdoor illumination level Eo can beestablished for a given place by analyzing the long-term illumination record. This is taken as ‘designsky illumination’ value. For India, it is taken as8,000 lux for clear design sky.

3.9 Noise Comfort

Noise is any unwanted sound. It may bespeech or music, sounds of natural forces such as

Fig. 3. Comfort Zone and Control Potential Zone forLucknow

3.7 Passive Control of Heat Flows

In climates where there is a largetemperature difference between the inside and theoutside (the climate lines extend far from thecomfort zone), where some form of heating orcooling will be necessary, thermal insulation ofthe envelope is the most important means of


wind and rain, or mechanical sounds of electricalengines, gears, fans, etc. A human can hear 20-20,000 Hz. It can be controlled by designing ofenvelope of building.

Table 2. Noise Level

Environment Decibels

Jet aircraft at close range 140Threshold of pain 130Elevated train close by 120Symphony orchestra 110Power saw 100Down town street 90Shouting at close range 80Inside automobile, 55 mph 70Face to face conversation 60Average office 50Quiet living room 40Quiet bedroom 30Rural ambient noise 20Rustling leaves 10Threshold of hearing 14.2 0

4. Avadh BuildingsDuring the Nawabi Rule from 1720 to

1856, the rulers were increasingly independent of

the Mughal court and dependent upon theprotection by the British rulers. By the end of theMughal rule, the Nawabs became nominallyindependent kings, they declared theirindependence from the Mughal court. They hadin the meantime become virtual subjects of theEast India Company. After the Sepoy Mutiny in1857, the last Nawab was exiled and British rulewas established in Lucknow. Lucknow is uniquein that it is one of the few Indian cities which usedthe meeting of two diverse cultures and the shiftof Nawabs by Mughals with their seat in Delhi tothe British with their seat in Calcutta.

Similar to the culture that existed in theeighteenth and nineteenth centuries Lucknow, thebuildings of this period present a medley of formswith both Mughal and European elements. Thebuilding of Lucknow built between 1720 and 1947can be divided safely under three heads-thosemade by the Nawabi aristocracy, those built byEuropean who came to India as traders andsoldiers and those that were constructed afterLucknow was taken over by the British raj. Despitethe fact that these buildings were built over aperiod of nearly 200 years, they all had onecommon concern: a demand for a new architecturethat was different to what existed before. For eachfaction of patrons the reason for this demand wasdifferent although for both, the Nawabs and theBritish architecture in Lucknow had a strongpolitical agenda.

4.1 Buildings by the Nawabs Aristocracy

For the Nawabs and other newly formedNawabi aristocracy architecture was a physicalmanifestation of their newly formed status. Thenew rulers of Lucknow wanted an architecture thatnot only symbolized their total dominance inAvadh, but also showed their severance from theMughal. For them it became important to developa new architecture vocabulary that could do bothof the above. They did this by patronizing theEuropean ideas that were infiltrating the Indian

Table 1. Recommended Day Light Factor for VariousBuildings

Building Area/Activity Day lightfactor(%)

Dwelling Kitchen 2.5Living room 0.625Study room 1.9Circulation 0.313

Schools Class room 1.9-3.8Laboratory 2.5-3.8

Offices General 1.9Drawing, typing 3.75Enquiry 0.625-1.9

Hospital General wards 1.25Pathology laboratory 2.5-3.75

Libraries Stack room 0.9-1.9Reading room 1.9-3.75Counter area 2.5-3.75Catalogue room 1.9-2.5


border. European ideas were also employed fortheir foreignness, novelty and a way of publiclyproclaiming their alignment to the new powerblock. It should be noted that the Nawabs wereprimarily Muslims and therefore their architecturestill portrayed all the basic principles of Islamicarchitecture, again with a difference. In India, anoverwhelming majority of Muslims have beenSunnis including the rulers. Thus the Sunni formof Islam was practiced and patronized. On theother hand the religion of the Shiya sect of Islamwas subdued. But the founder of the Nawabdynasty was a Shiya form Iran, as were thesubsequent Nawabs.

To immortalize this freedom of faith theyerected various Imambaras which were essentialand peculiar for their Shiite way of life. Imambarasare the places of mourning for the Shiya Muslimduring Moharam.

Imambara or Azarkhana literally means“the hose of mourning and represent a buildingspecifically built to facilitate the mourning ritualduring Moharam”. It also houses the insigniarelated with such ceremonies. Imambaras arespecial to Lucknow and they may range from asmall niche in a poor man’s house to elaboratecomplexes. There are many Imambaras inLucknow but the more famous are the AsfiImambara (Nawab Asaf-ud-daula: 1784),Husainabad Imambara (Nawab Mohammad AliShah: 1837) and Shah Nasaf Imambara (1814).Each Imambara is entered through large gardenand flanged by a mosque. These complexes laterincorporated the tomb of its patron. The Nawabsdeveloped this new building type form earlierMughal example of Tomb or Rauza. However,they become formal qualities of the building, likea tomb, derived from square and a cube. But thecentral hall of the Imambaras is more elongated.The Imambaras are sometimes roofed by domeand sometimes vaulted. The basic vocabulary andarchitecture of the Imambaras continued to be inthe tradition of the Islamic principles but with

necessary modifications as now they were brickand stucco instead of in stone like theirpredecessors.

The Avadh Rulers beginning fromMuhammad Amin Saadat Khan (1720-1739) toWajid Ali Shah (1847-1856) built manyfascinating structures in the magnificent cities ofFaizabad and Lucknow in the period of 1720 to1856. In Avadh Rulers era, the field of architecturesaw re-interpretation of the existing styles andexperimentation in the fusion of the western andthe eastern style of architecture. In the beginning,the buildings constructed by them were confinedto Faizabad alone. Later on the main centre ofarchitectural activity shifted to Lucknow.

Table 3. Avadh Rulers

Muhammad Amin Saadat Khan 1720-1739Abdul Mansur Khan Safdar Jung 1739-1754Suja-ud-Daula 1754-1775Asaf-ud-Daula 1775-1797Wazir Ali 1797-1798Saadat Ali Khan 1798-1814Gbazi-ud-din-Haidar 1814-1819Nasir-ud-din-Haider 1827-1837Muhammad Ali Shah 1837-1842Amjad Ali Shah 1842-1847Wajid Ali Shah 1847-1856

The buildings in Faizabad included: Tombof Bahu Begum, Gulab Bari and Moti Mahal.

The buildings in Lucknow included: BaraImambara, Rumi Darwaza, Asfi Masjid, ChhotaImambara, Shahnajaf Imambara, Tomb of SaadatAli Khan and Murseer Zadi, Tomb of AliyaBegam, Jama Masjid and Lal Baradari

Although detailed studies were undertakenin all the above buildings, in summary, we aredescribing one building that is Tomb of BahuBegum in Faizabad and Tomb of Aliya Begam inLucknow in details.

4.1.1 Tomb of Bahu Begum – Faizabad

The construction of the tomb of theUmmatual Zohra popularly known as Bahu


Begam (wife of Nawab Shuja-ud-daula), wasstarted by Darab Ali Khan (A.D. 1815) and heradvocate Panah Ali and completed by MirzaHaider. The tomb stands in the center within anenclosure wall made of lime plastered lakhuribricks. It is approached through a lofty (tall)gateway, while the outer complex is furtherenclosed by arched (curved) cells all along thewalls and can be approached through a triplegateway. The square structure is raised over aseries of cells. The grave (last resting place) is inthe center of this complex and is reached by apassage, while the main hall comprises Shah-n-Sheen with ritual object and the verandah on thesides flanked by four- storied minarets with fluteddomes on the decorated by inverted lotus alongwith petal designs on the bottom of the neck. Thewalls and ceilings of tomb are adorned withbeautiful succo designs painted in bright colours.

Openings

The builders have made specialarrangement for ventilation in the center room.They have made sloppy window on the top of thewall and they have made adjacent varandah withtwo room and the door of the both rooms open invarandah and for good cross ventilation they havemade an special curved window in such a waythat curve is directed toward the varandah bywhich they bend the air toward varandah and theyalso made small windows for air input and bigdoor for output of air by which they create pressuredifference and by which a cross ventilation isalways facilitated (Fig. 6).

High Roof

The height of building is about 10 m. Thistype of Architecture allows warm air to collect atthe top and stratification of warm air maintainscool air at the floor level, thus maintaining airtemperature in a comfortable zone and providegood Stack Effect.

Fig. 4. Tomb of Bahu Begum (Exterior and Interior)

Passive Concept Used in Tomb of Bahu Begam

There are various passive architecturaltechniques used in tomb such as curved roof, highroof, natural ventilation, massive thick wall andopenings.

Light color exterior: The tomb has light colourexteriors (Fig. 4 & 5).

Fig. 5. Light colour exterior

Fig. 6. Types of Openings in Tomb of Bahu Begam


Thick wall

The thickness of inner wall is 2.91 m andthickness of outer wall is 1.22 m due to this theU-values of the wall is very low and resistance ofthe walls are very high (Fig. 7).

Passive Concept used in Tomb of Aliya Begam

Curved Roofs

The advantage of this is that curved roofsreflect more radiation than flat roofs due to theirenlarged curved surface and reduced local radiantflux on a rounded surface and thus lower surfacetemperature. The other reason is that in these roofsdue to thermal stratification, all hot air within thebuilding with curved roofs gathers in space underthe roof, hence creating a significantly comfortablefeeling at the floor level. There is opening at topwhich provide way to escape for hot air collectedat the top (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7. Thick Walls of Tomb of Bahu Begam

Table 4. Physical Properties of the Tomb of Bahu Begum

Inner wall Outer Wall Roof

U-value (W/m2K) ~ 0.350 ~ 0.775 ~ 1.399R-value (m2K/W) ~ 2.865 ~ 1.291 ~ 0.715Time Lag (hours) ~ 80 ~ 33 ~ 16Decrement Factor ~ 1.970×10-8 ~ 0.0016 ~ 0.0735

4.1.2 Tomb of Aliya Begam: Lucknow

Sadr-al-Nisa’, known as “Nawab AliyaBegam” (c.1712–1796), was the eldest daughterof Sa′adat Khan (1680–1739). In 1724 she marriedher paternal cross-cousin, Safdar Jang (c.1708–1754).Tomb of Aliya Begam (Sadr-al-Nisa) wasbuilt by Safdar Jang and is located at Lucknow,City of Nawabs.

Table 5. Performance of Building of Tomb of Bahu Begum

Day Light Factor 1.9Max Inner temp. of Building (0C) 34Types of Ventilation Full Cross

Ventilation

Fig. 8. Curved Roofs in Tomb of Aliya Begam

High Roofs

The height of building is 12 m. This typeof architecture allow warm air to collect at the topand stratification of warm air maintains cool airat the floor level, thus maintaining air temperaturein a comfortable zone and provide good StackEffect.

Openings

The main features of the building are thatit has 24 doors and windows. Each door andwindow placed in such a way that each door andwindow are in front of each other so by this thebuilding has very good cross ventilation and windeffect. Due to the shape of building, wall shadingto each other and the whole wall never become


hot and produced cooling effect. Because of self-shading of building entire wall do not become hotin day time and create cooling effect and reduceindoor temperature up to 6ºC (Fig. 9).

Thick walls

The thickness of inner wall is 2.91 m andthickness of outer wall is 1.22 m. Due to this theU-values of the wall is very low and resistance ofthe walls are very high (Fig. 10).

seventies and early eighteenth century, initiallybuilt the buildings out of need. For the compositeclimate was something which needed getting usedof the climate were not only the climatic zone thatwas hot, warm and very light, but also a culturalzone that was different from their own. So creatingfamiliar environment which was safe from the‘natives’ was an important need for the European.Thus with the infiltrating foreigners in Lucknow,one sees the development of fortified andsegregated residential areas like MarionCantonment and Residency. Later with increasingfamiliarity, more elaborate, free-standing, villatype residency called the kothis were built.

The use of European architecturalvocabulary in these building reinforced thefamiliarity and satisfied the nostalgic lyrics of theforeigners. Interestingly, the European vocabularyfor both the Indian and European alike was not asynergic set of principals but a jumble of images(be it thirteenth century Gothic, fifteenth centuryFrench or contemporary British) transported toIndia by foreigner and only sometimessubstantiated by photograph and drawing. As theEuropean stuff was alien for the Indian, Indian artand architecture was fascinating for the foreigner.By the nineteenth century they were freely, usinglocal ‘India’ motifs and element to decorate theirbuildings and to create a fanciful image that wasaesthetic and picturesque. However, the playfulexchange was either mere ornamentation that didnot go more than deep or was a case of directduplication. The assimilation of Indian andEuropean ideas in architecture happened muchwhen Lucknow was taken over by the British afterthe Sepoy Mutiny in 1857.

Lucknow before the advent of the Nawabirule, was in its Indian culture and form, an Islamiccity with a dense urban fabric in which wereembedded courtyard as the basic domestic form.These were inward oriented buildings andfavoured for their climatic suitability in tropicalclimate. Furthermore, they provided safety from

Fig. 9. Openings in Tomb of Aliya Begam

Fig. 10. Thick Walls in Tomb of Aliya Begam

Table 6. Physical Properties of the Tomb of Aliya Begum

Inner wall Outer Wall Roof

U-value(W/m2K) ~ 0.3490 ~ 0.775 ~ 1.399R-value(m2K/W) ~ 2.865 ~ 1.291 ~ 0.715Time Lag(hours) ~ 79 ~ 33 ~ 16Decrement Factor ~1.970x10-8 ~ 0.0016 ~ 0.073

Table 7. Performance of the Tomb of Aliya Begum

Day Light Factor 1.8Max Inner temp. of Building(0C) 39Types of Ventilation Full Cross

Ventilation

5. European BuildingsThe Europeans, mostly French and British

who came as traders and soldiers to India in late


outside attack. These houses and the urban fabricwere challenged by the European type kothis nowfavoured by the Nawabs and the elite. These freestanding, centrally organized, and verticallystacked buildings with dominant facades, unlikethe earlier residences had demanded a spacearound them to be viewed. The designs of thesekothis are either villas picked up from importedpattern books, like the Dilkusha Palace (designedby Gore Ouseley for Nawab Saadat Ali Khan in1800) which is a copy of Seaton Delaval (designedby Sir John Vanbrugh for Admiral George Delavalin 1717) in Northumberland, Britain, or they arebuilding assembled together using various elementfrom Indian and European sources like LaMartiniere College. Whereas the Imambarasprojected an Islamic exterior these kothis lookedEuropean. La Martiniere College, designed byClaude Martin as his residence and tomb in 1798,has the plan of Palladian villa with the exteriorarticulated by pilasters of classical columns andstatues imported from France. But, althoughsurface articulation and planning makes thebuilding European, on closely examination thebuilding one sees a miniature plan of Taj Mahalembedded within. In more than one instance, onesees that the nineteenth century builder wasminutely reading the Mughal structures but wasstill not able to integrate it in his designs. Thesekothis like Chhatar Manzil formed the mainresidences of the Nawabs and were the heart oftheir elaborate palace complexes. These buildingsare: Dilkusha Kothi, La Martiniere College,Chhatar Manzil, Residency, Kaisarbagh Baradari

Although detailed studies were undertakenin all the above buildings, in summary, we aredescribing La Martiniere College in details.

5.1 Constantia (La Martiniere College)

The relationship between the Frenchentrepreneur Claude Martin and Nawab Asaf-ud-Daulah gained for the city of Lucknow a reputationand position of significance for its architecture that

is unparalleled. The city which was quite unknownand under-developed suddenly shot into limelightfor its grand buildings like the Asafi Imambaraand Rumi Gate built by the Nawab and for theEuropean style of buildings that started appearingat the outskirts of the city which were mostlydesigned and constructed by Claude Martin.However, as fate would have it, one such building,even before its construction, proved a ‘bone ofcontention’ between the two great personalitiesof their time.

Fig. 11. Site Plan of La Martiniere College

The building in dispute was the ‘Mansionof Constantia’ (Fig. 11), which Martin planned tobuild on the banks of the river Gomti, at theextreme eastern end of the city, at a place calledLakhpeda for one lakh trees said to be plantedthere. When Martin divulged his plans to theNawab, he was so fascinated with it that he offeredone lakh ashrafi (gold coins) for it. It was just achance that the Nawab failed to fortify the offerwith an advance and the mansion remained theproperty of Claude Martin.

The Nawab pressed for its possession onseveral occasions having been obsessed by it.Meanwhile, Martin also had second thoughts onthe idea of selling the building when he intendedto make it the ‘finale’ of his architectural exploits.His buildings were indeed exploits because oftypical innovations that were done by Martin intheir design and construction. Major GeneralClaude Martin fearing the forcible take-over ofConstantia by the Nawab or his descendants


designed an underground vault as a mausoleumfor the burial of his mortal remains and made aspecific Will for this purpose.

In his Will, he also made endowments forestablishing three educational Institutions forboys, at Lyons in France (his birth place), atCalcutta and at Lucknow, where it was to beestablished in the Constantia complex. Today thisis the ‘La Martiniere College’ for boys, but itspopular name and address still remains as MartinSaheb ki Kothi in Martin Purwa locality, beyondBanarsi Bagh (Fig. 12).

The building which got its name from themotto of Claude Martin ‘Lahore et Constantia’inscribed on its exterior towards east is a six storiedbuilding (including basement) and has anarrangement of four wells which were sunk 30feet below the water level of the river. The wellsculminate as octagonal towers at the top. They arealso meant to cool the basement of the mainbuilding.

Constantia is a unique combination of abanquet hall, a mausoleum, a mansion, a palaceand a fortress with intricate defense arrangements.One of its attractions is an Obelisk which waserected later. It is a 125 feet high majestic flutedcolumn erected on low ground. It presents abeautiful sight when surrounded with wateraccumulated due to rains or the back flow of theriver. It is ironical that Europeans themselves didnot find the Constantia in good taste. JamesFerguson who is considered an authority onEastern architecture, calls the design ‘somewhat

fantastic in arrangement which sins against therules of pure Palladian Art to an extent that wouldnot be pardonable except in such climate and underthe peculiar circumstances in which it waserected’. Similarly, John Pemble commentingabout the Western influence on the Lucknowarchitecture refers to Constantia as a ‘bizarrepalace’ and reflects that ‘Martin’s main concernin designing this palace seems to have been toincorporate as many different architectural motifsas he could remember and the result is a weirdjumble of classic columns, arches, pediments andbalustrades, with Gothic battlements, turrets andstatues and heraldic lions’. However, thereafterin the next line, he admits its grandeur.

Even today, Constantia is undoubtedly oneof the most spectacular European building and onethat is quite well preserved. The La MartiniereCollege administration deserves accolades fortheir efforts in this direction and for keeping theConstantia in its original form as built in its firstphase in 1800 and later in 1840 when additionalstructures were added as were planned by ClaudeMartin.

Claude Martin must indeed be given duecredit for utilizing local talent in ail hisconstructions. He thus, dispelled the prevalentmyth that anything out of the ordinary could onlybe built by the Europeans. In fact, he left emphaticinstructions that after his death, Constantia shouldbe completed by two of his faithful native servants,Mutchoo and Chhota Qadir, who were brothersand who according to Martin ‘were well

Fig. 12. Panoramic View of La Martiniere College


acquainted how and in what mode I carry thesebuildings, as well as in buying materials or inpaying the workmen’.

Passive Concept used in La Martiniere College

Vegetation and Water bodies

Building is situated near the river bank ofGomti and surrounded by the vegetation by whichis become cool in summer by evaporation processfrom both river and vegetation.

High Roofs

Roofs of the building are very high so itfacilitates good Stack effect in the building.

Fig. 13. Vegetation and Water bodies in La MartiniereCollege

Light Colour Exteriors

Building is light coloured which has lowabsorption and high reflectivity so building doesnot become hot in the summer.

Fig. 14. Light Colour Exteriors of La Martiniere College

Openings

Size of the windows and doors are verylarge by which it facilitate very good day lightfactor and ventilation.

Fig. 15. Openings in La Martiniere College

Fig. 16. High Roofs of La Martiniere College

Wind Tower

They have created wind tower in thebuilding for cooling the basement of the buildingin which the tomb of the Martinera is placed thatis very good for fresh air supply in the basementand also cooling the basement of building.

Fig. 17. Wind Tunnels in La Martiniere College

Table 8. Physical Properties of La Martiniere College

Wall Roof

U-value(W/m2K) ~ 0.875 ~ 1.399R-value(m2K/W) ~ 1.191 ~ 0.715Time Lag(hours) ~ 30 ~ 14Decrement Factor ~ 0.0013 ~ 0.063

Table 9. Performance of the Tomb of La Martiniere College


Ventilation

6. British BuildingsThe conquest of India after the Sepoy

Mutiny in 1857 changed the general political and


thereby architecture scenario. Initially in the lateeighteenth and early nineteenth century usinganything foreign, Indian or European, wasexperimentation with novelty. But by the latenineteenth century the British had made a carefulstudy of India, which included a study of art andarchitecture, thereby dispelling all romance thatshrouded the mind and judgment of the eighteenthcentury Briton. Added to this was their politicalagenda of being the next legitimate rulers of acountry earlier ruled by the mighty Mughals. Indiaand her cultural past became a part of the Britishand Indian history. Now the knowledge aboutIndia was used to construct the notion of an empirethat was both romantic and critical, depending onwhether its purpose was to show off triumphs andglories of the colonizers or to offer an excuse fortheir colonization.

In either case there was a systematic studyand integration under the head of Indian styles(which included temples from both North andSouth India, buildings of the Mughals and the earlyMuslim rulers, etc). The British thus presentedIndia with the Indo (India) - Saracenic style thatrepresented her own heritage.

The British Rulers beginning from 1857to 1947 built many fascinating structures in themagnificent city of Lucknow. There are fewbuildings in Lucknow built by the British Rulers,which are typical examples of the Britisharchitecture in India. The examples of thesebuildings are: University of Lucknow, CharbaghRailway Station and King George’s MedicalUniversity

Although detailed studies were undertakenin all the above buildings, in summary, we aredescribing the University of Lucknow in details.

6.1 University of Lucknow

The idea of starting a University atLucknow was first mooted by Raja SirMohammad Ali Mohammad Khan, Khan Bahadur,

K.C.I.E. of Mahmudabad, who contributed anarticle to the columns of “The Pioneer’’ urgingthe foundation of a University at Lucknow. A littlelater Sir Harcourt Butler, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E, wasappointed Lieutenant-Governor of the UnitedProvinces, and his well-known interest in allmatters under his jurisdiction, especially in matterseducational, gave fresh life and vigor to theproposal. The first step to bring the University intobeing was taken when a General Committee ofeducationists and persons interested in universityeducation appointed for the purpose, met inconference at Government House, Lucknow, onNovember, 10, 1919. At this meeting Sir HarcourtButler, who was in the chair, outlined the proposedscheme for the new university. A discussionfollowed, and it was resolved that LucknowUniversity should be a Unitary, Teaching, andResidential University of the kind recommendedby the Calcutta University Mission, 1919, andshould consist of Faculties of Arts, includingOriental Studies, Science, Medicine, Law, etc. Anumber of other resolutions were also passed andsix sub-committees were formed, five of them toconsider questions connected with the Universityand one to consider the arrangements for providingIntermediate Education. These sub-committeesmet during the months of November andDecember, 1919, and January, 1920; and thereports of their meetings were laid before a secondConference of the General Committee at Lucknowon January 26, 1920; their proceedings wereconsidered and discussed, and the reports of fiveof the sub-committees were, subject to certainamendments, confirmed. The question ofincorporation of the Medical College in theUniversity, however, was for the time being leftopen for expression of opinion. At the close ofthe Conference donations of one lakh each fromthe Raja of Mahmudabad and Jahangirabad wereannounced.

The resolutions of the first Conferencetogether with the recommendations of the sub-committees as confirmed at the second Conference


were laid before a meeting of the AllahabadUniversity on March 12, 1920, and it was decidedto appoint a sub-committee to consider them andreport to the Senate. The report of the sub-committee was considered at an extraordinarymeeting of the Senate on August 7, 1920, at whichthe Chancellor presided, and the scheme wasgenerally approved. In the meantime the difficultyof incorporating the Medical College in theUniversity had been removed. During the monthof April 1920, Mr. C.F. de la Fosse, the thenDirector of Public Instruction, United Provinces,drew up a Draft Bill for the establishment of theLucknow University which was introduced in theLegislative Council on August 12, 1920. It wasthen referred to a Select Committee whichsuggested a number of amendments, the mostimportant being the liberalizing of the constitutionof the various University bodies and the inclusionof a Faculty of Commerce; this Bill, in an amendedform, was passed by the Council on October 8,1920. The Lucknow University Act, No. V of1920, received the assent of the Lieutenant-Governor on November 1, and of the Governor-General on November 25, 1920.

The Court of the University wasconstituted in March, 1921, and the first meetingof the Court was held on March 21, 1921, at whichthe Chancellor presided. The other Universityauthorities such as the Executive Council, theAcademic Council, and Faculties came intoexistence in August and September, 1921. OtherCommittees and Boards, both statutory andotherwise, were constituted in course of time. OnJuly 17, 1921, the University undertook teaching— both formal and informal. Teaching in theFaculties of Arts, Science, Commerce, and Lawwere being done in the Canning College andteaching in the Faculty of Medicine in the KingGeorge’s Medical College and Hospital. TheCanning College was handed over to theUniversity on July 1, 1922, although previous tothis date the buildings, equipment, staff, etc.,belonging to the Canning College had been

ungrudgingly placed at the disposal of theUniversity for the purposes of teaching andresidence. The King George’s Medical Collegeand the King George’s Hospital were transferredby the Government to the University on the March1, 1921.

The following three Colleges provided thenucleus for the establishment of the University:

• The King George’s Medical College. (NowKnown as King George’s Medical University)

• The Canning College (Lucknow University).

• The Isabella Thoburn College.

This was a rich inheritance for the new-born University in 1920, both materially andintellectually, and it brought with it also the richestof all heritages “a fine tradition of some fifty-fiveyears in the case of the Canning College and somenine years in the case of the King George’sMedical College.” To this the generous taluqdarsof Avadh added an endowment of nearly thirtylakhs. The support from Sir Harcourt Butler’sGovernment was strong and hearty. Since then theGovernment of the United Provinces has annuallycontributed a substantial share towards themaintenance of the University.

Passive Concepts used inUniversity of Lucknow

High and Domed Roofs

Heights of the buildings are about 20 feetwhich facilitate very well Stack effect in buildings.

Fig. 18. High and Domed Roofs of University of Lucknow


Openings on the Top

There are openings on the rooftop of thebuilding by which Chimney effect in the buildingcreates and removes the hot air collected in thetop of the roof and create a space for the new freshair in the bottom and make a continuous flow ofthe fresh air. It also facilitates the day lighting inbuildings.

Thick walls

Walls of the University of Lucknow arevery thick by which they prevent thermal heattransfer from atmosphere to buildings, and timelag is very high and decrement factor is low.

Chajjas all around the Buildings

Buildings are surrounded by chajjas on thewindows and roofs by which windows and wallsof the buildings do not become so hot.

Cluster Pattern of the Roofs

The roofs of the buildings are clustered soas to provide shadings of the buildings.

Table 10. Physical Properties of the University of Lucknow

Wall Roof

U-value(W/m2K) ~ 0.965 ~ 1.717R-value(m2K/W) ~ 1.009 ~ 0.521Time Lag(hours) ~ 25 ~ 11Decrement Factor ~ 0.0074 ~ 0.083

Table 11. Performance of the University of Lucknow


Ventilation

7. ConclusionDuring the study of this project, we have

found that in Avadh buildings mostly used solarpassive concept are domed roofs, heavy mass ofthe buildings, thick walls of the buildings, placingof the of the doors and windows in such a waythat each door and window is placed in front ofthe each other, etc. In Avadh buildings, we havefound that provisions of water bodies has been apredominant factor which has been more or lessabsent in the European and British buildings.

In British buildings mostly used solarpassive concepts are clustered roofs, heavy massof the buildings, thick walls of the buildings,openings on the top of the roofs and clusteredpatterns of the roofs and provision for chajjas inbuildings of the British era. This means that thebuilders have modified the openings on the top ofthe roofs and added the chajjas in the buildingsand they have modified the placing of the doorsand windows.

The main features of solar passive heatingand cooling techniques from Avadh ArchitecturalBuildings to European Architectural Buildings andBritish Architectural Buildings are summarized inthe Table 12.

Fig. 19. The Openings at the Roofs of the University of Lucknow


Table 12. Solar Passive Concepts – Changing Trends from Avadh Buildings to European/British Buildings

S No Solar Passive Avadh Buildings European Buildings British BuildingsConcepts

1. Roof Parabolic dome type roofs. Slightly curved roofs. Slightly curved roof withdome on the roofs.

2. Walls Thicker walls with Lakhori Thicker walls but not so Thicker, not as thick asbricks, some buildings have thick as Avadh buildings, European buildings.cavities in walls. wind tower concept

integrated with the walls.

3. Windows and Symmetrically placed and Large windows with Large windows withDoors large windows with concrete Roshandans and large Roshandans and large doors,

jalis. Some buildings have doors, asymmetrical asymmetrical arrangementsmall curved windows placed arrangement of windows of windows and doorson walls (Jharokha) for cross and doorsventilation.

4. Floor Elevated floors Not so elevated Slightly elevated

5. Colours Mostly white or pale Mostly white or pale Mostly white or paleExteriors

6. Colours Mostly white Mostly white Mostly whiteInteriors

7. High thermal High thermal mass and night High thermal mass and High thermal mass and nightmass with night ventilation by the Roshandans night ventilation by ventilation by Roshandansventilation and Jharokhas Roshandans

8. Chajjas Not present widely Started using Chajjas Present widely

9. Acoustics Small concept use in these Not much focus on Main emphasis on acousticsbuildings acoustics of the building of the buildings

10. R- values of ~1.530 ~1.005 ~1.010the wall(m2K/W)

11. R- values of the ~0.715 ~0.515 ~0.520Roof(m2K/W)

12. U- values of the ~0.560 ~0.965 ~0.975wall (W/m2K)

13. U-values of the ~1.400 ~1.730 ~1.720roof (W/m2K)

14. Vegetation Dense vegetation around the Not so dense vegetation Not so dense vegetationbuilding around the building around the building

15. Water bodies Water bodies present in excess Not much arrangement Not much arrangement ofof water bodies water bodies

16. Day lighting Good day lighting Very good day lighting Very good day lighting

17. Openings on Openings are placed on Openings are placed on Openings are placed on thethe top parabolic dome of the roof top of the wall roof with shading(Roshandan) (Mostly curved) (Small windows)

18. Buffer Zones Widely available Not much available Not much availablein buildings


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