universal basic education and socio-economic prospects in nigeria

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ERNWACA Research Grants Programme

2009 edition

UNIVERSAL BASIC EDUCATION AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROSPECTS OF THE GIRL-CHILD IN SOUTH-SOUTH NIGERIA

Researchers

Mrs Imaikop Virgilius Ekpo

Mr Paulinus S. Ibok

Mr Effiong Jacob Eminimoh

Mr Virgilius Peter Udo-Ekpo

Mentor: Dr. I. E. Emah University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State.

Country

Nigeria

Research Financed by

Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence

and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We wish to acknowledge the Regional Management of ERNWACA, the UEMOA Regional

Centre of Excellence and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands for the financial support

to beneficiaries of their small grant for research. We thank ERNWACA National Co-ordination officials

in Nigeria, Prof. K. A. Adegoke and Dr. D.Odukoya for directing and encouraging the group till now.

We are also grateful to the research group mentor, Dr. I. E. Emah for his unalloyed support and

inputs. We have not forgotten Dr. (Mrs) G. K. Etuk, our zonal co-ordinator, for her encouragement

and professional advice. Also worthy of appreciation are the research assistants for a job well done,

and our individual family members for their understanding, patience and support throughout the

duration of this research.

Our special thanks go to Miss Amaofon-Abasi Ekpo, Miss Nsisong Peter and Idongesit

Umenge whose typing skill and finger dexterity turned our manuscript into a readable form. Above all,

we give God the glory for good health, wisdom, ability and divine protection endowed on us to

complete this research.

Imaikop V. Ekpo

Paulinus S. Ibok

Effiong J. Eminimoh

Virgilius P. Udo-Ekpo.



TABLE OF CONTENTS

Cover Page - - - - - - - - - i

Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - - ii

Table of Contents - - - - - - - - - iii

Executive Summary - - - - - - - - - v

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - - - 1

1.2 Statement of Problem - - - - - - - 2

1.3 Statement of Purpose - - - - - - - 3

1.4 Significance of the Study - - - - - - - 3

1.5 Research Questions - - - - - - - 3

1.6 Research Hypotheses - - - - - - - 4

1.7 Scope of the Study - - - - - - - 4

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms - - - - - - 4

CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF L ITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Framework/ Conceptual Clarification - - - - 5

2.2 Universal Basic Education and the Girl-Child - - - - 6

2.3 Parents’ Willingness to Educate the Girl-Child - - - - 7

2.4 Vocational Content of Universal Basic Education - - - - 9

2.5 Summary of Literature Review - - - - - - 13

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD

3.1 Research Area - - - - - - - - 15

3.2 Research Design - - - - - - - - 15

3.3 Definition and Description of Variables - - - - - 16

3.4 Research Population - - - - - - - 16

3.5 Sample and Sampling Technique - - - - - - 16

3.6 Instrumentation - - - - - - - - 17



3.7 Validation and Reliability of Instrument - - - - - 17

3.8 Procedure for Data Collection - - - - - - 18

3.9 Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - 18

CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

• Answers to Research Questions - - - - - - 19

• Analysis of Hypotheses - - - - - - 22

• Qualitative Analysis - - - - - - 24

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEN DATIONS

• Discussion of Findings - - - - - - 25

• Conclusions - - - - - - 27

• Recommendations - - - - - - 28

Suggestion for Further Study - - - - - - 28

• Limitations of the Study - - - - - - 28

• Problems Encountered - - - - - - 29

REFERENCES - - - - - - 30

APPENDICES - - - - - - 33

1. Parents Willingness to Retain Girl-Child in School Questionnaire - - 33

2. Universal Basic Education and Socio-Economic Prospects

of the Girl-Child Questionnaire - - - - - - 34

3 . Information on Facilities and Equipment Available in Schools for Vocational

Training from Principals - - - - - - - 35

LIST OF TABLES

1. Sample Distribution - - - - - - - - 17

2. Extent of Parents’ Willingness to Retain their Female Children in UBE - 19

3. Occupations of the Female Students Prior to Enrolment in UBE - - 19

4. Percentage of Female Children still maintaining their Occupations in

UBE Programme - - - - - - - 20

5. Facilities and Equipment Available for the Vocational Training of the Girl-Child 20

6. Students-Equipment Ratio - - - - - - - 21

7. t-test Comparison of Men Scores or Rich and Poor Parents’ Willingness

to Retain Female Children in UBE - - - - - - 22

8. t-test Comparison of Men Scores or Literate and Illiterate Parents’ Willingness



to Retain Female Children in UBE - - - - - - 22

9. Chi-Square Analysis of the Influence of UBE on the future Socio-Economic

Prospects of the Girl-Child. - - - - - - - 23

Executive Summary

This study assessed the influence of Universal Basic Education on Socio-Economic

Prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria. The study was necessitated by the high rate of

girls dropping out of school to become housemaids and hawkers due to parental level of poverty.

Universal Basic Education was perceived as the only instrument that would help the female children

acquire knowledge and skills for future socio-economic prospects and become emancipated from

the bondage of poverty, servitude, early marriage, house-help services and forceful exposure to

prostitution.

Four research questions and three null hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The

ex-post facto research design was used in the study. A sample of 1500 female students was drawn

from a population of 15000 from six schools in South-South Nigeria. The sample was drawn using

proportional stratified random sampling technique. The instruments for data collection were Parents

Willingness to Retain Girl-Child in Schools Questionnaire (PWRGSQ), and Universal Basic

Education and Socio-Economic Prospects of the Girl-Child Questionnaire (UBESPGQ).

The instruments (PWRGSQ and UBESPGQ) were validated by a team of six research

experts, and tested for reliability using 50 respondents in each category (parents and female

students in UBE programme) who did not participate in the main study. Reliability coefficients of

0.86 and 0.77 were obtained for PWRGSQ and UBESPGQ respectively using the Cronbach alpha.

One thousand five hundred copies of the PWRGSQ and UBESPGQ each were administered

to parents and the female students in JS 2 and 3 of the UBE. The same number of copies of

questionnaire were completed and returned by subjects in both groups and used for analysis. The

result indicated that parents were willing to retain their female children in UBE programme. The

female children were engaging in hawking (40.33%), housemaids (33.80%) and other forms of child

labour (25.87%) prior to enrolling in UBE programme of the 1500 female students assessed in the

study 973 are still maintaining their occupations while in UBE. Facilities and equipment needed for

effective vocational training were inadequate resulting in very low students-equipment ratio. There

existed significant difference between rich/poor, literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to

retain female children in the 9-years UBE programme. It was perceived that UBE would exert



significant influence on the future socio-economic prospects of the female children in South-South

Nigeria.

However, if adequate facilities and equipment are not provided, the influence of the

Universal Basic Education on the girl-child’s anticipated future socio-economic prospects will likely

remain a huge mirage.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study The socio-economic integration of the Nigerian women would be difficult to achieve where

the girl-child is not intellectually empowered. Education is the key factor in the eradication of poverty

and ignorance. It is also a sine qua non for development. Dimson (2006) asserted that education is

the only instrument to emancipate female children from the bondage of servitude, early marriage,

hawking, house-help services and forceful exposure to prostitution. The conference on the

Economic Rights of Nigerian women held in 2001 recommends that education of the girl-child is the

key to economic and intellectual empowerment of the Nigerian woman. In consonance with

convention on the rights of the child, the Universal Basic Education (UBE) programme of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria is recognized as a laudable intervention to women’s economic and

intellectual deficits.

Moreover, the Jomtien Declaration on Education for All as cited in Education Today (2000),

acknowledged that Universal Basic Education (UBE) provides knowledge needed by people to

achieve higher standard of living and to cope more effectively with the challenges of a constantly

changing society. UBE is defined as a nine-year free and compulsory education received at the

primary and junior secondary school levels (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). According to

Nigerian Demographic and Health Survey (2005) children aged 0-15years account for 40-45 percent

of Nigerian total population. In all the states in South-South Nigeria (Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross

River, Delta, Edo, and Rivers), the records of female pupils enrolment in UBE programme between

1999 – 2008 have shown a continuous steady increase over the boys enrolment figures (Dimson,

2006).

Despite this enrolment status, the 2008 school census report indicates that about 10 million

school age children are out of the formal school system, relapsing into illiteracy with over 68% of the

figure being girls (Adenipekun, 2009). Of particular concern is the fact that many girls drop out of



UBE programme to become housemaids and hawkers particularly in some states in the South-

South due to poverty or parents apathy to education. The actual number of children involved in

exploitative or hazardous work in Nigeria are not known, owing to the wide dispersion of child

workers in the informal sector and Agriculture. However the recent assessment puts the figure at 8

million. The Nigerian child is the direct victim of the poverty level of his/her parent (Aliyu 2006).

According to Olagunju (2007), the UBE programme in Nigeria is concerned with the education of

both children and adults, adding that educating the parents will have a multiplier effect in the girl-

child school enrolment, retention and completion. It appears also that if the parents give their

consent in respect of their female children’s education, they would sacrifice their all to support their

stay in school.

Given this fact, it becomes imperative to assess possible variables associated with both

parents and Universal Basic Education (UBE) that could support the girl-child’s education and socio-

economic development. On the part of parents, one may ask would parents with poor socio-

economic status be willing to retain/allow their female children attend and complete their education

at least at the UBE level? Empirical findings indicated that in Nigeria generally, culture does not

favour girls’ formal education to the same extent as the boys(Jatau,2008). While the parents with

high level of education allow their female children to go to school, the illiterate parents do not seem

to understand the reason for such decision(Fant,2008). For the illiterates(marked groups of poor

people), poverty is the principal implicating factor for their refusal to allow female children to receive

formal education(Igbineweka & Aghenta, 2005). The illiterate parents do not seem to understand

that investment in girl-child education. can enhance the child’s future productivity, thus supporting

the theories of social change (Hagen,2009).

To salvage the girls’ situation with regards to the impact of poverty, the Federal Republic of Nigeria

(2004) declared a-nine-year Universal Basic Education which allows Nigerian children(including

girls) free access to primary and junior secondary school education. The vocational content of the

UBE programme include core vocational subjects(Agriculture, Business Studies, Home Economics,

Local Crafts, Computer Education, Fine Arts and Music), that can support self-reliance in the

informal sector of the nation’s economy. How well these subjects are taught is the concern of

educational experts. Previous investigation showed that teachers of vocational subjects in the UBE

programme should be good and competent(Udoh, 2009). Umoh (2000) found that the teaching of

most vocational subjects at the Junior Secondary School level do not incorporate laboratory

practicals and practical training. The obvious reason might rest on lack of laboratory equipment and

facilities for teaching. This deficiency affects the utilization of students-centered and inquiry methods

of teaching vocational courses in class activities.



1.2 Statement of the Problem

In almost all communities in Nigeria the girl-child faces a number of disadvantages relative to

the boys. There has been persistent hues and cries over the years for the emancipation of females

from the shackles of male domination and the Nigerian girl has been suppressed by gender biased

stereotypes and prejudices arising from culture, religion and politics (Obasi 2006). However, Jatta

(2009) maintained that literacy is a fundamental right for all girls and women and central to the quest

for poverty reduction and sustainable development, which is essential for building peaceful and

stable societies. Literacy enhances the capacity for the participation of people in economic, social,

political and cultural activities in a rapidly changing world. According to Jatta, two-thirds of those

who have none or inadequate literacy skills and competencies are girls and women, adding that

there is an urgent need to dismantle the mindsets of the marginalize groups who do not place a high

premium on education of the girl-child. Therefore, this study seeks to determine the influence of

Universal Basic Education on Socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.

1.3 Statement of Purpose

The aim of this study was to ascertain the influence of Universal Basic Education on the

Socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.

The objectives therefore were to:

1. Determine whether the socioeconomic status of parents(rich/poor, literate/illiterate) has any

significant influence on their willingness to retain their female children in the nine-year

Universal Basic Education.

2. Identify the occupations of the female students prior to enrolling in Universal Basic

Education.

3. Establish the availability of facilities and equipment in secondary schools for the vocational

training of the girl-child in Universal Basic Education.

4. Establish the students-equipment ratio in the vocational training of the girl-child in Universal

Basic Education.

5. Determine the extent to which the Universal Basic Education Programme prepares the girl-

child for future socio-economic life in South-South Nigeria.

1.4 Significance of the Study

It is envisaged that this study will inform the government, women organizations and other

stakeholders on the willingness of parents to get the female children enrolled and retained through

the nine years of Universal Basic Education Programme. It will inform the extent to which the

Universal Basic Education Programme prepares the girl-child for future socio-economic life. The



study would motivate the government to initiate strategic action that will ensure the basic education

of the girl-child.

1.5 Research Questions:

The research attempted to answer the following questions:

1. What is the extent of parents willingness to retain their female children in the 9-year

Universal Basic Education?

2. What were the occupations of the female students prior to enrolling in Universal Basic

Education at the Junior Secondary level?

3. What are the facilities and equipments available in schools for the vocational training of the

girl-child in Universal Basic Education?

4. What is the students-equipment ratio in the vocational training of the girl-child in the


1.6 Research Hypotheses:

The following null hypotheses were formulated to guide this study:

1. There is no significant difference between the rich and poor parents in their willingness to

retain their female children in the 9-year Universal Basic Education.

2. There is no significant difference between literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to

retain female children in the nine-year Universal Basic Education .

3. There is no significant influence of the 9-year Universal Basic Education programme on the

future socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study was delimited to all the six states of the south-south geo-political zone of Nigeria.

The study used parents’ willingness and the vocational content of the Universal Basic Education

curriculum as independent variable. While socio-economic prospects of the girl-child is the

dependent variable. The independent variables consist of all subjects studied under the Universal

Basic Education programme which aim at influencing the socio-economic prospects of the girl-child

(that is, providing wage and employment) for the girls at the end of the UBE programme. The year

of study was 2008/2009 academic session.

1.8 Operational Definition of Terms

To avoid ambiguity some terms were clarified in the context of usage in this study. The terms

include ‘Universal Basic Education’, girl-child, and socioeconomic prospect.



Parents’ willingness as used here refers to parent’s eagerness to co-operatively allow their

female children access to Universal Basic Education.

Universal Basic Education is the free and compulsory education children receive for nine

years duration from primary school to Junior Secondary school (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004).

Vocational content refers to the different vocational subjects (agriculture, business studies,

computer studies, music, home economics, fine art, local craft and introductory technology)taught in

the Junior Secondary under the Universal Basic Education.

The girl-child refers to a female child between 6-14years who though still in the formative

years and dependent on parents should be receiving primary and junior secondary education.

The term socio-economic prospect refers to the economic, social and political empowerment

of the girl-child after receiving universal basic education especially in the area of earning a

sustainable means of living.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature is done under the following sub-headings:

- Conceptual Clarification/Theoretical Framework

- Parents’ Willingness for Girl-Child formal education

- Vocational Contents of Universal Basic Education

2.1 Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Clarification :

This study was backed up by the Human Capital Theory and the Theory of social change.

The human capital theory was first formulated by Theodore Schultz in 1960 and later developed by

Gary S. Becker in 1962 (Obasi, 2000). The concept of the Human Capital Theory is the idea that

people spend on themselves in various ways not only for the sake of present enjoyments but also

for the sake of future pecuniary and non-pecuniary returns. They may purchase health care, acquire

additional education, search for jobs and may purchase information about job opportunities. All

being a conscious investment activity in anticipation of future returns. Moreover, human capital in

the form of knowledge and skills acquired through education makes the individual more productive.

Being more productive makes them more employable and guarantees them more future incomes.

The theory tries to explain the demand for education by arguing that since investment in human

capital improves productivity and more productivity means more future incomes, individuals will



seek to invest in human capital by demanding education so as to earn more future income. This

theory was used to explain and predict the demand for and supply of education at all levels.

The theory of Social Change maintains that the level of development is associated with

achievement motivation. According to Hagen (2009) this achievement motivation varies between

societies and their classes and strata. He argues that in traditional societies the status of individuals

is fixed. Children learn to act according to established norms, and deviations (initiative!) are

punished. If by external influences a new group gains power, the status of the old elite is challenged

and weakened. The insecurity and frustration leads to changed behaviour, which has consequences

on the family structure. Children tend to become dissatisfied with the society and readily accept new

values. In time, they become innovative personalities. If these persons become dominant groups in

the society, this causes economic development. Similar phenomena may happen as far as the

changing situation of marginal groups or minorities is concerned. Therefore, this theory was adopted

to explain the change in behaviour (if any) of the girl-child that may result from the acquisition of


2.2 Universal Basic Education and the Girl-Chil d

The girl-child education is crucial to women empowerment. The more girls are educated at

the UBE level, the more knowledge and skills they will acquire for sustainable economic

development. Education opens the door for every individual to participate in development activities

and, when people are denied education, they are excluded from the development process.

Education is an index of development of any society. It satisfies the basic human need for

knowledge, provides a means of meeting other basic needs, and helps sustain as well as accelerate

overall development. Education helps determine the distribution of employment and income for both

present and future generations. It influences social welfare through its indirect effects on health,

fertility and life expectancy (Oke, 2005).

The deprivation of the girl-child from gaining access to education and prospective economic

development has been the concern of many researchers. Obasi (2006) asserted that female

subjugation and lower self-esteem in a male dominated society is economic powerlessness and

posited that 65.4% of males are economically active compared to only 32% females. According to

Aniche (2000), countries that have raised the status of their women starting from educating the girl-

child, generally enjoy a higher standard of living, than the countries where women remain largely

illiterate. Thus in 1995 the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) decided to include in

its measurement of development in countries Human Development Index (HDI) the measurement of



gender inequality. Two indices according to Aniche (2000) were used. They are the Gender-related

Development Index (GDI), and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). Nigeria ranked very low in

all the indices with the following rankings in 1992:

HDI – 141 out of 172 countries

GDI – 100 out of 130 countries

GEM – 108 out of 116 countries

Okiy (2004) also maintained that Nigeria was given a very low rating in human development

by the UNDP for the year 2002, adding that fewer educated women than men are available to

contribute to national development activities. Thus, the recent introduction of the Universal Basic

Education (UBE) programme by the Federal Government could be seen as a catalyst that will result

in greater female participation in national development especially as it seeks to redress the gender

imbalance, which has been evident in the Nigerian educational landscape (Imoukhuede, 2007).

Basic education has specific goals for each segment. For instance, at the primary level, the

goals include inculcating permanent literacy, numeracy, and ability to communicate effectively;

developing in the child the ability to adapt to the child’s changing environment; giving the child

opportunities to develop manipulative skills that will enable the child function effectively in the

society within the limits of his capacity and providing the child with basic tools for further educational

advancement, preparation for trades and crafts of the locality among others (Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 2004). Consequently, the primary school curriculum includes subjects like Agriculture,

Home Economics, Social Studies, Citizenship Education, Cultural and Creative Art, and Computer

Education to ensure attainment of the stated goals. At the secondary level, the broad goals among

others include providing technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agriculture,

industrial, commercial and economic development. The junior secondary according to the Federal

Republic of Nigeria ‘shall be both pre-vocational and academic’ (p.19). To this end therefore,

Introductory Technology, Agriculture, Local Crafts, Home Economics, Business Studies, Computer

Education and Music form part of the curriculum such that at the end of the three years a child who

cannot continue to the senior secondary can go into an out-of-school vocational training center or

an apprenticeship scheme where she will be useful to herself and the society. Therefore, the

aforegoing motivated the researchers to investigate the influence of Universal Basic Education on

the socio-economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.

2.3 Parents’ Willingness to Educate the Girl-Ch ild

Education provides skills and knowledge for its beneficiaries to function effectively in society.

It is viewed as both a public or private good depending on where its benefits accrue most. It is a

public good if its consumption results in positive externalities that benefit the society and a private



good if the benefit is only for the individual alone. Developing individuals to their fullest potential has

often been argued as the antithesis of educating the individual to serve the state in the platonic

scheme of things. Durkheim(2006) maintained that in cities of Greece and Rome, education trained

individuals to become the creature of society. Bista(2004) reported that social and cultural beliefs,

practices and attitudes often do not favour girls in their pursuit of education to the same extent as

boys.

According to Waldman(2009) strong attachments to traditional gender role limit female

access to education and occupations. Culturally, the expectations regarding the total benefits of

schooling for parents’ investments impose parental biases to female formal education. Parents

expect a higher rate of return from boys to support them in their old age. To overcome the gender

gap in education and achieve economic justice for the girl-child, education provides the immediate

answer.

The factors that block access to girl-child education range from culture bias towards boys,

lack of financial resources, parents perceived return on the educational investment and gender role

in the society. A large number of girls have dropped out of school. This mitigates the lack of power

for women(UNICEF, 2001). Different cultures construct gender categories differently and symbolize

male, female and their relations differently, there is little doubt that distinctions on gender lines are

universally made. The particular cultural instances of gender ideology may diverge, but the function

of this ideology universally is to distinguish and rank the sexes. Cultures across the globe value their

gender differently. Fant (2008) maintained that within the social organization and cultural beliefs of a

society, the gender complex is made up of propositions which when applied to individuals may

bestow on them social approval and power, dignity and prestige; or may have the opposite effect. It

may imply that the person is unworthy or second class. Fant cited Pauline and Tembon (1999) as

saying that socio-cultural attitudes and traditions often determine the status of girls and women in

society.

Culturally, the place of a woman is in the home(kitchen). It is expected that the girl-child will

eventually marry and become housewives. Consequently, parents consider that what the girl child

learns at home is as important as what the boys learn at school. Therefore, the norm remains that

girls stay closer to their mothers to learn domestic chores as they grow up and to learn household

skills and behaviours that prepare them for their future roles as wives and mothers. These socio-

cultural beliefs cause parents to see the formal education of the girl child as a deviation from

accepted societal norms and practices. Formal education is therefore, sometimes not perceived as

appropriate for girls and is consequently not valued.

The belief by most parents that the girl child is only prepared for another family to benefit

from, undermines the education of the girl child. According to Fant (2008), the Bimobas (a tribe in



Ghana) have a common philosophy in question form: ‘why invest in a resource that will soon be

someone else’s? He also recorded this response from a parent during an interview ‘I assessed the

benefits of education for only boys and I felt it a waste of time and funds educating girls who on

completion would go to marry and become part of a different family, leaving us with no material

benefits’(Fant,2008, p.41). Jatau (2008) identified poor parental support for girls’ education,

society’s poor attitude towards girl child education, poverty, economic issues, cultural and religious

biases as factors responsible for the participation of the girl child in formal education. Yet another

factor that can possibly determine the willingness of parents to register and retain their female

children in school is the parents’ level of education. Fant (2008) observed that the level of

education of parents play a crucial role in the decision-making process as to which of their children

will be allowed to attend school. Any educated parent ensures that their children, whether boy or girl

gets basic education. Educated mothers often enforce the education of their female children even

when the fathers have contrary views/opinions.

This not withstanding, people in Nigeria, the 13th poorest nation in the world as assessed by

Transparency International (2004) in Igbineweka & Aghenta (2005), express willingness to assist

government in financing education. The willingness is outstanding according to Igbineweka and

Aghenta (2005) because some parents especially at the first nine years of free and compulsory

schooling sacrifice money to assist in financing education. They maintained that parents in Nigeria

sell off personal possession and even go to the extent of borrowing money to send their children to

school. They provide school uniforms, books and other learning materials for their children and

wards. They also found that there is no significant association between socioeconomic status and

location of residence with expressed willingness by parents to finance education of their children in

Edo state. The researchers concluded that parents in Edo state have the same expressed

willingness to finance basic education whether in free-tuition public schools or fee-paying private

schools.

2.4 Vocational Content of Universal Basic Educ ation

Vocational skills are imparted to students through vocational education. Vocational

education is regarded as education which provides the recipient with the basic knowledge and

practical skills needed for entry into workforce (Oni,2007). Vocational education nurtures skills that

focus on building a self reliant society. Vocational education as part of a general education

programme, constitutes any form of education with the primary purpose of preparing people for

useful employment in a recognized occupation. Today, most of the vocational-technical education

programmes involve the use of tools, machines and computers. Many vocational practitioners who



have no knowledge of tool handling, machines and computer operations may be left behind in their

later professional practices. It is the realization of this fact that led to the introduction of subjects rich

in vocational skills into the Universal Basic Education(UBE) programme. These subjects as outlined

by Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN,2004) in the National Policy on Education(NPE) and termed

pre-vocational electives include agriculture, business studies, home economics, local crafts,

computer education, fine arts and music.

The past two decades have witnessed considerable exploratory innovations of computer

application in the classroom. With the increase in business activities and advancement in

technology, the need for students to have computer knowledge became more glaring(Aliyu,2006).

As such, the content of computer training should be enriched, integrated and taught in the different

vocational education subjects areas to the students. Thus, computer education according to Oni

(2007) should take the form of vocational specialization (that is teaching computer as a discrete

subject) and also a permeated approach(introducing and integrating some components of computer

studies into subjects such as local crafts, home economics, business studies and agriculture). But

when computers are the objects of instruction, students are concerned with learning about

computers and data processing. According to Umoh & Inyang (2005), the course in computer falls

into two categories:

- appreciation of units, which teach the potential, the power and danger of computers and

- the ‘how-to’ courses, which teach how to use computers for problem-solving and how to operate

the equipment in business settings. CAI already mentioned assists students in the learning

process and imparts to them skills and knowledge that they can use outside the classroom in later

life making them fit to exist in a fast growing technological society and globalized world.

Business Studies

In the Junior Secondary school curriculum, business studies is broken into six components.

These are office practice, book-keeping, typewriting, shorthand, commerce and computer

appreciation. Its objectives as highlighted in the National Policy on Education by the Federal

Republic of Nigeria (2004) include:

- Acquisition of basic knowledge of business studies;

- Development of the basic skills in office occupation;

- Preparation of students for further training in business studies;

- Provision of orientation and skills for those who may not undergo further training in order

to enable them start a life of work; and



- Relating the knowledge and skills to the national economy.

The emphasis is the acquisition of skills as business studies has found numerous applications in all

human endeavours and is relevant for sustainable national development. According to Udo (2009),

the major goal of vocational competence and skills among youths is for them to contribute

maximally to the national economic growth in their various occupational endeavours. Eduok (2000)

asserted that the challenge of imparting the skills to students can be met by developing in students

psychomotive skills in addition to the cognitive and affective skills in business studies with which

they can settle effectively in an occupation of their choice on graduation.

Olavinoye (2006) maintained that children learnt trade and skills from their parents and older

relations by observation, demonstration and imitation before the advent of formal education in

Nigeria. The skills he added were passed from one generation to another by similar methods and

noted that Business Studies as an occupational studies is learnt in the same manner. Suffice it to

say that the inclusion of business studies in the UBE curriculum is an attempt to promote career

choice in students, in addition to encouraging skill acquisition and developing students’ interest in

business ventures. Skills connote the mastery of logically linked series of activities that can be

easily learnt, and does not depend upon the students’ innate capacities but through training,

practice and experience. A significant relationship has been found to exist between availability of

studio equipment and students’ acquisition of skills in typing(Udo,2009).

Aliyu (2006) posited that students need to be trained in the realities of the business world

beyond the formal classrooms, and the link between the classroom and the business office is very

necessary to give those who will enter the world of work the meaningful and useful experience they

will need to shape their careers. He also revealed for instance the importance of keyboard mastery

in enhancing the efficiency of computers operations. Thus, students who learn typewriting while in

the junior secondary school can do well in computer operations, and if they do not further their

education, can earn a living by typing.

Fine Arts

Art is the expression of thoughts and emotions communicable to others through skillful

manipulation medium/media(Ekwere,2003). Human beings whether male or female have the

propensity to create things so that he or she can represent, express and communicate his or her

ideas, thoughts and feelings, experience and values. The power to create is best expressed in art.

Thus, art can be said to be the making of things with form. It is the personal experience of self

interacting with the environment and not just a subject to be taught in the school.



In education, art allows the child to have a full and satisfying life by satisfying his basic

needs to understand and control his world, his needs, to be intellectually creative and adventurous

by thinking and expressing his own thoughts in his own ways and his need to share in social life by

communicating in many ways with other children and adults(Ekwere,2004). Therefore, a good fine

art programme for JS III students could encourage individual growth and allow for free development

of imaginative and observational power.

Fine arts curriculum covers a vast area of study which include drawing and painting of still

life, nature study, figure drawing and composition. Other areas include sculpture which has to do

with modeling and carving; ceramics (moulding, throwing and casting); graphics design (lettering,

simple printing techniques, designs for information, advertisements, posters, greeting cards,

handbills and book covers); as well as textile design. Textile design involves designing of fabrics by

simple techniques like embroidery, printing, weaving, dyeing(tie and dye/Batik).

These areas according to Ekwere (2004) are taught in a bid to provide opportunities for students to

learn the proper use of art tools, equipment and materials, have adequate skill and competence in

art, gain knowledge and develop intellectually, physically and culturally through art as well as see

the usefulness of art in other subject areas and the society. Whether the current curriculum used for

the 9-year Basic Education provides enough opportunities, knowledge and skills for students as

specified is a fact to be established by research.

Home economics is a multi-disciplinary course aimed at integrating many disciplines of study for

the purpose of making the environment conducive to live in. Students have to study different skills

so as to become useful not only to themselves but also to the community. It comprises areas like

needlework, clothing and textile, foods and nutrition and home management. Each of them aimed at

imparting life coping and employability to the students. People who have not had the patience to

find out what Home Economics is about say ‘Home Economics is cooking and sewing’(Ike,2006).

But the subject is more than that as it is a course that integrates all facts of the home and society in

order to bring up a useful human person into an environment made for him or her. It is a vocational

subject which demands high quality skill development.

Home economics studies the relationship of people and aspects of their environment such

as clothing, housing and finance. It is a skill oriented field of study expected to equip learners with

saleable skills that make for self-reliance or self employment and paid employment as well as

prepare individuals towards meaningful contribution to the solution of societal problems(Ajala,2002).

The children are taught to use their hands in sewing, cooking and textile designing. This way, they

develop skills that would be useful not only to the learner but the society at large.



Practical Agriculture

The advent of Junior Secondary School(JSS) education in Nigeria in 1982 was accompanied

with the introduction of agricultural education as one of the core-subjects at this level of education.

Practical Agriculture is taught as a pre-vocational subject to all junior secondary school

students(Federal Republic of Nigeria,2004). The students are expected to graduate from the junior

secondary school(the terminal point of the Universal Basic Education) with adequate practical

agricultural skills and knowledge. They are also expected to acquire on completion of their 9-year

UBE programme the right attitudes needed for agricultural activities. The acquisition of the

necessary practical skills, knowledge and attitudes by students are the pre-requisites for entry into

agricultural occupations. According to Umoh (2000), those who leave school after the JSS stage,

can go on to establishing business or be employed into agricultural industries.

The curriculum contents of Practical Agriculture cover production agriculture, agricultural

protection and agricultural economics. It is emphasized that schools mounting Practical Agriculture

programme must keep school farms where crops are grown and at least one specie of livestock

from the groups of ruminants and non-ruminants. The study of Practical Agriculture is usually

supplemented by visits to well-established government and private experimental and commercial

farms. Practical or field notebooks containing records of individual activities based on laboratory

work, individual observations in the school farms, field trips and records of specimens collected by

the students should be kept as well. Nevertheless, Umoh(2000) who evaluated practical agricultural

programmes of Junior Secondary Schools in Akwa Ibom State using one thousand JSS lll students

and a positive mean score of 3.50 as agreed discovered that the teaching of practical agriculture did

not incorporate laboratory practicals and practical training on livestock management. The study also

showed that the JSS III students had acquired sufficient academic knowledge of the subject that

equips them for future life. Results of the study further indicated that schools did not keep livestock

for effective practical training of students in animal agriculture and facilities like laboratories, farm

tools for practical work on the school farm, specimens for the teaching of agriculture, and textbooks

for junior secondary agriculture were not available in schools.

Music

The music curriculum is rich in contents and has specific objectives that aim at exposing the

students to rudiments of music that can make the learner able to fend for self at the end of basic

education. The first objective bothers on enjoyment, and aims at teaching the students to sing in

tune, sing independently to gain confidence, foster international aspect of music by singing in

various languages, and enhance the teaching of Nigerian languages through singing songs from

other parts of the country. The other objectives which deal with the theory of music is concerned



with being able to reads music, understanding of musical alphabets, identification of musical

instruments(indigenous and foreign), learning to play the instruments as well as identify them

visually and aurally and being able to care for the instruments. Finally, it is expected that the

students learn the rhythm by beating simple rhythm patterns after hearing, being able to read

rhythm from notes and to feel the pulse of music(Federal Ministry of Education,2009). The skills if

properly harnessed can earn one a living in either performing or maintenance; and if the girl child

learns this skill she can be better off than the one who did not go to school.

Introductory Technology helps students at the Junior Secondary School to explore the world of

work, make intelligent career choices and develop informed patterns of consumption. It exposes

students at the Junior Secondary School level to technology through exploratory activities and helps

develop good attitudes in the students towards technology and industry. Thus it supports

achievement of Nigeria’s quest to build individuals who will:

adjust to the changing environment, deal with forces which influence the future and participate

in controlling his/her own destiny.

Introductory technology is one of the pre-vocational subjects at the Junior Secondary School level in

Nigeria which is capable of providing students with a process of orientation in production and

consumption through experiences in planning, producing, testing, servicing and evaluating types of

consumer and industrial goods. Helps students develop a broader understanding of industrial

processes as they explore their individual interests and develop aptitudes, exposes students to

various opportunities available in the world of work and are thus oriented, in many occupational

areas, to see the need for school continuity at the Secondary School level and beyond. It gives

students the ability to apply principles of planning and design, construction techniques, and

scientific principles, to the solution of problems.

In order to reduce ignorance about technology and lay a solid foundation for true national

development, introductory technology is offered as a key subject like mathematics and science. The

Federal Ministry of Education, Science and Technology(1985) stated the three(3) main objectives of

introductory technology to:

1. Provide pre-vocational orientation for further training in technology;

2. Provide basic technological literacy for everyday living, and;

3. Stimulate creativity.

To achieve this goal, teaching of this subject must be predicated on teaching that seeks to make the

learning of introductory technology functional.



2.5 Summary of Literature Review

This chapter reviewed works done by other researchers which are related to the study. First,

it highlighted the two theories adopted for the study – the Human Capital Theory and the Theory of

Social Change. The human capital theory posited that people spend on themselves not only for

sake of present enjoyment but also for the sake of future percuniary and non-percuniary returns and

added that the knowledge and skills acquired through education makes the individual more

productive, more employable and guarantees them more future incomes. The theory of social

change on its part maintained that the level of development is correlated with achievement

motivation which varies between societies, their classes and strata. Children learn to act according

to societal norms and if by external influences a new group gains power (as often seen when

people are highly educated), the status of the old elite is challenged and weakened leading to a

change in behaviour, innovative personalities and enhanced economic development.

The reviewed literature showed that some parents were unwilling to send their female

children to school due to cultural biases and prejudices that favour the education of male children.

They feel the girl’s place is in the home. As such allowing them access to education of any kind is

viewed as a waste of resources as the educated girl will marry and take the skill and knowledge to a

different family. Besides poverty also has a role to play as poor parents cannot retain their

daughters in school but often withdraw them to assist in economic ventures like hawking and house-

maids that brings more income to the family.

Education of the girl child was seen to be crucial to women empowerment and the more the

girls are educated, the more skills and knowledge will they acquire for sustainable development. To

this end, the introduction of UBE in Nigeria was seen as a catalyst that will result in greater female

participation in national development which will redress the gender imbalance evident in the

educational landscape. The vocational subjects in the UBE curriculum enhances skills and

knowledge acquisition necessary for future socio economic prospects of the students. The subjects

included computer studies, business studies, home economics, fine arts, local craft, music, practical

agriculture and introductory technology. However, the works reviewed did not show any relationship

between the subjects taught and their influence or otherwise on the girl-child’s socio-economic

prospects. Hence the need for this study.



CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

This chapter presents the study area, research design, population, sample and sampling

technique, instrumentation and procedure for data collection and analysis.

3.1 Research Area

The study area was the South-South Geo-political Zone of Nigeria comprising Akwa Ibom,

Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo and Rivers States and 185 Local Government Areas. This region

has a population of about 21million people (National Population Commission, 2007). There are

about 40 different ethnic groups, speaking about 250 dialects spread across 5000 communities

and covering a land mass of about 10,000 square kilometers (Nigerian Embassy, 2009). According

to the source, the south-south zone of Nigeria has the third largest wetlands in the world after

Mississippi and Panatela. At present, it accounts for more than 90 percent of Nigeria’s crude oil

and has about 14 Universities and over 1000 secondary schools. The region is endowed with a

very rich cultural heritage and tourist attractions. Examples are the Ibeno beach in Akwa Ibom

State, and Obudu Cattle Ranch in Cross River State.

A bulk of the population are peasant farmers and petty traders with large family sizes of

about five to eight children on the average. These families are unable to adequately cater for this

large size and are compelled to either give out their children especially the girls as domestic

servants to well-to-do citizens, or send them out to hawk some wares just to earn some money to

complement the family earnings and sustain the family economically.

3.2 Research Design :

The ex-post facto research design was used. Ali (2006) viewed the ex-post facto research

design as a systematic inquiry in which the researcher does not have direct control of independent

variables because the manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not

manipulatable. This design is considered most appropriate as it allows the researcher to collect first

hand primary information from a large population of respondents in their natural setting for the

purpose of giving detailed descriptions (Onwioduokit, 2000). Similarly Osuala (2001) stated that the

method involves collection of data based on questionnaire, and it also helps the researcher to

identify, study and analyze occurrences and conditions as they exist.



The independent variables in this study are phenomena which had already occurred, consequently

no attempt will be made to manipulate or control them. The dependent variable (socio-economic

prospect of the girl child) will be measured against the possible effects of the independent variables

(parents willingness, and vocational content of the UBE). The research design had been used

successfully by previous researchers including Aliyu (2006), Fant (2008) and Udo (2009).

3.3 Definition and Description of Variables

The variables included parents’ willingness, vocational contents of Universal Basic

Education, as well as socio-economic prospects of the girl-child.

Universal Basic Education is the free and compulsory education children receive for 9 years

duration from primary school through junior secondary school.

The term socio-economic prospects of the girl-child refer to the economic, social and political

empowerment of the girl-child after receiving universal basic education (that is the wage and

employment prospects). While the vocational content of Universal Basic Education was the

independent variable, socio-economic prospects of the girl-child was the dependent variable.

3.4 Research Population:

The population consisted of about 15,000 female students in junior secondary two and three

classes already enrolled for the Universal Basic Education in 2008/2009 academic session from

three States in South-South Nigeria (Akwa Ibom-4,500 female students; Cross River-3,813 and

Rivers- 6687) (Federal Ministry of Education,2009). Their parents were also part of the study. The

female students in JSS one were excluded from the study because they are yet to be adequately

exposed to the vocational contents of the UBE. Where a parent had more than one female child in

the school, only one was accepted for the study. Hence, 1500 female students also matched 1500

parents that participated in the study.

3.5 Sample and Sampling Techniques:

A sample of 1500 female students (representing 10 percent of the entire population of

15,000) participated in the study. The multi-stage sampling technique was used for sample

selection. Simple balloting method was used to select three out of the six States in South-South

Nigeria for the study. The same method was used to select two schools from each of the three

states. A total of six secondary schools were used in the study. In each of these schools

proportional stratified random sampling technique was used to select female students in junior

secondary two and three classes and their parents. Two different groups participated in the study.

These were 1500 female students in JS 2 and 3 as well as 1500 parents of the selected students.



Each of the groups was utilized independently for their role in the study. Table 1 below presents the

sample.

Table 1: Sample Distribution

Number of Number of Total Students Total

States Schools selected Respondents per State parents

JS 2 JS 3

Akwa Ibom 2 220 230 450 450

Cross River 2 185 196 381 381

Rivers 2 275 394 669 669

Total 6 680 820 1500 1500

3.6 Instrumentation:

Two instruments were used to collect data. These were ‘Parents Willingness to Retain Girl-

Child in School Questionnaire, (PWRGSQ) and, UBE and Socio-Economic Preparation of the Girl-

Child Questionnaire (UBESPGQ). The PWRGSQ consisting of three sections A, B and C were

administered on parents to assess their willingness to retain the female children in the UBE

Programme. Section A gathered demographic information from parents, B collected data on

parents’ willingness to retain the girl child in the UBE programme while Section C elicited data on

poverty level of parents.

Section B of the PWRGSQ had 10 items rated on a 4-points scale of Very Willing, Willing, Less

Willing and Not-Willing. Section C had five items using a 4-points scale to determine parental level

of poverty or otherwise. The point rating for options in Sections B and Care shown below:

Strongly Agree (SA) - 4 points. - Very Willing (VW)

Agree (A) - 3 points. - Willing (W)

Disagree (D) - 2 points. - Less Willing (LW)

Strongly Disagree (SD) - 1 point. - Not Willing (NW)

For convenience in analysis, the point options of very willing and willing were collapsed and termed

‘willing’, while less willing and not willing were collapsed and referred to as ‘not willing’.



The UBESPGQ consisted of two sections A and B. Section A collected demographic information on

the girl-child. Section B which was designed to give the frequency of the girl-child’s ability to

undertake specified occupations elicited information about the skills acquired through UBE and how

the UBE Programme is preparing the girl-child for future socio-economic life. In addition, school

heads or individual vocational subject teachers were given the form –Information on Facilities and

Equipment Available for Vocational Training to fill and interviewed to ascertain facilities and

equipment available in the schools surveyed.

3.7 Validation and Reliability of the Instrume nts:

The group mentor, ERNWACA coordinator in Uyo, ERNWACA national secretary and three other

research experts including ERNWACA resource on gender assessed the face and content validity of

the research instruments. A reliability testing was carried out using 50 respondents from each

category who will not be involved in the actual study. Reliability of the instruments was ascertained

using the Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient and coefficients of 0.86 and 0.77 were obtained.

3.8 Procedure for Data Collection:

The researchers and trained research assistants administered the instruments on

respondents. Good public relations was applied on the heads of the schools selected for use, their

staff as well as the respondents to enhance effective administration and collection of data. The

female students from junior secondary two and three were exposed to an unstructured interview in

order to find out those that have been housemaids and hawkers as well as those who were still

serving housemaids and hawkers. Besides, some of the girls in JSS 2 and 3 were asked to say how

they have benefited so far and what they hope to do with what they have learnt at the end of the

UBE programme in a focus group discussion. Some parents were also engaged in a focus group

discussion at their own level. The discussions at each level was recorded.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Descriptive statistics were employed to answer the research questions. An independent t-test was

used to determine the difference in the willingness of literate and illiterate parents to retain their

daughters in the nine years programme and enrolment of urban and rural girls in UBE while Chi-

square Statistic was used to determine the influence of UBE programme on the girl-child’s future

socio-economic prospects.



CHAPTER FOUR

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS.

The result will be analyzed based on the research questions and null hypotheses formulated

for the study.

Answers to research questions

Question 1: What is the extent of parents’ willingness to retain their female children in the nine-year


Table 2: Extent of Parents’ Willingness To Retain Their Female Children in the Nine-Year Universal

Basic Education.

[N=1500 Parents]

Level of willingness Frequency Percentage

Willing 1305 87

Not Willing 195 13

Total 1500 100

Data in Table 2 indicated that 87 percent of parents are willing to retain their female children in the

Universal Basic Education while 13 percent were not willing.

Question 2: What were the occupations of the female students prior to enrolling in Universal Basic

Education?



Table 3: Occupations of the Female Students Prior to Enrollment in Universal Basic Education.

[N=1500]

Occupations Frequency Percentage

Hawking 605 40.33

Housemaid 507 33.80

Other jobs 388 25.87

Total 1500 100

Table 3 showed that 40.33 percent of the female students were engaged in hawking and

33.80 percent were housemaids while 25.87 percent engaged in other child labour jobs prior to

enrolling in Universal Basic Education.

Table 4: Percentage of female children still maintaining their occupation while in UBE Programme

(N = 973)

Occupation Frequency Percentage

Hawking 356 36.59

Housemaid 465 47.79

Other Child labour job 152 15.62

Total 973 100

As in Table 4, 973 out of 1500 female students still maintained their occupations while in

UBE Programme. They still continued as hawkers (36.59%), housemaids (47.79%) and other child

labour jobs (15.62%).

Question 3: What are the facilities and equipment available in schools for the vocational training of

the girl-child in the Universal Basic Education?

Table 5: Facilities and Equipment Available in the Schools for the Vocational Training of the

Girl-Child.

Equipment

Number

Available

Number in Working

Condition

Average Age of Equipment in

Years

Frequency of Usage Per

Week

Average Frequency of Maintenance Per Session

Manual Typewriters 160 120 20 Daily Twice Computer Sets 20 12 5 Daily When need

arises



Printer 6 6 2 ” ” Generating Sets 6 6 5 ” ”

Gas Cooker/ Oven 6 2 15 4 ” Stoves 15 6 3 5 “

Refrigerators 4 2 15 NQ “ Electric Iron 6 4 7 Used only

when needed When need

arises Box Iron 4 4 10 ” ”

Sewing Machine 8 6 20 3 ” Flutes 60 40 10 - - Drums 80 70 10 - -

Tambourines 4 4 8 - - Wheelbarrows 6 6 10 1 1

Spades 18 12 7 1 - Matchets 26 17 6 2 1

Watering Cans 7 6 15 1 - Knapsack sprayers 6 6 10 1 -

Clamps 10 8 5 NRA - Files 70 50 20 “ -

Hammer 60 60 20 “ - Planes 20 15 20 “ - Chisel 40 40 20 “ - Saw 50 40 20 “ -

Screw driver 60 60 20 “ - NQ = not quantifiable , NRA = not readily available. Table 5 presents data concerning facilities and equipment available in the school for the vocational

training of the girl-children. The data showed that there were 120 functional manual typewriters in

the six schools surveyed in South-South, Nigeria. The average age of the typewriters was 20 years.

Twelve functional computers with average age of five years. Other equipment in working condition

were two gas cookers (average age, 15 years), six sewing machines (average age, 20 years),

twelve spades, 17 matchets, 60 hammers, 15 planes, 40 chisels, 40 saws and 60 screw drivers.

These equipment were aged 20 years on the average.

Table 6: Student-Equipment Ratio as a Reflection of the Effectiveness of Vocational Training in


Facility or Equipment

Number in Working Condition

Number of Students Student-Equipment Ratio

Manual Typewriters 120 1500 13:1 Computer Sets 12 1500 125:5 Printer 6 1500 250:1 Generating Sets 6 1500 250:1 Gas Cooker/Oven 2 1500 750:1 Stoves 6 1500 250:1 Refrigerator 2 1500 750:1 Electric Iron 4 1500 375:1 Box Iron 4 1500 375:1 Sewing Machines 6 1500 250:1



Flutes 40 1500 38:1 Drums 70 1500 21:1 Tambourines 4 1500 375:1 Wheel Barrows 6 1500 250:1 Spades 12 1500 125:1 Matchets 17 1500 88:1 Watering Cans 6 1500 250:1 Knapsack Sprayers 6 1500 250:1 Clamps 8 1500 188:1 Files 50 1500 30:1 Hammer 60 1500 25:1 Planes 15 1500 100:1 Chisel 40 1500 38:1 Saw 40 1500 38:1 Screw Driver 60 1500 25:1

Table 6 presents data on student-equipment ratio. Using the sample of 1500 female students, the

120 manual typewriters had a student-equipment ratio of 13:1, twelve computers had the ratio of

125:1, two gas cookers/oven – 750:1, six sewing machines – 250:1, 12 spades – 125:1; 17

matchets – 88:1, 60 hammers – 25:1; 15 planes – 100:1. On the whole, the student-equipment ratio

is not encouraging.

Analysis of Hypothesis

H01: There is no significant difference between rich and poor parents in their willingness to retain

their female children in the 9-year UBE.

Table 7: t-test Comparison of Mean Scores on Rich and Poor Parents’ Willingness to Retain Female

Children in Universal Basic Education.

[N=1500]

Variable N X SD df tcal tcrit

Rich Parents 679 42.6 5.54

1498 72.36* 1.96

Poor Parents 821 27.1 2.39

*Significant at .05 Alpha level.

Table 7 showed that the calculated t-value of 72.36 is greater than the critical t-value of 1.96 at .05

alpha level, under 1498 degree of freedom. This implies that there existed significant difference

between rich and poor parents in their willingness to retain female children in the 9-year



Universal Basic Education (UBE), hence, hypothesis one stated above was rejected, and the

alternative statement upheld.

H02: There is no significant difference between literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to

retain female children in the 9-year Universal Basic Education.

Table 8: t-test Companion of Mean Scores of Literate and Illiterate Parents’ Willingness to Retain

their Female Children in Universal Basic Education.

[N=1500]

Variable N X SD df tcal tcrit

Literate Parents 632 40.1 4.46

1498 38.59* 1.96

Illiterate Parents 868 32.3 3.28

*Significant at 0.05 Alpha level.

As in Table 8, the t-test calculated value of 38.50 is greater than the critical value of 1.96 at .05

alpha level, and 1498 degree of freedom. This means that there existed significance difference

between literate and illiterate parents in their willingness to retain their female in the 9-year

Universal Basic Education. Therefore, null hypothesis 2 stated above was rejected, and the

alternative statement upheld.

H03: There is no significant influence of the 9-year Universal Basic Education on the future socio-

economic prospects of the girl-child in South-South Nigeria.

Table 9: Chi square (χ2) analysis of the influence of Universal Basic Education on the future socio-

economic prospects of the girl-child.

Perceived

Occupation

Resulting

from UBE

Former

Hawkers

Former

Housemaids

Other unspecified

child-labour

activities

χχχχ2

Snacks making 52 (28.2)

18 (23.7)

0 (45)

39.6**

Music 55 (48.4)

20 (40.6)

45 (31)

34.0*

Computer operation 61 (87.5)

110 (73.3)

46 (56.1)

28.2



Crop farming 10 (25.4)

10 (21.3)

43 (16.3)

59.0**

Advance to Senior Secondary School

122 (133.9)

173 (112.2)

37 (85.9)

61.8

Sewing 41 (67.8)

82 (56.8)

45 (43.5)

21.9

Typing 41 (18.9)

6 (15.9)

0 (19.9)

44.2**

Trading 101 (75.8)

37 (63.5)

50 (48.6)

49.6**

Poultry farmer 60 (50.4)

20 (42.3)

45 (32.3)

38.6**

Artist 0 (3.6)

0 (3.0)

9 (2.3)

26.1

Knitting 30 (23.4)

7 (19.6)

21 (15.0)

34.1*

Cookery 32 (41.5)

24 (34.8)

47 (26.6)

21.2

458.3

χ2cal = 458.3; χ2 crit =33.92, df = 22, p> . 05, * figures in parenthesis represent expected frequencies.

Data in Table 9 indicated that Universal Basic Education exerts significant influence on the

perceived future occupation of the girl-children in areas of snacks-making (χ2=39.6), music

(χ2=34.0), crop farming (χ2=59.0), typing (χ2=44.2), trading (χ2=49.6), poultry farming (χ2=38.6),

knitting (χ=34.1) and advancement to Senior Secondary School (χ2=61-8). Universal Basic

Education did not perceivably influence the girl-children’s future involvement in sewing (χ2=10.42),

computer operation (χ2=22.79), arts(χ2=18.00), and cookery (χ2=32.52). The observed values were

less than the critical chi square value of 33.92. However, the overall chi square value of 458.3 was

greater than the table value. Therefore, null hypothesis 3 stated above was rejected.

Qualitative Analysis

Findings from the unstructured interview conducted indicated that parents now see the need of

educating the girl-child contrary to what was accepted as the norm in the distant past. Even very

poor and illiterate parents spoke in support of the girl-child’s education as a panacea for her future

socio-economic prospects and sustainable development. Culture is dynamic they maintained and



added that parents who deny their female children access to western education are ignorant of the

benefits of such investment. The realization of these benefits they further said informed their

decision to let girls combine schooling with work so as to support the family with the little income

accruing from such work.

The girls on their part were very happy with government for the free and compulsory Universal

Basic Education. According to them, it has delivered them from the hazards of hawking, being

housemaids to very unfriendly and uncaring households and being forced out of school at very

tender ages. They noted that it was the declaration of the free and compulsory Universal Basic

Education that compelled their parents to withdraw them from their former occupations. Some of

those who are combining work and schooling said they do so to supplement the family income while

others admitted they enjoyed hawking because of the ‘pocket money’ it fetches them.

On what they hope to do on completion of the UBE programme, some of them claimed they will

venture into different aspects of agriculture such as poultry farming, vegetable and crop farming

because they have been taught practical agriculture extensively. Some said they will opt for trading

which they are familiar with, while a good number said they want to complete Secondary education

instead of looking for jobs at the end of junior secondary. On the whole, they were happy for the free

opportunity to be educated.

CHAPTER FIVE

DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Discussion of Findings

The discussion is done under the sub-headings relevant to the research questions and

hypotheses formulated to guide the study.

Parent’s Willingness to Retain Their Female Childre n in the 9-year Universal Basic Education

Programm e.

The result indicated that parents were willing to retain their female children in the 9-year

Universal Basic Education. The parents seem to acknowledge the fact that education will make their



female children more productive and employable. They also seem to understand that Universal

Basic Education will provide knowledge needed by the female children to achieve higher standard

of living and cope more effectively with the challenges of a constantly changing society.

This finding agrees with Igbineweka & Aghenta (2005) who found that Nigerian parents are

willing to finance their children’s education especially at the Universal Basic Education level. They

also found that many parents go to the extent of selling off personal possessions and even borrow

to send and keep their children in school. This finding therefore suggests that parents in South-

South Nigeria share the view of Waldman (2009) that education provides an immediate answer to

achieving economic justice for the girl-children. It also agreed with the postulate of the Human

Capital Theory that people spend on themselves and acquire additional education as a conscious

investment activity in anticipation of future percuniary and non-percuniary returns.

Occupations of the Female Students Prior to Enrolme nt in Universal Basic Education

The result of findings revealed that 40.33 percent of the female students in Universal Basic

Education programme in South-South Nigeria were involved in hawking, 33.80 percent of them

served as housemaids, and 25.87 percent engaged in other forms of child-labour prior to enrolling in

the Universal Basic Education programme. Many factors informed the female children’s involvement

in these occupations. They include the poverty status of parents, parental apathy to girl-child

education; gender based stereotypes and gender discriminatory prejudice arising from culture,

religion and politics.

Percentage of Female Children Still Maintaining The ir Occupations While in the Universal

Basic Education Programme

Findings revealed that 973 out of 1500 female students sampled were still maintaining their

occupations while in the Universal Basic Education programme. The reasons might be that their

parents are too poor to sponsor them wholly in school. Their contributions to the family purse seem

demanded by parents. Again, it seems that most of these female children now in school had

enjoyed the money they gained from hawking and other child-labour jobs, and, even though they

are being called back for Universal Basic Education, they still enjoy continuing their occupations

while in school. The present result agrees with UNICEF (2001) and Jatau (2008) who found that

poverty level of parents or inadequate family financial resources greatly affect girl-child education.

Facilities and Equipment Available in Schools for t he Vocational Training of the Girl-Child



The survey revealed that schools lack necessary facilities and equipment needed for

effective vocational training of female students. Practical classes are rarely held in vocational

subjects such as Home Economics, Computer Studies Fine Arts. They depend on theory presented

entirely by lecture method to the students. This result was expected because the student-equipment

ratio shown Table 6 demonstrates the evidence. The implication might be that the female children

undergoing Universal Basic Education programme are half-baked and are consequently not able to

practice the vocational skills taught in schools for a living.

Parent’s Socio-Economic Status and Willingness to R etain Female Children in Universal

Basic Education Programme

The results of findings indicated that there existed significant difference between rich and

poor parents in their willingness to retain female children in the universal Basic Education for

complete nine years. The rich parents seem to be more willing to retain their female children wholly

in school than the poor parents. The result of the present finding seem to explain the reason for

some female children continuing in their occupations while in the Universal Basic Education

programme.

A previous investigation had pointed out that in South-South Nigeria majority of the parents

are peasant farmers and petty traders with large family sizes of about seven or eight children on the

average (Usen, 2003). These families seem unable to adequately cater for their members and are

often compelled to either give out their female children as domestic servants, or send out to hawk

wares to complement the family economy. UNESCO (2001) had identified lack of financial

resources as one of the factors that block access to the girl-child education. To make up for this

deficiency, the poor parents in South-South Nigeria therefore encourage their female children to

combine Universal Basic Education with their previous occupations to support themselves

financially.

Parent’s Educational Status and Their Willingness t o Retain Female Children in Universal

Basic Education

Findings revealed that there existed significant difference between literate and illiterate

parents in their willingness to retain female children in the nine year Universal Basic Education. This

result was expected because the literate parents are fully aware of the importance of children’s

education and so do not hesitate to send their female children to school, but illiterates do. Illiterate

parents do not seem to understand that investment in girl-child education can enhance their



productivity. The parent’s level of education according to Fant (2008) play a crucial role in the

decision to allow female children to attend school. The findings that literate parents are more willing

to send and retain their female children in school concurred Olagunju (2007) who posited that

educating the parents will have a multiplier effect in the girl-child enrollment, retention and

completion.

Universal Basic Education and the Future Socio-Econ omic Prospects of the Girl-Child

The result of the present study indicated that Universal Basic Education exerts significant

influence on the future occupation of the female children specifically in the areas of crop farming,

poultry farming, snack- making, music, typing and trading. The reason for the observed result is not

far-fetched. Most of the vocational trainings received by the female students in Universal Basic

Education programme are in the areas of Agriculture and Business Studies. Their prospective

involvement in snack-making is engendered partly from the crude training in the Home Management

aspect of Home Economics.

The result also showed that Universal Basic Education does not influence the female

children’s future involvement in sewing, computer operation, arts and cookery. This may have been

due to inadequate facilities and equipment for training in those areas. Thus, the female children

tend to be incapacitated by lack of facilities and equipment and limited in access to occupational

skills, which could otherwise be provided through Universal Basic Education. Previous study by Oni

(2007) that vocational education provides the recipient with basic knowledge and practical skills

needed for entry into the workforce, and prepares people for useful employment in a recognized

occupation seem unattainable based on the present findings.

Facilities and equipment are necessary for effective vocational skill acquisition. As reported

by Oni (2007), vocational practitioners who have no knowledge of tool handling and machines

operations may be left behind in their later professional practices. The findings that schools lack

functional facilities and equipment with which to impart skills relevant to the listed fields of vocational

education for the girl-child seem challenging. However, Udo (2009) who found a significant

relationship between availability of studio equipment and students’ acquisition of typing skills is

supported by result of this study.

Conclusions

Based on the findings of this study, it was evident that:

1. Parents in South-South Nigeria are willing to retain their female children in the 9-years

Universal Basic Education. It was further found that the rich/poor as well as the

literate/illiterate parents differ in the extent of their willingness to retain female children in the



UBE programme. The poor and the illiterates parents compelled their female children to

combine their occupation (hawking, housemaid) with schooling. Whereas the rich and the

educated parents do not allow their children to continue in their occupation prior to

enrollment in UBE programme.

2. The occupations of the female children prior to enrolling in UBE were hawking, house help

jobs, and other specified child labour jobs.

3. The facilities and equipment available in the six schools surveyed in South-South Nigeria

were 120 manual typewriters with average age of 20 years, twelve functional computers, two

gas cookers (average age, 15 years), six sewing machines (aged 20 years) and few

workshop tools with average age of 20 years.

4. The student – equipment ratio using a sample of 1500 female students from six schools is

South-South Nigeria were 13:1 for manual typewriters, 125:1 for computers, 750:1 for gas

cookers, and 250:1 for sewing machines.

5. UBE exerts significant influence on the future occupation of the female children in areas of

crop farming, poultry farming, music, typing and trading. UBE was not found to contribute to

the female children, future involvement in sewing, computer operation, arts and cookery

because of inadequate equipment for skill trading in the area.

Recommendations

1. The Ministry of Women Affairs in collaboration with National Agency for Prohibition of

trafficking in Persons (NAPTIP) should educate the poor and illiterate parents against

compelling their female children to combine child labour and commercial activities with

schooling. This will help to enhance the female children’s concentration on vocational skills

taught in schools.

2. The state and Federal Ministry of Education should provide sufficient facilities and

equipment to enhance effective vocational skills training to female students in UBE. This

would help to increase the students-equipment ratio and facilitate acquisition of vocational

skills by the female students.

3. The Universal Basic Education commission should ensure that female students in UBE

programme are better taught skills in sewing, computer operation and cooking to ensure

utilization in their future occupation.

Suggestions for further Research

1. This study should be replicated in the other five geo-political zones in Nigeria to enhance

comparability and generalization of results.



2. A comparative study should be conducted on the socio-economic prospects of female

children exposed to Universal Basic Education and those who are not.

Limitations of the Study

The researchers encountered some limitation in the course of this study. The absence of a

standardized research instrument for a study of this magnitude resulted in the use of researcher-

made instruments whose content and face validility had to be ascertained by research experts. The

rating scales adopted by the researchers may have had inherent weaknesses arising from the

sample size used by the researchers. Judging from the sensitive nature of the study, the items of

the questionnaires and the rating scales may be prone to response bias. That is, respondents

limiting their judgments to what they feel will make them accepted in society.

To offset the limitations, the researchers and research assistants were to keep their ears

open for comments by members of the research population sampled and to initiate conversations to

elicit more information. Therefore, unstructured interview approaches supplemented the use of the

rating scale.

Problems Encountered

Some problems were encountered in the course of this research. They included the inability

of the researchers to get the approval of the heads of the schools originally selected for the study.

Thus, the researchers had to look for schools with similar characteristics where the school heads

were willing to permit the female students participate in the study. This delayed the work pace,

wasted time and the limited resources available for the research. It was also difficult getting the girls

together for discussions because the school heads felt we were asking too much and at the same

time prying into the girls private lives. According to them they had the rights to protect their students’

privacy. It was also difficult getting information about availability of facilities as those involved

thought we were Government’s agents who have come again to deceive them. This obstacle was

however overcome with explanations about our objectives.

REFERENCES



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APPENDIX

INSTRUMENT ONE

Parents’ Willingness to Retain Girl-Child in School Questionnaire (PWRGSQ) Dear Respondent,

This study is conducted to access the parents’ willingness to retain their female children in the

Universal Basic Education for nine years so as to gain future prospect of socio-economic

empowerment. Your candid response to the under listed items will be highly appreciated and treated

in strict confidence.

Section A: Demographic Data

Education Status: Literate Illiterate

Section B: Parents’ Willingness

Please tick (√) the column that best express your opinion on the items provided.

Key: VW=Very Willing; W=Willing; LW=Less Willing and NW=Not Willing.

S/N ITEMS VW W LW NW 1 I would encourage my daughter to abandon hawking and go to school. 2 I would support my daughter throughout the nine-year compulsory education. 3 My daughter would continue hawking to support the family with money. 4 I am ready to withdraw my daughter from house help eventhough the master

always supports our family

5 My daughter would go to school when I finish repaying the loan I received. 6 I do support the girl-child education. 7 Female education should be encouraged. 8 Government is investing money on the girl-child education. 9 The girls should learn to keep the home and should not go to school 10 Girls should enjoy Universal Basic Education eventhough they will marry and

go to rear children.

Section C: Poverty Rating items Key SA=strongly agree; A = agree; D = disagree; SD = strongly disagree. Tick only one response per item.

S/N ITEMS SA A D SD



1 I earn more than four thousand naira (N4,000.00) a month. 2 I am able to provide clothing to every member of my family 3 I have a house to shelter my family 4 I do not rely on my children for financial support 5 I borrow money to buy food for my family

INSTRUMENT TWO

UBE and Socio-economic Preparation of the Girl-chil d Questionnaire (UBESPGQ)

Dear Respondent

This study is conducted to ascertain the extent to which UBE prepares the girl-child for future

socio-economic life. Your candid response to under listed items will be highly appreciated and

treated confidentially.

SECTION A – PERSONAL DATA

1. Class:……………………………………

2. Type of job engaged in previously: Hawking Housemaid Other jobs

SECTION B: FUTURE SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROSPECTS

Which of these socio-economic activities would you like to undertake after Universal Basic

Education (Tick only one).

1

After Universal Basic Education, I will:

Open a snack shop.

2 Become a musician. 3 Become a computer operator. 4 Go into crop farming. 5 go further to the Senior Secondary School 6 Become a seamstress. 7 Become a roadside typist. 8 Become a trader. 9 Open a poultry farm. 10 open and run an art studio. 11 open a knitting shop. 12 cook and sell fast foods.



Information on Facilities and Equipment Available f or Vocational Training Form for Principals

Dear Sir/Madam, Please kindly list facilities and equipment available in your school for vocational subjects practical in the format below:

Name of Facility or Equipment

Number

Available

Number in Working

Condition

Average Age of Equipment

in Years

Frequency of Usage Per Week

Average Frequency of Maintenance Per Session

universal basic education and socio-economic prospects in nigeria

Documents