Urban Geography

No. Title Page1 Chapter 1: Urbanization 22 Chapter 2: Suburbanization 33 Chapter 3: Counter-urbanization 54 Chapter 4: Gentrification 65 Chapter 5: Primate City 76 Chapter 6: Myrdal’s Cumulative Causation Model 107 Chapter 7: Global City / World City 118 Chapter 8: Bid Rent Theory 129 Chapter 9: CBD Dynamics 14

10 Chapter 10: Influences on the City Structure 1811 Chapter 11: Influences on the Urban Structure 2112 Chapter 12: Responses to Urbanization 2313 Chapter 13: Urban Transport 26

Urban Geography

Chapter 1: Urbanization

6.3 General Idea Urbanization increasing on global scale as more people stay in built-up areas, more

rural areas transformed into urban areas, rate of urbanization in LDCs outgrow those in DCs

Hence people become more urbane

1.2 Definitions Urbanization: process by which an increasing number of people live in towns and

cities, contributed by rural-urban migration and by natural increase (twin processes) within urban areas

Rate of urbanization: how fast people move to, or are being born in, urban areas in a country

Level of urbanization: present amount of people already in urban areas in a country

1.3 History DCs

o 1800s: Industrial revolutiono 1920s: rapid transformation with population growth rates in cities

outstripping those in rural areaso Peaked in 1950s: >70% population living in built areaso 1960s: cities too crowded, diseconomies of scale set in leading to

suburbanization and counter-urbanizationo Eg: US high urbanization levels – 80% population housed in cities

LDCso Colonial times: resources focused at ports while rest of country primarily

agrarian, restrictions as to who could reside in the city which inhibited growth in cities

o Accelerated after WW2, after independence: industrial emphasis – attract MNCs, high rural-urban migration rates eg. Mexico City up to 1000 migrants per day in 70s

o Eg. Peru 1 major city hosting 35% population Different levels of urbanization between DCs and LDCs

o DCs much longer history and most people already live in urban areaso City sizes in LDCs would eventually catch up and overtake those in DCs

Different city sizes between DCs and LDCso Focus on 1 or 2 cities in LDCs

Legacy from colonial era 1 or 2 cities absorb most of population growth primate cities High rates of urbanization

Urban Geography

Chapter 2: Suburbanization

2.1 General Idea Movement of people from city centre to city-edge to escape from congestion and

overcrowding in city and to enjoy better quality of life More prevalent in DCs and to middle class people due to their higher mobility

2.2 Enabling Factor – Influence of Transport Transport routes affect city growth sectorally due to advent of highways / freeways Rise of affluent class and private car ownership eg. average American middle class

has 2 cars Eg. East Coast Park condo belt due to highway

2.3 Urban Sprawl Uncontrolled expansion of city centre to its outskirts Growing socio-economic disconnections between city centre and outskirts

o Economic: poor people tend to live and get stuck in city centre but rich can move to suburban areas

o Social: people in city have poor quality housing, leading to insular and isolationistic attitude to the city because city is full of crime and social problems

o Political: poor and rich tend to vote differently eg. poor: Democrat, rich: Republican

Engulfs farmlands and invades into rural territories causing loss of jobs in rural sector eg. London sprawl engulfed much of the rich arable land surrounding it

2.4 Consequences of Suburbanization Social

o Segregation: rich/poor, social, racial Exclusion of the poor eg. building of airport but cannot afford to buy

land from rich so they build it where the poor live Urban dualism: coexistence of 2 dichotomous functional areas within

the city Economic: rich-poor Social: indigenous-foreign

Social marginalization Eg. Gay village: need to find a place with sense of community,

like-mindedness “Gated community” eg. Cutteslowe Wall

Racial segregation Eg. Chinatown in San Francisco: law excluding Chinese from

suburbs so Chinatown is where they can stay Ghettos: urban district containing a high proportion of 1

ethnic group

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“White flight”o Lack community spirit: cold and class conscious

Economico Hollowing out of city centre, loss of businesseso Increase in local taxes to support larger numbers of poor peopleo Formation of new growth poles: smaller cities for lower order needs

Environmentalo Can lead to urban sprawl

Congestion eg. US no efficient public transport system so people drive Slums, shanty towns eg. Mexico Improper waste management

Political: change in electorate as makeup of population changes

2.5 Measures to Contain Suburbanization Green belts (refer to Chapter 12) Gentrification (refer to Chapter 4) Urban renewal (refer to Chapter 9) Re-urbanization: attempt to attract people back into the city Re-imaging (refer to Chapter 9) Create separate, self-sufficient new towns (refer to Chapter 12) and growth poles Self-help program eg. Apple Tree Court (refer to Chapter 12)

Urban Geography

Chapter 3: Counter-Urbanization

3.1 General Idea Extreme form of suburbanization: upper-middle class flight from cities into secluded

surroundings Largely a DC phenomenon but may occur in LDCs eg. Indonesia’s transmigration

program forced movement from urban to rural (Sulawesi) Indicated by extremely inverted pyramids of retirement villages: overrepresentation

of young adults and retirees Eg. Slapton Village, Devon, UK: retirement village that has no electricity and

newspapers to offer total escape form urban life

3.2 Consequences Economic

o Need to buy properties when they move over so increase in property priceso Increase employment: people might buy over / set up businesseso Increase in demand for services: retail, medicine, educationo Increase in tourism

Socialo Might reverse population declineo Reduce social problems attributed to rural people who are less intellectual

and older Environmental

o Increase stress on the environmento Weekend traffic need to build more roads

3.3 Application to Singapore Possibility of counter-urbanization in offshore islands STB plans to redevelop some of these islands, catering mainly to the upper-middle

class than the working class (waterfront housing, Bali-like resorts) But lure of continuing urbanization, ecotourism

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Chapter 4: Gentrification

4.1 General Idea Process by which run-down houses in an inner city or other neglected area are

redeveloped into higher-end businesses and housingo New uses: cafes, restaurants, bars, upmarketo Eg. CHIJMES: used to be old church but now entertainment quarter

Change the function of the building without drastically altering its outlook Yuppie-oriented (Young Urban Professionals)

4.2 Consequences Economic

o Expensive rent since target market are white-collar professionals Cultural / social

o Buildings may be protected to preserve heritageo Poor, old, minority pushed out

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Chapter 5: Primate City

5.1 General Idea Largest city in the country with a population more than twice of the 2nd largest city Focal point of country’s socio-economic growth, high command control Can shape country’s culture through cultural hegemony and dominance eg. Javanese

dominate politics, business, culture in Jakarta LDCs much higher primacies than DCs eg. Bangkok (60x larger than Chiang Mai):

world’s largest primate city Binary distribution: 2 very large cities of roughly the same population and the size of

each of them is more than 2x the next largest eg. Madrid and Barcelona, Spain Difficult to decentralize / become non-primate Dual economy

o Formal economy: foreign-owned and produces goods and services for eliteo Informal economy: small trade and service establishments, crafts

5.2 Reasons to Move into City Push factors

o Rural population explosion due to lack of birth controls / eg. Pope does not allow Catholics to use birth controls

o Fall in agricultural productivityo Lack healthcare and sanitationo Transport inefficient: roads unpavedo Business few buyers

Pull factors: employment, entertainment, accessibility, healthcare, education

5.3 Positive Consequences Focus growth on one area

o Make use of limited resources effectively to develop one city than to spread it out to many smaller towns

o Greater multiplier effect Some ‘spread effects’ on other areas eg. suburbanization of Mexico City benefited

surrounding towns Channel for modernization due to concentrations of capital accumulation and

circulation Trickle down and benefit poorer in-migrants

o Welfare and self-help schemes increased socio-economic opportunities for poor

o Eg. Cingapura project in Brazil lifted many squatters out of poverty through self-help schemes, educational grants, literacy courses

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5.4 Negative Consequences Economic

o Backwash effect and dual economy effect Capital locked and circulated inside primate city causing backwash

effect to be too strong for any trickle-down Smaller towns not given ample opportunities to grow, subsidiary to

primate city and heavily dependent on ito Unemployment / underemployment

Eg. Jakarta’s unemployment rate rose by 14% per annum in 2000s Most jobs lowly paid – exploitation of cheap labour Underutilized labour disguise full magnitude of unemployment Limited labour demands due to advent of machinery Dependent on informal sectors: no welfare payments / social security Child labour: no time to go to school – drop out – low level of

education – no money (vicious cycle of poverty) Environment

o Congestion: more vehicles than roadso Pollution and waste management

No sewage system Eg. Mexico City’s sewage system flows into open rivers to farming

areas – lead content of food and vegetables 2x that of US and high enough to impair mental and physical development of newborns

Socialo Inadequate access to basic amenities

Poor hygiene and sanitary conditions Eg. <40% of Jakarta’s population has access to running water

o Housing problems Parachute settlements: on marginal land / dumping ground

o Segregation: invasion of areas once occupied by richo Hunger: malnutrition and food shortages

Poor spend up to 80% of income on food and food prices risingo High infant mortality rate eg. Dhaka IMR of 104 per thousando Deteriorating quality of life: misery and disrupted family life

Politicalo Severe unequal income distributiono Economy vulnerable, hinders social and human development, cause of

political division Eg. Thailand’s rural poor and their complaints to the government of

their appalling conditions led to demonstrations in Bangkok

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5.5 What Has Been Done Controlling urban development

o Bangkok: laissez-faire: government neither plans nor controlso Cairo: government tries to keep urban sprawl from encroaching into farms

October Six established to accommodate migrants but highly inaccessible since poor have no cars

Providing basic amenitieso Eg. Mexico City: trucks bring water to people who live in places without

water, gives ownership of land to illegal migrants Provide housing

o Eg. Mexico City: self-help schemes to set up low-cost homes Reduce congestion

o Eg. Mexico City: limit car usage by forbidding each car from use on one day of the week

Cars are colour-coded but people simply buy more cars Emission controls

Managing wasteo Eg. Mexico City: organizes collection of trash but does not treat it, build

tunnels instead of open sewers Alleviating food shortages

o Grow more food in cities eg. China but in South Africa most food grown in cities is stolen

5.6 Alternative Viewpoint to Primate Cities Can solve a lot of global problems Informal economy

o Provides 60% of employment in LDCso Enterprising areas: people create their own jobso Eg. 1/6 of India’s GDP from Mumbai

Wealth creatorso Billions climbing out of povertyo Women have opportunities: no gender discrimination

Urban Geography

Chapter 6: Myrdal’s Cumulative Causation Model

6.1 Stage 1: Initial Growth 1 area of concentrated growth in terms of commerce, trade, finance Strategic geographical point (eg. port) with high accessibility City grows economically and gains a built-in momentum of growth

o More jobs – more spending – higher standard of living – attracts investments Massive rural-urban migration, leading to higher crucial mass for employment,

consumption and exchange Eg. Bangkok in early 1900s

6.2 Stage 2: Backwash Effect Over-concentration of socio-economic activities at the expense of other cities Surrounding towns cannot compete Eg. Bangkok in the 70s to present

6.3 Stage 3: Spread Effects Diseconomies of scale sets in, causing main city’s wealth to trickle down to

surrounding cities Surrounding towns now benefit in terms of population redistribution, economic

opportunities Suburbanization and counter-urbanization balance out initial uneven distribution Eg. LA, London

6.4 Limitations Assumes last stage will occur but does not say when

o Dependent on time or governmento Role of government: build infrastructure out of cities, provide housing in

outskirts

6.5 Usefulness How primate cities form Why over-urbanization exists in cities Causes of large, mega cities Rich / poor divide in urban areas

Urban Geography

Chapter 7: Global City / World City

7.1 General Idea Global cities have a direct and tangible effect on global affairs through more than

just socio-economic means, with influence in terms of culture or politics ‘Big four’ world cities: London, New York City, Paris and Tokyo Goal of building a ‘world-class’ city obsession with governments of some mid-sized

cities like Singapore

7.2 Characteristics and Functions International first-name familiarity International financial institutions that have considerable influence over world

economy eg. New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) Advanced communications infrastructure that modern TNCs rely on World-renowned cultural institutions (museums, universities) eg. Harvard Lively cultural scene eg. Toronto International Film Festival Several powerful and influential media outlets eg. New York Times Strong sporting community (talents and facilities) eg. 2012 Olympics hosted in

London Active influence on and participation in international events and world affairs eg. UN Advanced transportation system eg. major international airlines Several international cultures and communities eg. Chinatown, Little Italy

7.3 Origin* Agricultural Revolution: process of people grouping together to carry out businesses Rebirth of cities in Europe during 16th century as capitalism led to development of

commercial cities like London Industrial revolution accelerated urbanization over the world 1950s: acceleration of globalization process with rapid growth in world trade and

investment 20th century: rapid growth in world’s population with the emergence of many large

cities 1970s: world cities were emerging as globalization began to have significant effect

on urban areas

7.4 Other Issues* Global cities are so connected to each other that they are disconnected from their

national contextso Manhattan, London and Tokyo have more in common with each other than

with other cities in their respective countrieso Distinct hierarchy of financial functions, with many lower order activities

being decentralized

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o Social polarization of occupational and income structures whereby there is an absolute growth at both the top and bottom ends of the distribution and decline in the middle

o Decline in traditional manufacturing and growth of low skilled service jobs

Chapter 8: Bid Rent Theory

8.1 General Idea Relationship between land use and proximity to CBD Most valuable and profitable land use nearest to CBD, based on ability to bid for

office space

8.2 Peak Land Value Intersection (PLVI) Intersection of streets in the CBD where land is the most expensive Higher the accessibility, higher the land value

o Changes in accessibility due to private transport as opposed to public transport explains why areas on edge of town are often more accessible than inner areas

o Eg. New York in mid-1920s: peak land values $22000 per foot of street frontage on Broadway while half a mile away, land values were less than $3000 per foot

8.3 Application to Singapore Shenton Way (finance), Orchard Road (retail), North Bridge Road (light

manufacturing), Redhill (lower income residential), Bukit Timah (higher income residential), Tuas (heavy manufacturing)

8.4 Strengths of Theory Explains why financial and commercial activities are always concentrated in most

accessible and central parts of city as they can afford to bid for the highest rents Explains why industrial activities further away: no need to bid for most central place Explains housing density

o People who cannot afford to commute have to live near to CBD where due to higher land values, they can only obtain small plots

o People who can afford to commute are able to live nearer the city boundary where due to lower land values, they can buy much larger plots of land

8.5 Criticisms of Theory Cannot explain exceptions

o Residential uses found within CBD Urban village: small residential area within city usually with a unique

identity Eg. Chinatown

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Not paying market rate rentals Rent controls (by law cannot increase rent) Rent subsidy Own the land

o Financial activities in suburbs Assumes monocentric perception

o Reality: polycentrism Eg. Shenton Way and Orchard Usually peaks occur at intersecting transport routes Multi-nuclei effect, with each growth pole having its own bid-rent

curve Constrained by time, imperfect information and imperfect competition Land and property markets constrained by regulatory and fiscal controls by

intervention of special interest groups like preservationists and tenants’ associations Lack of dynamic component

8.6 Factors Affecting Property Values Not everything can be explained by economic reasons Proximity to utility clusters: shopping centres, MRT, good schools Proximity to CBD Orientation: NS more expensive because there is no sun Height Environmental consideration: pollution eg. highest concentration of dengue cases in

the east Superstition: feng shui Perception of place View

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Chapter 9: CBD Dynamics

9.1 General Idea Confluence of activities with the highest accessibility Distinctive area housed within the central area which possesses a specific

concentration of administrative, financial and political functions Greatest challenge: not to overdevelop at the expense of preserving history and

heritage CBD changes with time: assimilation zone (direction CBD moving towards) and

discard zone (direction from which CBD is moving away)

9.2 Application US

o CBD: downtown Manhattan (financial district)o Zone of transition: Harlem, Bronx (older residential area)o City: New York City

Singaporeo 1st CBD: Shenton Wayo 2nd CBD: Suntec / Marina areao Suburban CBDs: Tampines, Woodlands, Jurong East, Seletar

9.3 Functions of the CBD Most crucial financial (retail), commercial, political (parliaments, high courts)

functionso May include residential activities

Old residential: urban villages, new residential: high-end condoso Specialist retailing activities: attract customers off the street and generally

occupy ground floor of buildings which face main thoroughfare Attracts socio-economic consumption, exchange and production due to advantages

reaped from agglomeration economies as a result of clustering of essential activitieso Reputation of area for a particular activity ensure its continued importance

Socio-cultural exchange: large mix of people from various walks of lifeo Eg. many office people from different nationalities congregate at Boat Quay

for social interaction and business networking

9.4 Parts of CBD Inner core: intensive land use (upward extensions), high rental values, high value

commercial functions Outer core: suburbs

o New retail centres established lead to disappearance of small shopso Viability of small shops threatened by increased sales of food and other

convenience goods on petrol station forecourts (extensive opening hours – 24h)

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Zone of transition: some residential areas, may include slums, some industrial usageo Mixed zone of old and newer land use, with areas of discard

9.5 Re-imaging of the CBD CBD expansion: single to multiple CBDs

o City grows and possible urban sprawl – demand for more services – need to have secondary CBDs to cater to such growing demands

o Spread out growth so that populations to prevent overdevelopmento If monocentric, rents will soaro Eg. Downtown at Marina Bay

Urban renewal / redevelopmento Demolish buildings which have lost its commercial value and build new oneso Building of large undercover shopping precincts and redesigning of the street

layout to segregate pedestrian and vehicle flowso Popular strategy in Singapore due to space constraints, but many old and

historic buildings have to give way to modernityo Eg. North/ South Bridge areas in Singapore

Gentrification (refer to Chapter 4) 12 to 24h CBD

o Increase vibrancy in cityo Increase economic activities after office hours eg. Manchester 2005: 20% of

weekly takings made between 6pm to 8pmo Creating corridors of activities

Gentrification Itinerant markets: bazaars, food stalls that come to life only in

evening but depends on draw value of such activitieso Creation of integrated hubs of activity

Plethora of retail, commercial, tourism and leisure-based activities Draw localized people (those working within CBD), local people,

tourists for consumption and leisureo Problems

Youth culture linked to crime, noise and anti-social behaviour Violent behaviour and disorder in and around pubs and clubs on

weekend nights – public health, criminal justice and urban management problem

Cleaning up of large quantities of litter from night-time economy Accessibility and security issues: availability of buses, safety of car

parks Good urban design

o Enhance the way the city functions and the way we feel about the cityo Eg. Paris: winding medieval streets and spectacular tree-lined boulevards and

sidewalk cafes

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o Eg. Singapore’s lighting plan at Marina Centre, Singapore River corridor and Raffles Place to enhance Singapore’s unique features as a tropical metropolis and garden city

Adaptive reuseo Schools are significant social landmarks which serve as physical reminders for

many generations of old studentso Some adapted to house civic and cultural institutions or entertainment

facilitieso Serve as tangible anchors and reminders of development of educational

system and the evolution of the school building types in pre and post-war years

Eg. 2009: old Victoria School restored and refurbished to house People’s Association

9.6 Problems in CBD Lack of space and sites: vertical zoning – shops occupy ground floors, offices occupy

upper floors High cost of land: need multi-storey development Congestion and pollution

o Public transport concentrated: convergence of bus routeso Traffic restrictions: pedestrianization reduced access for cars since 1960so Results in reduced accessibilityo But more widespread car ownership increased customer mobility and

favoured out-of-town shopping and service expansion, increasing dispersion of population towards suburbs

Planning restrictions and strict government control Overdispersion

o Removal of too many job opportunities to outer suburbso Reversal of decentralization policies

Inner areas being revitalized and derelict industrial sites and wharf areas redeveloped

Special Enterprise Zones: subsidies and other inducements to be offered to attract services and some employment back into the city

Eg. rundown areas like Don Valley received Regional European funding

9.7 URA Conservation Efforts in Singapore* Anything deemed as pollutive or incompatible with the character of heritage areas

will have breached the conservation guidelines put in place to maintain the ambience of these areas eg. Chinatown, Little India, Kampong Glam

Retain and enhance places with sense of history and identity: conso Gives us sense of belongingo Add to charm and character of city by offering variety in landscape

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o Visual contrast to high-rise buildingso Preserves authenticity of areao Turned into trendy creative lifestyle hub sought after by advertising and

design agencies etc. Have to maintain a fine line between conservation and economic viability

o Eg. Butterfly House’s partial conservation: preserved particular elements only but still allowing for development

By involving stakeholders, conservation guidelines can be made more relevant while achieving the objectives of conservation

9.8 Singapore – City in a Garden* Green spaces make up > 8% of total land area Enhance value of surrounding land and help make Marina Bay area distinctive live-

work-play environment on a world stageo Eg. Hyde Park in London enhanced the aesthetic and economic value of their

surrounding developments Tree planting campaign: active tree planting on all roads, vacant plots and new

development sites 1967: Garden City program launched to green up the whole island and try to make it

into a garden Greater emphasis placed on extending greenery to buildings: sky-rise greenery

o Introduced incentives to encourage vertical greening of Singapore Building and Construction Authority (BCA)

o Dec 06: launch of $20m incentive fund which private developers could use to modify their buildings

o 2005: BCA Green Mark scheme rates buildings on their environmental impact and performance

o All new public buildings, including HDBs, will go green from April 07o Private sector projects going for the Green Mark more than doubled

9.9 Studentification* Growing number of students entering higher education – concentrations of students

in towns and cities across UK have increased Economic

o Flexible part-time workforce seeking seasonal / evening employmento Focus of intellect and ‘brain-gain’ – establishment of innovation and science

parkso Changes in retail function from small independent and local shops to global

fast-food outlets and café / club / music venueso Repairs, renovations, extensions – benefits construction and service sectoro Ghost town during holidays: shops and services have to cope with variability

of demando Strain on local shops and services due to increased population density

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Socialo More ‘cultured’o Typically have a lot of electronic goods eg. mp3 – prime targets for thieveso Serious depopulation and outward migration in many inner-city areas

Environmento On-street parking pressureso Noise pollution

Chapter 10: Influences on City Structure

10.1 Social Forces: Invasion and Succession (Filtering) and Rich Repelling from Poor (Burgess’ Model) City based on a single centre that spreads itself concentrically outwards 1st wave in-migrants settle nearest to the city centre to save on transport costs:

convenience due to jobs 2nd wave in-migrants settle nearest to centre to save on transport costs, invading the

1st wave in-migrants – 1st wave in-migrants now relatively richer, move out to occupy next zone

3rd wave in-migrants settle in – 1st wave in-migrants move even further due to social repulsion of the richer from the poorer (people are drawn to live near their ethnic groups)

Various land use zones formed: poorer inside, richer outside – rich-poor spatial divide

Eg. Vancouvero 80s – 90s: Hong Kongers after Hong Kong was returned to Chinao Present day: PRCs and Indians

10.2 Transport (refer to Chapter)

10.3 Growth Poles Designated areas of development with the primary purpose of attracting people and

businesses into the area Due to state planning eg. Singapore

o Maximize land use in city to spread out growth in cityo High-tech industrial growth pole (Tuas), residential growth pole (Bishan)

Due to market forces: other cities more organic (natural) eg. London, New York Influenced by what kind of growth poles there are, where they are located, how

they are being developed and managed

10.4 Government New Town development Urban redevelopment eg. URA

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Limited by activities of private market, driven by market forces of demand and supply – different intensities and levels of ‘planned’ cities

Eg. US suburbanizationo National Defense System of Highway (1956): US government decided to ubild

criss-crossing web of interstate highways to facilitate military transportation should country ever be attacked led to growth of many suburban towns

State planning principleso Concept of Garden City due to over-concretization of citieso Land use zoning (legislation): synergistic purposeso Master Plan and Concept Plans (URA): macro, strategic plans that drive entire

planning parameters of the entire city or region, where the planning parameters cascade down to more localized town plans – for overall coherence and organization

10.5 Case Study of Singapore Jackson Plan (1822): racial segregation, euro-centric

o Segregation of housing zones originally found along racial and social lineso Situation reversed today: racial mixing encouraged within HDB blocks via

HDB buying and selling rules which have certain % of different races Ring concept plan (1971)

o Development of ring of new high-density satellite towns, green spaces, private housing estates and industrial estates

o First idea of an MRT system linking Jurong and cityo Building of expressway system

1991 Concept Plano To be the first developed city on equatorial belt, with its own identity distinct

from cities in the westo Decentralization via 4 regional centres, secondary CBDs, gentrification and

conservation, transport connectivity, technological corridoro Continued reclamation and increased density in housingo Create more choices, flexibility and identity in urban planning

2001 Revised Concept Plano Based on population scenario of 5.5mo Land for housing, industry, recreation, infrastructure needs, water catchment

and military useso Technical constraints like height constraints imposed by airportso Further reclamation by another 15%: limit to how much we can reclaim as

Singapore’s shoreline not far from boundaries of neigbourso Key proposals

Focus on identity: need to have distinct precinct New homes in familiar places High-rise city living – a room with a view More choices for recreation

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Greater flexibility for businesses Global business centre Extensive rail network

10.6 History Colonial cities

o Eg. Jakarta: town square, old government house, port, Chinatowno Mixed land use and racial segregation, strong government planning

Architecture, urban design in different racial areas distinctively different

Proliferation of slums due to spontaneous growth National and cultural identity: Hong Kongers feel culturally

schizophrenic Latin American cities

o Eg. Mexico City: central plaza, commercial spine, squatter areaso Growth of city based on a city centre: central plazao Commercial spine: follows major transport route, connecting city with other

parts of the region, surrounded by elite group of cityo Poor residences on city outskirts in makeshift shacks called ‘favelas’

10.7 Other Factors Cultural and ethnic grouping Topophilia: strong sense of attachment to a place that goes beyond economics or

logical reasoning (aesthetic, emotional or nostalgic) eg .conservation of temple Gentrification attraction

o Creative class who want to stay in inner-city because of attraction of night-life and close proximity to work and leisure

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Chapter 11: Influences on Urban Structure

11.1 Future Forms of Cities Polycentric city

o Fragmented, disjointed, multi-nodal, chaotic, multiple growth poleso Consists of a number of large, spectacular developments, each with its own

hub of activitieso Not all cities will experience this post-modernization

Traditional, industrial-based eg. York Mix of modernization and post-modernization eg. Singapore

Post-modern cityo Functionalistic to organic and playful eg .Bird Nest Design of Beijing Olympic

Stadium Divided city

o Dualism eg. rich-poor divideo Different quarters

Gentrified city: new creative class Suburban city: new middle class Abandoned city: poorest of the poor Tenement city: working class

Wired cityo Influence of technology to create intelligent / digital cityo Link entire cities in order to facilitate communication, exchange and flows of

information and serviceso Eg. Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo top 3 digital cities

Cultural cityo Cultural melting pots eg. London, Barcelona for the sake of entertaining

people Sustainable city

o Eco-city, climate change, recycling, pedestrianization, green transporto Green politics: because politicians want to be green to attract voteso Strongest and forefront agenda amongst urban planners because of the

heavy polluting effects of large cities on a worldwide scaleo Sustainable development: socio-ecological process characterized by

fulfillment of human needs while maintaining or increasing the quality of natural environment indefinitely

o ‘Agenda 21’ initiative created and agreed upon by governments in the developed world to map out how future cities should grow and bemanaged in light of environmental sustainability

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11.2 Case Study of Australia If Australia’s cities continue to grow as urban sprawl, in just 10-15 years, air pollution

in cities will increase as much as 70% compared to 1990 levels Cars biggest cause of air pollution

o Shun public transport, impacting city’s air quality and exposing population to harmful pollutants

Urban land use and transportation patterns poorly integrated Cost of air pollution

o Human health cost $3b and $5.3b every yearo Damage to materials, property and buildings: $3b - $5b, ~1% of GDP

Future scenarioso Most people have come to accept urban sprawl and driving long distances

but this might change due to Threat of oil supply and associated price increases Enhanced greenhouse effect Threat to human health caused by poor air quality

o Role of construction industry Ecological footprint concept: minimize energy consumption and

emissions in the construction, operation and maintenance of buildings

o Public education More aware of air pollution and the impact private transport usage

has on the air Public transport patronage increased by 45%, 28% decrease in

exposure to photochemical smog

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Chapter 12: Responses to Urbanization

12.1 Clearing of Slums LDCs eg. 1960s Bukit Ho Swee

12.2 Settlement Relocation Cheap housing: HDB flats Self-help housing schemes

o Eg. Bustee redevelopment in Calcutta, Mexico Cityo Squatters take over responsibility of building simple housing for themselveso Migrants first taught basic construction skills (eg. laying of bricks) then given

materials to build homes themselveso Affordable and give migrants a sense of ownershipo But governments do not take this as their top priority, lack of resolve and

complex socio-political problems: collusion, corruption prevent poorest from benefiting

Eg. Manila’s public housing policies plagued by corruption during Marcos’ regime

12.3 New Town Creation Creation of growth poles that are relatively self-sufficient in basic social amenities

and employment opportunities Affordable public housing to re-house populations from congested city centres as

part of decentralization, check urban sprawl Regenerate declining, peripheral regions: serve as magnet for future growth Demographic bias: middle class, attracts younger groups

o Eg. Anaheim, California, US planned communities: belief that planning should be carried out in an orderly fashion with concern for community values

Clean, green, low density feelo Eg. Pasir Ris, Seng Kang, Punggol, Tampineso Garden City concept

1st Garden City: Letchworth UK: combined both rural and urban elements

Issues / Challengeso Lack character / charm / individuality: poorly-designed in terms of character,

monolithic architecture and poor workmanshipo Private capital vs. public capital

Eg. Toyota town in Tokyo built by Toyota Increasing privatization of public housing can be potential cause of

homelessness UK: people now encouraged to buy their own homes – housing

affordability problem Eg. subsidized public housing: tower blocks in Manchester, Sheffield

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Not successful because poorly maintained Local council runs the area. Poor people pay low council rates.

Cannot maintain buildings well because not rich. Social problems because poor people live her. Stigma UK people prefer low-rise buildings So government decided to build low-rise, low-density

buildings which became more acceptable by publico LDCs trying to create new towns in inner city areas to ease congestion

BLISS housing schemes in Manila: public transport inefficient: high rents, rather far away from city centre

Sao Paulo’s Cingapura public housing: rather successful in re-housing the poor, but not all poor can afford it

o Design, nature and accessibility of new towns direct impact over success / failure

More successful: affordable, fully backed by government, accessible to central areas eg. Singapore new towns

Less successful: still out of reach to masses, one-off projects lacking in government support (eg. Malaysia does not have agency that concerns with public housing), inaccessible (eg. October 6th new town in Cairo)

12.4 Green Belt Creation Creation of greenery space to reduce urban sprawl, environmental pollution and

smog Legislated in UK eg. East London, Bristol But leapfrogging effect can occur

o Urban development went beyond green belt to produce suburbanization and counter-urbanization effect on rural countryside

Partially increased land rents in urban area within green belt since urban area now greatly restricted and cannot expand so easily

Concept of green belt extended in Singapore to include the various water catchment areas (Seletar, Pierce), national parks (botanic)

12.5 Urban Renewal and Gentrification (refer to Chapter 4 and 9)

12.6 Case Study of New Town Development in Singapore Phase 1: 1900-1950: slums, squatters, and Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT)

o Rapid population growth due to high immigration and natural increaseo Lack of stringent building laws to regulate town planning: haphazard and

improper growth: slums and squatterso Set up SIT in 1927 to solve inadequate housing problem based on gradual

decentralization radiating from central areao Built towns of Tiong Bahru, Queenstown: neighbourhood concept

Urban Geography

o Problems Ineffective because housed only 20% of nation’s total requirements Lack adequate funds, shortage of experienced professionals,

burdened with building other infrastructure, post WWII baby boom Phase 2: 1960-80: HDB and new towns

o Dissolution of SIT and emergence of HDB in 1960o Solve housing problems quickly and affordablyo Cheap and quick flats built: Bukit Ho Swee (1962)

Phase 3: 80s onwards: continued decentralization via ring concepto Focus more on quality

Characteristicso Spatial: high density, high-rise, monolithic design in older towns but newer

ones have more character, gradual decentralizationo Social: self-sufficiency concept, efficient transport infrastructureo Economic: relatively cheap and affordable

Successo Solved housing problems effectively in 20 years, ~85% populationo Full legal power, full government backing, large budget

12.7 Case Study of Metro Manila, Philippines Poor health and environment

o Eg. mortality rates for infants 3x higher in slums than rest of city Infrastructure and social services

o Large proportion use public transport and paratransito Land prices risen by 100-300$, especially in prime district areaso 2m squatters inhabit 415 siteso Waste disposal: ~6000 tons of waste generated daily. 85% collected and

properly disposed at 2 sanitary landfills or at open dumpsites, the rest dumped illegally

Zonal Improvement Scheme (ZIP)o Slum upgrading program to improve lives of squatters and slum dwellers in

Manilao Tondo Slum, Smokey Mountain: slum on gigantic city rubbish dumpo Refurbished into green grass area cleared of squatters and fenced up but

squatter live outside the fenceso Late 90s, housing built but rents too high

BLISSo Public flats scheme which houses more middle-income groups because rents

still too higho Main problem: socio-political: lack of public funds, low priority, lack of

commitment from government

Urban Geography

Chapter 13: Urban Transport

13.1 General Causes of Transport Problems Rapid increase in private car ownership: 1/3 households >1 car Increased reliance on private cars

o USA: 90% of adults have driving license because cost of ownership low, cost of petrol cheaper since American companies priority buying of fuel at cheaper prices

o Low levels of walking and public transport useo Low levels of vehicle occupancyo More complex commuting-to-work patterns: suburb-suburb, city-rural etc

Population growth within cities: cannot afford to travel on public transport Higher demand for commuting

o More people are working: feminization of labour marketo Increasing affluence – more tourism

13.2 Specific Causes of Transport Problems in LDC Cities Very rapid population growth within cities Poor road infrastructure due to

o Corruptiono Delay in building mass transit systems: Jakarta just startedo Costly fares: usually ask private sector to build – fares set by private firms

thus more expensive – people cannot afford – low usage Greater preference for door-to-door service

o Spatial inefficiency because unplanned urban structureso Leads to massive congestion because high volume of mixed traffic with

varying speeds Lax vehicle emission controls

o Poorer vehicle maintenance and older engines more pollutiveo Use of cheaper fuel eg. low-grade diesel eg. Bangkok changed to natural gas

so there’s cleaner air

13.3 Specific Causes of Transport Problems in DC Cities Over-reliance on cars leads to rush hour traffic problems eg. CTE in Singapore most

congested highway because it is the only major route from north to south Inconvenience of public transport and usage

o Crowding and discomfort, especially peak hourso Eg. Australia: no buses / low frequency of buses

Higher demand for bigger engines – bigger petrol consumption and take up more space on road eg. American’s love affair with SUVs (sports utility vehicles)

Urban Geography

13.4 Management of Transport Problems Transport system measures

o Road pricing Eg. Toll payment to enter major cities in Malaysia, ERP Discriminate against lower-income car owners Political opposition from motoring lobby: Automobile Associate of

Singapore tried to oppose this Unpopular High political costs for authorities to implement Discriminate against residents living in CBD

o Auto restraint Encourage public transport during peak hours eg. bus-only lanes

Public transport must be efficient in the first place Takes up a lane, so may cause more congestion Enforcing rule eg. taxi drivers still drive in to pick up

passengers in the bus lane Increase cost of using cars in cities eg. parking costs Park and Ride schemes eg. US Ban cars from city centre eg. Mexico city: cars banned on different

days but people buy more cars Pedestrainization

o Ride sharing Discourage solo drivers in cars Successful van-pooling schemes provided by employer for employees

Eg. Singapore ask factories to provide transport because may be located in secluded areas

US more successful than Singapore because Singaporeans do not like strangers in their cars

Non-transport initiativeso Promote alternative work schedules

Flexi hours eg. 10.30am-6.30pm instead of 9-5 Singapore students start school earlier to spread out traffic

because public transport cannot take demand Some impact on families – cannot leave house together

Work from home using IT Main problem: do not trust employee to work from home Trying to push Singapore to become and intelligent city

Decentralize office functions from CBD to suburban eg. bank office functions

o Integrated urban planning Multi-modal: plan in such a way that one mode of transport links to

another Singapore can because we have one-tier government, but in Bangkok

there are jurisdiction problems

Urban Geography

Singapore built MRT lines first eg. Woodleigh then wait for demand to increase, but other cities wait for demand then start supplying

Singapore has EZ link card that can be used for bus and MRT, but Bangkok has 2 MRT lines that are not integrated (need 2 cards)

Implementation of laws vs. enforcing them

13.5 Case Study of Urban Transport in Asia Characteristics

o High reliance on road public transport, especially buses eg. in Seoul, share of bus services remains higher than half

o Well-developed public transport systems to provide almost door-to-door service

o Mixed transport by diverse transport modes eg. Bangkok: variety of transport modes differ in travel behaviour – buses, minibuses, taxis

Solutionso Transport policies

Mass transit systems Easy transfer between new rail transit and existing public transport COE, ERP, congestion pricing Park-and-ride

o Emission control Asian countries 5-10 years behind those in Europe Thailand and Malaysia taken lead to introduce restrictions,

strengthened vehicle inspection programs Public transport largely relies on buses using low-quality fuels – futher

air pollution Eg. China: GECAM: water diesel emulsion with additives – lower

emissions compared with ordinary diesel fuels Conclusion

o Policies more effective if impact of other urban activities and land use taken into account eg. Singapore

13.6 Case Study of Urban Transport in North America Cars seen as symbol of status, freedom and prestige Solutions

o Controlling automobile usage Dissuasion but impeded by regulations and physical planning eg.

parking spaces Prohibition of downtown circulation: downtown area closed to

automobile circulation during the day but deliveries permitted at night – to protect character and physical infrastructure of historical city

Tolls but drivers willing to bear additional cost

Urban Geography

o Controlling congestion Traffic signal synchronization: tuning traffic signals to time and

direction of traffic flows Incident management: making sure vehicles involved in accidents /

failures are removed as soon as possible HOV lanes (high occupancy vehicle): exclusive access to less

congested lane Challenges

o Greater decentralization makes it more difficult and expensive to serve urban areas with public transit

o Cities are dynamic – travel patterns may change – transit system built for servicing specific pattern may eventually face spatial obsolescence

o Competition: public service being offered outpaced by convenience of automobile

Chapter 14: Inner City Decay

14.1 General Idea Inner city: part of city found outside CBD Deterioration of housing, infrastructure and various amenities of inner urban area

resulting from congestion, pollution, neglect and ageing, lowering quality and standard of living

Rise of slums (legal) and squatters (illegal)

14.2 Causes Economic

o Decline and closure of manufacturing industries in EMDCso Eg. 1960s onwards, many manufacturing based cities in UK like Liverpool

suffered due to closure of factories – deindustrialization Physical

o Age and type of housing: many buildings built before industrial revolution – densely-packed – age – deteriorate and decay, lack modern amenities

o Poor urban planning: tower blocks in UK like Hulme Estate did not meet social needs of Britons

o Overcrowding, congestion and pollution Socio-cultural

o Cycle of poverty and social disorder: inhabited by ethnic minorities Discriminated from job market because language barrier, skin colour,

lack of skills Crime and social disintegration

o Rise of out-of-town shopping centres and interstate highways causing hollowing out

Urban Geography

14.3 Inner City Decay in the DCs Harlem, Bronx

o Some parts experiencing gentrification, forcing the poor to move outo Increasingly more yuppies from Manhattan are moving in

Causeso Industrial decline due to NIDLo Age, overcrowding, decayo Cycle of povertyo Suburbanization and out-of-town shopping centres

Singapore tries to prevent hollowing out. Demand for CBD area high because dependent on international economy. Not so much of a problem because as people move out, people move in too.

Kill small businesses – worsen problem. Mum-and-Pap businesses close

Results in urban dualities: race, class, space

14.4 Inner City Decay in the LDCs Rio de Janerio, Brazil

o Massive rural-urban migration to Sao Pauloo Poor live on slopes because flat land is only available at a premium for rich

Mass movement and flimsy buildings – high-risk areas Houses not made of concrete – mud houses

o Government no power to resettle people Smokey Mountain, Tondo, Manila

o Smoke from smouldering rubbish. Rubbish dump flammable due to release of methane

o High rural-urban migrationo Livelihood: salvagingo Land for residential purposes at premium – poor just live wherever they can

find space. Poorest live in cemeteries. Issues

o Importance of informal sector (refer to Chapter 5) o Traditional images of crime, violenceo Reveals social divide: rich / poor live close to each other because slums very

establishedo Gentrification and renewal limited

City has grown so much Slum land owned by private sector, pockets sold off to build condos.

Government / private sector difficult to enforce ownership. People rater die than move because psychological attachment to land.

Urban Geography

Solutionso Clearing of slums and squatters eg. in Jakarta, lots of squatters cleared. Poor

living far away from CBD but does not really solve problem because no alternative housing. Must clear and relocate.

o Settlement relocation Cheap housing

Cannot extend houses, no pets, no backyard. So people refuse to move. Government usually does not ensure that such houses are maintained well.

Housing schemes Some areas specially chosen to be upgraded for political

reasons – vested interest to secure votes Forced resettlement eg. Indonesia’s Transmigration Program: not

great success because failure of government to provide enough amenities for rural folks living in resettled areas

Self-help housing schemes (refer to Chapter 12)o New town creation (refer to Chapter 12)o Gentrification and urban renewal (refer to Chapters 4 and 9)o Check population growtho Basic problem of slums is not how to eradicate them, but how to make them

more livable Improve economic conditions in an area: job agencies, provide

employment – advertising job vacancies, reskilling, give them address, provide transport from where they live to work