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B A C K G R O U N D G U I D E

V M U N 2 0 1 8

United Nations Educational, Scienti�c and Cultural Organization

Vancouver Model United Nations The 17th Annual Session | January 19 - 21, 2018

Dear Delegates, My name is Lucy Harvey and I am delighted to be serving as the director for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Committee (otherwise known as UNESCO) for VMUN 2018. I am currently a grade 12 student at West Point Grey Academy, and I am so excited to be directing this committee for my 5th and final VMUN! While I have lots of experience in Secretariat positions, I have never directed a committee before, so I am extremely excited for this opportunity! I’m sure it will be a positive learning experience for all of us. Since I will be getting to know you over the weekend of VMUN, there are some things you should know about me first. This will be my fifth and final year doing Model United Nations (MUN), and I have loved it since grade 8. MUN is the first activity that really got me out of my shell, and sparked my interest for politics and international relations. This VMUN will be my 12th MUN conference, and sadly my last. Other than MUN, I also train 12 hours a week in a youth pre professional circus programme, which I would be happy to talk to you about! I have chosen two topics that I find extremely interesting and engaging, and I hope you do too. The first, Preventing Violent Extremism Through Education is a complex topic, but I am positive you will rise to the challenge. The second topic, Protecting and Preserving the Health of Oceans, is extremely multi faceted, and I feel as though delegates will be able to craft extremely comprehensive resolutions when grappling with the topic. I feel as though through much debate, teamwork and compromise, delegates will be able to tackle the issues very successfully. I wish you much luck in your preparation for the conference. If you have any questions please do not hesitate to email me at [email protected]. I look forward to sharing an extremely rewarding weekend with you all! Regards, Lucy Harvey UNESCO Director

Ken Hong Secretary-General

Callum Shepard Chief of Staff

Jerry Jiao

Director-General

Andrew Wei Director of Logistics

Jadine Ngan USG General Assemblies

Eric Zhang

USG Specialized Agencies

Dillon Ramlochun USG Conference

Angelina Zhang

USG Delegate Affairs

Jerry Xu USG Delegate Affairs

Alan Chen

USG Finance

Meghna Lohia USG IT

Position Paper Policy

What is a Position Paper? A position paper is a brief overview of a country’s stance on the topics being discussed by a particular committee. Though there is no specific format the position paper must follow, it should include a description of your positions your country holds on the issues on the agenda, relevant actions that your country has taken, and potential solutions that your country would support. At Vancouver Model United Nations, delegates should write a position paper for each of the committee’s topics. Each position paper should not exceed one page, and should all be combined into a single document per delegate.

Formatting Position papers should: — Include the name of the delegate, his/her country, and the committee — Be in a standard font (e.g. Times New Roman) with a 12-point font size and 1-inch document margins — Not include illustrations, diagrams, decorations, national symbols, watermarks, or page borders — Include citations and a bibliography, in any format, giving due credit to the sources used in research (not included in the 1-page limit) Due Dates and Submission Procedure Position papers for this committee are highly recommended. To be eligible for an award, you must submit a position paper. The submission deadline is January 7th, 2018. Once your position paper is complete, please save the file as your last name, your first name and send it as an attachment in an email, to your committee’s email address, with the subject heading as your last name, your first name — Position Paper. Please do not add any other attachments to the email or write anything else in the body. Both your position papers should be combined into a single PDF or Word document file; position papers submitted in another format will not be accepted. The email address for this committee is [email protected].

Vancouver Model United Nations 2018 4

Preventing Violent Extremism Through Education .................................................................... 5

Overview .................................................................................................................................................. 5

Timeline ................................................................................................................................................... 6

Historical Analysis ................................................................................................................................. 7

Past UN/International Involvement .................................................................................................... 8

Current Situation ................................................................................................................................... 9

Possible Solutions & Controversies ................................................................................................... 10

Bloc Positions ........................................................................................................................................ 11

Western Bloc .................................................................................................................................................... 11

Developing Nations ........................................................................................................................................ 11

Discussion Questions ........................................................................................................................... 12

Additional Resources ........................................................................................................................... 12

Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 14

Protecting and Preserving the Health of Oceans ....................................................................... 16

Overview ................................................................................................................................................ 16

Timeline ................................................................................................................................................. 17

Historical Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 18

Past UN/International Involvement .................................................................................................. 18

Current Situation ................................................................................................................................. 20

Possible Solutions & Controversies ................................................................................................... 21

Bloc Positions ........................................................................................................................................ 22

East Asia ........................................................................................................................................................... 22

Industrialized and Developing Nations ....................................................................................................... 22

Western Nations ............................................................................................................................................. 22

Discussion Questions ........................................................................................................................... 22

Additional Resources ........................................................................................................................... 22

Bibliography .......................................................................................................................................... 24


Preventing Violent Extremism Through Education

Overview

Violent extremism is one of the most prevalent issues facing the global community today. Although the term “terrorism” is more commonly used than violent extremism, the terms themselves have slight differences; violent extremism is simply considered to be a more expansive and politically correct term for terrorism. In the post-9/11 world, many believe terrorism is the world's greatest threat, and finding a solution to this issue has proven difficult. Accounts of terrorism have been increasing at an extreme rate since 2011, and this growth does not seem to be slowing down.1 But the issue the international community faces today is how difficult it is to pinpoint a comprehensive solution to terrorism, especially when direct solutions to the violence do not fall under the United Nations Security Council’s (UNESCO’s) jurisdiction. Active prevention of future terrorist attacks has proven to be equally as important as directly countering violent extremism.

This is where education comes in. Education plays an instrumental role in helping to prevent violent extremism worldwide. The logic is that security measures will not succeed alone, and an educated individual will be less likely to be coerced into joining an extremist group or committing acts of terrorism. The challenge that the global community faces is preventing the recruitment of youth; this recruitment usually happens through use of the media and schools. Education is not just needed in developing countries; tolerance and anti-extremist education must also be introduced in the West. Western countries face issues regarding the spread of stigma and hatred as well as the recruitment of youth to extremist groups. Because this is such a multifaceted issue, the types of education that nations think will most benefit the cause varies, which is reason for contention.

Introducing anti-extremist education into developing nations can be difficult, because the influence of the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) continues to spread. This makes it very difficult to introduce education where the state has no power, yet much of the time this is where the education is most needed. This education is not just necessary at primary levels: all vulnerable people are susceptible to becoming violent extremists. Therefore, this education is also needed at secondary, technical and higher education levels. One prominent area of concern is how nations are struggling to tackle how to bring the appropriate education into developing and war-torn nations. Clearly, preventing violent extremism through education is not as simple as it seems, and delegates must consider all facets of the issue in order to comprehensively tackle the problem. Although the issue may seem insurmountable, UNESCO has already taken steps to help countries deliver education programmes that build resilience to violent extremism.2 The issue may be multifaceted, but it is not impossible to solve.

1 https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2015/11/daily-chart-12 2 http://en.unesco.org/preventing-violent-extremism/edu-as-tool


Timeline

September 5-6, 1972 — On this day the Munich Olympics Massacre occurred. This was one of the earliest cases of modern terrorism. The 11 members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage and, along with a German Police Officer, later killed. This was done by the Palestinian terrorist group Black September.3

September 11, 2001 — 19 members of terrorist group al-Qaeda hijacked four American. airplanes and used them to attack various targets on the East Coast of the United States. This infamous event was the worst attack on the United States in history, killing nearly 3000 people.4

October 24, 2005 — The 2005 World Summit outcome was a resolution that overwhelmingly condemned terrorism.5 This showed that the international community was taking the issue very seriously.

September 8, 2006 — The UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy was adopted by consensus in the General Assembly. The strategy is an instrument to globally enhance national, regional and international efforts for countering terrorism. 6

April 15, 2013 — Two bombs exploded during the 2013 Boston Marathon. Over 200 people were injured; it was one of the largest terrorist attacks on US soil since 9/11.7

April 14, 2014 — Boko Haram, a Nigerian terrorist organization, kidnapped 276 female students from the Government Secondary School in Chibok, Nigeria.8 This was an extremely important terrorist act, showing that terrorism is not just a threat to the West.

2015 — UNESCO Member States adopted the decision “UNESCO’s role in promoting education as a tool to prevent violent extremism” to improve UNESCO’s capacity to provide assistance to states as they create stronger strategies to prevent violent extremism.9

January 7, 2015 — The Paris-based satirical weekly newspaper Charlie Hebdo was attacked for their allegedly Islamophobic cartoons. The attackers killed 12 and identified themselves as affiliated with Al-Qaeda. France took extreme anti-terrorism actions after the attack.10

2016 — UNESCO committed to the UN Secretary-General’s Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism. 11

May 22, 2017 — A suicide bombing occurred in Manchester, England, following a concert by pop star Ariana Grande. Twenty-two people were killed-- including victims as young as eight years old. ISIS later claimed responsibility for the attacks. It was one of the more recent and most devastating attacks the United Kingdom experienced. 12

3 https://since911.com/explore-911/terrorism-timeline 4 https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/what-was-911/2011/08/31/gIQAQL5RDK_story.html?utm_term=.a52e344b764d 5 http://www.ifrc.org/docs/idrl/I520EN.pdf 6 https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/un-global-counter-terrorism-strategy 7 https://www.newamerica.org/in-depth/terrorism-in-america/part-i-overview-terrorism-cases-2001-today/ 8 https://since911.com/explore-911/terrorism-timeline#jump_time_item_397 9 http://en.unesco.org/preventing-violent-extremism 10 https://since911.com/explore-911/terrorism-timeline#jump_time_item_399 11 http://en.unesco.org/preventing-violent-extremism 12 https://since911.com/explore-911/terrorism-timeline#jump_time_item_463


Historical Analysis

Terrorism is not just a modern concept; it has been around for centuries, and one can even find cases of violent extremism as far back as the Roman Empire. At the time, the Zealots of Judea conducted an assassination campaign against Roman officials, as well as any members of the Jewish community they felt had benefitted from or cooperated with the Roman occupation. Although the common perception is that the majority of recent terrorist attacks have been committed by Islamic extremists, there are still examples of domestic terrorism in Western nations, whether it be white supremacy or examples such as the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing. This occurred when a truck bombing killed 168 people in Oklahoma City, motivated by anger against the U.S. Federal Government. The rise of Islamic terrorism has many causes; it is not a one-sided issue. America’s invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan, the introduction of Western values in traditional cultures and the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian West Bank are just a few potential reasons for the surge in terrorism we see today.

In order to put the issue into historical context, one must look at how 9/11 came about, and the impact it had on international relations. When the Soviet Union pulled out of their occupation of Afghanistan in the 1980s, the regional terrorist group, Al-Qaeda, began planning for their “holy war” against the Western world. Al-Qaeda rejected Western influences in the Middle East and they began by focusing on terminating those influences. On September 11th, 2001, the worst terrorist attack to ever occur on American soil happened, devastating the international community. Shortly after the attacks, American president George W. Bush declared a War on Terror. The U.S. then assembled an international coalition in order to invade Afghanistan, where the Taliban government was supporting Osama Bin Laden (leader of Al-Qaeda) and other terrorist cells. This was a very controversial move at the time, which many did not support. The U.S. invasions overthrew the Taliban government and killed many of Al-Qaeda’s cells. Although to some this action may have seemed heroic and progressive, it instigated a greater hatred for the Western world, and for U.S. intervention in Middle Eastern affairs. These incursions, as well as others in Central Asia, angered many and triggered the proliferation of new extremist groups around the globe. This was only worsened in 2002 when President Bush said that “States like ... [Iran, Iraq and North Korea] and their terrorist allies, constitute an axis of evil, arming to threaten the peace of the world”.13

Many social and economic factors also play a role in the rise of violent extremism. There is a close relationship between expanding populations of underemployed young men and increases in violent activity.14 Evidently, economic grievances play a large role in social anger. The rise of the Nazi Party in the 1930s was a prime example of this. In addition, instability can be a breeding ground for the rise of terrorist groups. The Arab Spring is a very telling example of this connection. The Arab Spring was a wave of pro-democracy protests and uprisings that began in 2010, and spread rapidly across the Middle East, bringing much instability. Protests against the authoritarian government in Tunisia quickly spread to other Arab states in North Africa and the Middle East. Syria was a part of this rise in protests, and the nation eventually fell into a civil war in 2011. In the midst of the conflict, the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) rose to power. In Syria, the civil war and national unrest contributed to driving civilians towards terror groups. Nigeria is another example in which social, political, and economic conditions created prime conditions for the rise of violent extremism within the state. In Nigeria, extreme poverty, social differences, and political unrest all led to the rise of anti-Western terror group Boko Haram. Instability itself dates back centuries, but the colonial era and failed post-colonial attempts at state formation led to the growth of nationalist and revolutionary movements, along with the dangerous view that

13 http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/onpolitics/transcripts/sou012902.htm 14 http://www.huffingtonpost.com/steve-mariotti/a-root-cause-of-terrorism_b_10063938.html


terrorism can be an effective tool in reaching political goals. This in turn generated the first phase of modern terrorism.

Past UN/International Involvement

Over the years, due to increasing public pressure and international tension, there have been several resolutions and treaties adopted by the UN and international community. The existence of these treaties simply proves the level of tension surrounding the issue of violent extremism. One of the first and most pervasive modern-day anti-terror treaties was United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373. This resolution was adopted on the 28th of September 2001, 17 days after the 9/11 terror attacks. This resolution was a counterterrorism measure, and it passed unanimously partly due to the international response to the attacks, and partly due to pressure put on the resolution from the US. This action marked a shift in international law due to the fact that the Security Council imposed the resolution on all member states. The resolution aimed to tackle terrorism in various ways: UN member states were encouraged to share intelligence on terrorist groups, adjust national laws to ratify all conventions on terrorism as well as required to ensure that terrorist acts were established as a criminal offence. In 2006 the UN General Assembly adopted the Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy by consensus. Through its adoption, all member states agreed to a common strategic approach to fighting terrorism. They agreed to send a clear message that terrorism is unacceptable in all forms, as well as to take practical steps to prevent and combat it. Those steps include measures such as strengthening state capacity to counter terrorist threats or better coordinating United Nations system’s counter-terrorism activities. More recently, on January 15th, 2016, the Secretary-General presented a Plan of Action to Prevent Violent Extremism, which was accepted by the General Assembly.

On June 15th, 2017, the General Assembly adopted Resolution 71/291, forming the United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism. The office was created due to a suggestion by Secretary-General Antonio Guterres in order to give the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force and the UN Counter-Terrorism Centre a functional and comprehensive office, as they were previously headed under the Department of Political Affairs. Clearly, many UN actions in tackling the issue are taking a more submissive approach rather than the more aggressive plans of attack spoken about so often by politicians and the media. The Office of Counter Terrorism has several functions. The main functions are to enhance coordination across the 38 Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force entities to ensure the balanced implementation of the four pillars of the UN Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy, to strengthen the delivery of United Nations counter-terrorism capacity-building assistance to UN Member States, and to ensure that priority is given to counterterrorism across the United Nations system. There are several criticisms of the Counter-Terrorism Committee because its success in relation to other conventions is rather modest. When looking at the conventions for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings and the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism, only eight countries have ratified the Sixteen Conventions and Protocols conventions for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings and the Suppression of Financing of Terrorism. Adherence to protocols is particularly low, specifically for the two protocols related to maritime navigation. There is also criticism claiming that “many of the treaties are themselves inadequate. Too often they address issues independently of the broader counterterrorism struggle, suffer from weak language (for instance, containing saving clauses that limit the definitions of terrorist activity) or omit terrorism from the very title of the treaty.” 15

15 https://www.cfr.org/report/global-regime-terrorism


In terms of specific action taken to help the prevention- and education-based cause, programmes are underway, but the outcome of these actions is not yet known because of the relative newness of their introduction. UNESCO has just begun helping countries provide education programmes that build learners’ resilience to violent extremism and quell the drivers of the phenomena. The work itself supports the implementation of UNESCO Executive Board Decision 197 EX/Decision 46 (UNESCO’s Role in Promoting Education as a Tool to Prevent Violent Extremism). The claim towards the actions being taken is that “UNESCO’s action to prevent violent extremism through education (PVE-E) seeks to strengthen the capacities of national education systems (e.g. policies, teachers, educational contents) to appropriately and effectively contribute to national prevention efforts.”16 Again, the level of success is yet to be seen and relies heavily upon the compliance of the nations involved.

Current Situation

Clearly, violent extremism is an extremely prominent issue in the global community, that poses a major threat to the wellbeing and safety of the citizens of the world. As with every complex issue, there are many steps to approaching an issue like this one, an important element of which is prevention. In terms of preventing violent extremism, the causes can be counteracted through a modified education system focusing on combatting violent extremism.

Discussion has shown that education is an important and internationally accepted option in order to combat violent extremism. But the implementation and specifics remain contentious and up for debate. In Nigeria, where terrorist group Boko Haram poses a daily threat, scholars have identified that the government can bring an end to terrorism by initiating education programmes that take susceptible children off the streets of Nigeria, and keep them away from terrorist groups. Nigeria poses as a microcosm of world terrorism, and serves as a similar representation of issues in Syria or even marginalized youth in the U.K. Impoverished children are “raw materials for terror groups like Boko Haram” says Nigerian Director of the Adamawa State Universal Basic Education Board. Analysis has shown that unless the gap between the educated and the illiterate is closed by well-thought-out education policies, rates of violent extremism will continue to grow.17 The issue in this case is that governments tend to spend more on tackling crises and less on providing the quality education necessary to prevent violent extremism. Many of the crises are actually caused by a lack of education itself.

There are examples of Western nations who have begun plans to introduce anti-terror education programmes. In the United Kingdom, the Counter-Terrorism and Security Act of 2015 places the responsibility on schools to work to prevent youth from being drawn into terrorism as well as to challenge the extremist ideologies supported by terrorist groups. Under the new laws, teachers and governors are required to assess whether any of their students are at risk of being drawn into terrorism. Such assessments should be based on the local environment and consider the likelihood of students being exposed to extremist ideology in their community. Staff should also know where to refer at-risk youth for further help. The laws also include appropriate internet restriction on the school servers. All of these guidelines are there to assist teachers in guiding their students down a better path as well as helping to eliminate any threats. While these laws are relatively new and comparatively progressive, they are also rather controversial due to concerns regarding the possible avenues for the laws to be used in racist ways against Muslim students who are likely to be labelled as at-risk.

16 http://en.unesco.org/preventing-violent-extremism/edu-as-tool 17 https://guardian.ng/news/child-education-solution-to-terrorism-says-ubec-chief/


Generally, extremists aim to target young minds and promote the belief that anyone who disagrees with the group’s belief is an enemy; education that teaches tolerance is a fantastic counter to this. Governments often focus more on consequences, and after an act of violent extremism, states tend to consider immediate security measures. With this approach, we ignore the underlying causes and just address the surface of the issue. Lasting change depends on dealing with the root causes of terrorism, such as poverty, discrimination and economic grievances, which can be well rectified through educational routes. The challenge is to show adolescents at risk to appeals from terrorists that there is a better path to take, especially in terms of having their voice heard or engaging with the community and the world. Youth must be taught tolerance and to accept those from different cultures and faiths, as well as that violence is not the answer even if they are raised in a society in which violence is ubiquitous. It has been proved that increasing educational attainment by just one grade level boosts lifetime income by 10-20 percent for females and 5-15 for males.18 This shows that a very small improvement in just general education systems can help lift youth out of poverty and therefore lead them away from the path towards violent extremism. With low educational attainment being one of the strongest predictors of violence, a better-educated world is therefore a safer one.

Global deaths from terrorism infographic19

Possible Solutions & Controversies

Some of these difficulties include the challenges of implementing this education in impoverished or war-torn nations, or nations that fear outside intervention. The goal is to make anti-terror education as accessible as possible, not just across the globe but also at all levels of education. Nations must not only focus on implementing anti-terror education within their own borders, but also assist the implementation of this education in other nations. Delegates should look into adopting a global standard which outlines the basic principles that should be 18 https://www.ed.gov/news/speeches/education-only-solution 19 https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2015/11/daily-chart-12


taught, so as to avoid a discrepancy in the system; also, they must navigate issues surrounding nations that could reject the notion of education as a solution. This would be due to claims that it is a breach of sovereignty, or as a rejection of westernized ideals.

One solution to issues surrounding the implementation of anti-terror education in developing nations is the use of technology to better the educational experience. Technology can help students discuss global issues from a variety of perspectives when it is used to connect students through video conferences. Students can then gain the skills required to prevent conflict by having the ability to break down religious and cultural stereotypes. Providing access to mobile electronic devices for students in disadvantaged areas would offer them and their communities access to educational materials that would otherwise be out of reach. Studies have shown that educational technology, such as computer-aided instruction, can significantly boost student learning in disadvantaged areas.20 This type of learning is also much more independent, and easier to access. Better education helps to bring children out of poverty - and this has a direct impact on the likelihood of these children being radicalized. Technology could be used as a tool to implement anti-terror education into the most impoverished areas, as long as it is properly monitored. Controversies surrounding implementing educational technology do include the concern that the technology could be used against the cause in that it makes terror material more available to students. There is also the fact that many of these communities, particularly those most impoverished, don't have the economic means to implement such technological luxuries. As well, some nations may reject it, seeing as the programme may be considered too Western or expensive to implement.

Bloc Positions

Western Bloc Western nations tend to align on their support for anti-terror education within their own borders as well as within nations in the Middle East and Africa. We have already addressed efforts being made by the United Kingdom to implement anti-terror education, but much of Europe is following in step and taking a rather aggressive approach to introducing comprehensive anti-terror education programmes. France’s Ministry of Education has presented 11 measures to promote secular and anti-radicalization values within the French school system. What we tend to see more of though in Western Europe is a focus on direct action with both the United Kingdom and Frances education programmes being paired with a strong police presence. This approach is criticized by many, as it is in Spain where the Spanish secretary of the Islamic Commission in Ceuta has said that “...all of the [counter terrorism] efforts are related to security and not to education. We need social measures."21 Clearly, Western Europe is taking a rather progressive, but potentially unfocused response to the issue.

Developing Nations Developing nations, especially the ones more closely entangled with the issue of violent extremism, have a much more complex stance on the issue. Much of the stance comes from statements of support for anti-terror education, but actions or lack thereof which speak volumes. The King of Jordan has stated that long-term goals to fight terrorism should focus on intelligence and education, yet Jordanian practices show some difference. 22 A

20 https://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/Access%20and%20Quality%20in%20the%20Kenyan%20Education%20System%202011.06.22.pdf 21 http://www.businessinsider.com/spain-anti-terrorism-campaign-border-security-2017-6 22 http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Calls-increase-for-educational-reform-in-Jordan-to-counter-Islamic-radicalization-437295


prominent Jordanian educator has been quoted saying that “[Jordanian] schools spread extremism, as do our universities. Sometimes, a child or youth returns from school or university with horrid ideas that shock even his parents.”23 This not the same message as the King is attempting to send. The Jordanian school system has been known to repress all freedom of thought and to promote extremism although there have been attempts to reform school curriculum in light of the rising issue of youth gravitating towards extremist ideologies. Nations like Lebanon state that they support the idea, and the actions that other nations have taken, but do little to improve the situation within their own borders. The general consensus with developing nations is that anti-terror educational programmes are an ideal rather than a reality.

Discussion Questions 1. Which issue takes precedence: sovereignty or international security?

2. How can anti-terror education be effective at all levels in war-torn nations?

3. How can we prevent radical groups from dismantling anti-terror education programs?

4. What differences must there be between anti-terror education programs in developed and developing nations?

Additional Resources

Preventing Violent Extremism

http://en.unesco.org/preventing-violent-extremism

Plague of Global Terrorism

https://www.economist.com/blogs/graphicdetail/2015/11/daily-chart-12

Preventing Violent Extremism through Education

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=79MTkVumCcQ

Finsbury Park Terrorist Attack

https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/21/opinion/finsbury-park-terrorist-attack-far-right.html

Global Counter Terrorism Strategy

https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/un-global-counter-terrorism-strategy

Education as a Tool

http://en.unesco.org/preventing-violent-extremism/edu-as-tool

UN Global Counter Terrorism Strategy

https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/ctitf/en/un-global-counter-terrorism-strategy

23 http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Calls-increase-for-educational-reform-in-Jordan-to-counter-Islamic-radicalization-437295


Executive Board Decisions

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002351/235180e.pdf


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“Text of President Bush's 2002 State of the Union Address.” The Washington Post, WP Company, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/onpolitics/transcripts/sou012902.htm.

“United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 12 Aug. 2017, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1373.


Protecting and Preserving the Health of Oceans

Overview

When considering the multitude of environmental challenges the world faces today, maintaining the health of our oceans may not be the first issue that comes to mind. Although this issue is something that we may not consider to be the most prevalent, the detrimental effects of ignoring the issue are severe. Ocean health is critical to human welfare and maintaining the diversity of our oceans is a very large part of this. Essential resources are at risk from the results of unsustainable practices, such as illegal fishing practices. Numbers of certain wild ocean creatures are dwindling due to the human abuse of these creatures as resources. Sustainable development regarding our use of the oceans relies upon technological innovations, political regulation, and financial instruments as well as international cooperation. Much of changing the status quo comes from changing how people think and act, and helping them understand the importance severity of this issue.

Due to rapid urbanization and industrialization our oceans are slowly dying. This means many things; one may look to ocean pollution levels, the bleaching of coral reefs, and the dwindling supplies of commercially used fish such as salmon or tuna. Protecting the health of oceans does not just pose an environmental dilemma, but also an economic one as the international community grapples with the question of how to protect industries without damaging the ocean. Discussions surrounding sustainable development are at the core of the issue; consequently, we must consider how to make global industries environmentally sustainable. This is multi-faceted issue, which will take much international cooperation to grapple seeing as the industries of some developing nations cannot afford to be environmentally conscious. Delegates must find solutions which will assist these nations in making the transition to more environmentally considerate practices, without sacrificing the growth of their industries. In addition, forming agreements with nations that either do not acknowledge climate change and other environmental risks or have no plans to slow down their industrial production and are unwilling to switch to environmentally friendly alternatives can pose issues in terms of protecting the world's waters.

Along with economic struggles, culture plays a large role into the issues we face in protecting our oceans. A large part of protecting our oceans comes down the protecting the wildlife that inhabits it. This is done to keep food chains and biodiversity intact. Cultural traditions challenge this. For example, while shark and dolphin fishing in China and Japan are cultural norms, they seem unethical and abhorrent to the western world and disrupt some very fragile ecosystems. As well, tourism plays a large role in degrading the salinity of oceans because popular tourist beaches deposit substantial amounts of garbage which not only make the water uncleanly but can also kill wildlife. Tourism also is responsible in part for the death of coral reefs, which are extremely important in terms of keeping our oceans clean and supporting wildlife. It is indisputable that while each ocean is different, they are being impacted differently by different practices. The international community must come together to protect all of our oceans for the good of the planet as well as mankind.


Timeline

December 10, 1982 — On this day the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) was signed. This is the most comprehensive document outlining the governing and laws surrounding the use of the sea.24

1985 — The Great Pacific Garbage Patch was discovered. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a coagulation of marine debris in the centre of the North Pacific Ocean, extending over an indeterminate area of varying range.25

1991 — The Gulf War oil spill is the largest oil spill ever recorded, with between 4 and 6 million barrels having been spilt. Full recovery from the spill will likely take decades. 26

1993 — UN Oceans was established. UN agencies dealing with oceans and coastal issues formed this sub-committee in order to establish an international programme of action regarding the sustainable use of oceans and their living resources.

2001 — The UN Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage was signed. The international treaty sets out principles for the protection of submerged heritage and provides a detailed state cooperation system as well as practical scientific rules for the treatment of this heritage. The treaty provides a great example of nations of the world being able to come together to work in protecting the ocean. 27

April 20, 2010 — The Deepwater Horizon or ‘BP’ oil spill began. This was the largest oil spill in U.S. history and the largest marine oil spill in the history of the petroleum industry. This oil spill was incredibly destructive to marine ecosystems in the vicinity, killing fish, dolphins, and turtles as well as harming pelicans. 28

March 11, 2011 — On this day the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster occurred in Fukushima, Japan. This was an energy accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power plant. It was initiated by a tsunami which was caused by the Tohoku earthquake earlier that day. Several nuclear reactors melted down causing large amounts of harmful nuclear material to enter the ocean. 29

September 2015 — The UN Sustainable Development Goals were outlined in UN Resolution A/RES/70/1. These goals included Goal 14, a goal to use the oceans, seas and marine resources sustainably. This goal is another step in holding states accountable for how they use our oceans. 30

March 2017 — Large sections of the Great Barrier Reef are pronounced dead. Large sections of the Great Barrier Reef, which stretch across hundreds of miles, were recently found to be dead, killed the previous year by overheated seawater. Coral reefs are a major supporter of ocean diversity and global warming is continuing to kill the reefs at a rapid pace. 31

June 5, 2017 — The UN Ocean Conference commenced. This was the high-level UN conference to support the implementation of the 14th Sustainable Development Goal which is to conserve and sustainably use oceans, seas, and marine resources for sustainable development. The governments of Sweden and Fiji co-hosted the event.

24 http://www.un.org/depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm 25 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pacific_garbage_patch 26 http://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/21/world/war-gulf-fouled-sea-gulf-oil-spill-cleanup-flounders-bureaucracy.html?mcubz=1 27 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/underwater-cultural-heritage/2001-convention/ 28 http://ocean.si.edu/gulf-oil-spill 29 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster 30 https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg14 31 https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/15/science/great-barrier-reef-coral-climate-change-dieoff.html?mcubz=1


Historical Analysis

It can be difficult to understand how we have ended up in the position we are in, with such heavily polluted oceans. From a historical standpoint, it is difficult to trace because there is little concrete evidence of specific events with regards to the pollution of the oceans. Instead, the main issue is a neglect to counteract this pollution and a continued expansion of industries which pollute the oceans. Historically, there have been major holes in regulations which have contributed to the oceans ending up so polluted. These gaps allow the main causes of issues regarding the health of our oceans such as overfishing and ocean pollution to prevail.

Overfishing is a major cause for many of the issues the ocean faces today, as ensuring that there is diverse and abundant wildlife in our oceans is vital to marine health. Historically fishing has not been regulated as strictly as is necessary to ensure that our oceans remain diverse and healthy. When it comes to fisheries, there have been few to no property rights which leave no incentive for fishermen to leave any fish in the water. There has always been a lack of management, government regulations and tracking of fishing activities and this has only perpetuated the issue. The rules and regulations in existence are not and have never been strong enough to limit fishing capacities to sustainable levels. This is especially prevalent in international waters where there are few international fishing regulations, and the ones that exist are typically unenforced. Because there is little regulation, customs agencies and retailers are unable to ensure that the fish entering their countries and markets are caught legally or sustainably. As well as this, it has been a general practice over time for governments such as the Chinese government to subsidize fleets. This allows unprofitable operations to exist, and overfishing to occur. It has been estimated that today’s worldwide fishing fleet is up to two and a half times the capacity needed to catch what is actually necessary to feed the human population.32

There are many marine activities that cause ocean pollution, and many of these activities are unregulated. Some of the most common forms of waste found in the oceans are industrial and agricultural waste. These occur when waste products are dumped into the ocean. While the principle is unsustainable, this practice has generally been accepted since the beginning of industrialization. Ship pollution is also a large source of ocean pollution. While there are some safety regulations in place to prevent oil spills, they are not enough. This has been proven by the multitude of oil spills which have occurred over the history of human ocean-based industries. Crude oil lasts for years in the sea and is very toxic to marine life. The oil spills that have occurred over the years have killed thousands of animals and contributed to the dwindling numbers of certain marine species. Finally, ocean mining is another cause for ocean pollution, and as it has occurred over time hazardous sulphide deposits have grown in the deep sea. It is clear that many human practices over time contribute to the state of pollution and harm we see the ocean is in today, and a lack of regulation only perpetuates the issue.

Past UN/International Involvement

Most UN/international involvement in the fight to save our oceans has been done or committed to recently. There have been several promising agreements and conferences, but — because of their recent nature — results have yet to be seen. These have been steps in the right direction though – for example, the development of marine protected areas. Gabon recently put 46,600 square kilometers of coastal water in central Africa off-limits to commercial fishing. The area in question is home to many threatened species like the whale shark and manta ray. This action came shortly after the Obama Administration had announced the establishment of the largest marine reserve in the world in the central Pacific. While this is substantial progress, just over two percent of the

32 https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing


world's oceans fall under official protection. Although the majority of our planet consists of water, we have protected significantly more land than ocean.

Map of protected ocean areas33

There have been many agreements to which countries have made commitments, but the extent to which member states have followed through with the promises is debatable. Some positive promises were made at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg, where states agreed to comply to a maximum quantity of fish to be harvested annually, in order to protect the world's stocks. Because of a lack of information and general complications, strict compliance to the quota can be avoided by states who feel as though they do not have to comply. More recent conferences have also made progress but due to how recent they are, implementation of many of the agreements has not yet begun. The 2017 UN Ocean Conference is an example of this.

The United Nations 17 Sustainable Development Goals of 2015 were agreed to by all 193 UN member states; however, only one of the 17 goals focused on protecting our oceans. Goal 14 has promised to prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds by 2025 as well as to effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing practices by 2020. The success of these goals has yet to be seen, but plans are well underway, and the awareness that has been raised due to these 33 http://ocean.nationalgeographic.com/ocean/protect/


goals has had a positive impact on the movement. The UN Clean Seas Campaign is an international campaign that has set specific goals that seem to be the amount of garbage in the ocean. The campaign has caused Indonesia to commit to slashing its marine litter by 70% by 2025, Uruguay to tax single-use plastic bags and Kenya to eliminate plastic bags entirely.34 The Clean Seas campaign has already made important and noticeable progress, but they are continuing to create more goals which will benefit the oceans. The newest goal is to achieve a global ban on microbeads (small plastic beads used in cosmetics) by 2022. In comparison, we can see that although historically ocean pollution regulation has been lacking, the international community is on a path to improvement.

Current Situation

Human ignorance has been a major contributor to the current situation. In order to understand why it is necessary to protect our oceans, one must comprehend that oceans are the largest ecosystems on earth; therefore, they support the greatest amount of life on earth. Oceans also generate half of the oxygen we breathe. More than 97% of the world’s water exists in oceans. 35 Even more importantly, they are the most promising source of medicines to treat cancer as well as bacterial diseases.36 Climate change is one of the greatest factors impacting the health of our oceans, and, ironically, one of the most efficient ways to combat climate change is through having healthy oceans that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The current status of our oceans is unfortunate seeing as there is only half the amount of wildlife in the sea today as in 1970.37 As well as this, reports have been quoted comparing the Pacific Ocean off the coast of California to a ‘desert.’ 38 It was once full of life, but now fish and sea mammals are starving as a result of how barren it has become. Much of protecting the ocean relies on balance, and the ecological stability is most definitely disrupted when illegal and unreported fishing occurs, causing overfishing. This is not a small issue and it can be quantified by the fact that the value of illegal fish products is estimated at between $10-23.5 billion annually.39 The current situation may be bleak, but there also have been positive advancements such as the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission which has had a major role in generating knowledge about sustainable development when it comes to our oceans.

Much of the current problem can be clearly seen in areas that are known as ocean dead zones. Dead zones are large areas of water – typically in the ocean – where there is not enough oxygen to support marine life. The cause for such uninhabitable conditions is eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients in the water. This then causes excessive algae blooms which deplete underwater oxygen levels. A primary cause of these dead zones is nitrogen and phosphorous from agricultural runoff. Dead zones occur all around the world, but they are most common in areas where heavy agricultural industry dump waste products or allow runoff into common areas of water and, therefore, compromise the water quality. In 2008 there were more than 400 dead zones worldwide, including in South America, China, Japan, and Australia. Dead zones are distinct evidence that we are not doing enough to protect our waters.

Finally, there are still ancient cultural practices that impact the diversity of life in earth's waters. In Taiji, Japan, hundreds of dolphins are herded and slaughtered every year, for meat. The dolphin hunt in Taiji lasts from

34 http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/04/feature-uns-mission-to-keep-plastics-out-of-oceans-and-marine-life/ 35 https://marine-conservation.org/what-we-do/advocate/why-we-protect-our-oceans/ 36 https://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/urgentissues/oceans/coral-reefs/coral-reefs-and-medicine.xml 37 https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/sep/20/fish-are-dying-but-human-life-is-threatened-too 38 http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-ocean-is-dying-marine-and-animal-life-die-offs-california-coast/5451836 39 https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/overfishing


September to February. There has been international condemnation of these practices, with Ric O’Barry the founder of the Dolphin Project saying “The senseless slaughter of the adult dolphins, while forcing the young to fend for themselves in the open sea, should serve as a call to action for everyone."40 International condemnation has yet to end the practice.

Possible Solutions & Controversies There are several solutions which can be very effective in protecting and preserving the health of our oceans. While these solutions may not be agreed upon by all nations, they create promising avenues by which to discover ways that nations can work together for the betterment of our planet.

Many of the solutions revolve around the fact that the seafood is the most common animal protein that humans consume. The demand that the human race has for seafood poses a large issue for marine diversity that can be solved in several ways. One of these comes from promoting more sustainable consumption of sea products, either through promotion of consuming less seafood or through consuming sustainably sourced seafood, so consumers know that they are eating seafood that has not been caught illegally. The issue with this though is that the demand for seafood is massive and some feel as though the transition will be detrimental to economies.

Education is also an important tool when it comes to encouraging responsible use of sea products as well as a conscientious lifestyle. People need to be educated for them to understand the danger their actions pose to the ocean. Educational programs ensure that people understand the impact they have when they do not recycle or eat mass quantities of unregulated seafood. Education should be focused on promoting a sustainable lifestyle when it comes to garbage as well as regarding diet. Further steps could be taken regarding garbage and the use of harmful plastic, such as a ban on the use of plastic bags, which are extremely harmful to marine health.

Dead zones are another issue that has a simple solution. Discussions should be held regarding improving agricultural runoff regulation to ensure that chemicals are not being poured into bodies of water, specifically those that are at risk for dead zones. This may be controversial because not only does it require much government legislation and involvement, agricultural companies and the prominent industries may find it restrictive. As well as this, developing nations with new industries may not be able to afford to focus on environmental impacts without impacting their economic success.

Marine mammals are also at risk, and there are steps that can be taken to protect these creatures as well. When it comes to the slaughter of dolphins and sharks for their meat, more international condemnation or even sanctions could be required to stop the practices. This is a very controversial topic though, because of the deep cultural roots these acts have, and the delicate lines nation's walk when dealing with cultural issues. Nations also do not want to infringe upon another state's sovereignty. It is not just Asian countries who are at fault though.

The final and possibly most promising solution is to expand the number of protected ocean areas that exist. The protected areas that already exist are proving to be successful in protecting many endangered species, such as the leatherback and olive ridley sea turtles as well as different species of dolphins and whales. Implementing more of these protected areas, would not be very difficult seeing as there are so few protected areas that exist in the first place, and so many areas of ocean that merit protection.

40 https://dolphinproject.net/campaigns/save-japan-dolphins/cove-monitor/


Bloc Positions

East Asia Many Asian countries have cultural practices which endanger many species. These nations include Japan with the annual dolphin hunt as well as whaling practices, as well as with China’s shark hunting. Regardless of international outcry, these nations have few plans to halt their inhumane and unsustainable hunting practices. Asian nations may bloc together in the belief that they have the sovereignty to hunt as they wish. As well as this, they may condemn the acts themselves, but do little to combat the hunting occurring within their borders.

Industrialized and Developing Nations Highly industrialized or developing nations may feel similarly about protecting and preserving the ocean, that it is a hassle that their economies cannot afford. Some of the most highly industrialized nations like China and India have few plans to slow down their production. Some developing nations cannot afford to spend money on technologies which will make agriculture greener or on improving their sewage/desalination treatment. These nations need economic support to do this and believe that their industry comes above being environmentally conscious.

Western Nations There are some western nations such as Sweden and Finland who have formed a strong alliance in terms of being as green as possible. They focus much of their efforts on protecting and preserving the health of our oceans and have been extremely progressive and influential in protecting marine life. Sweden has been involved by encouraging all nations to participate in environmental conversations by hosting The Ocean Conference this year. Finland has been extremely involved in protecting the Baltic Sea. Finland has focused on limiting their emissions to prevent run-off and therefore preventing the creation of dead zones. Western European nations feel a general responsibility to set an example in protecting the ocean for the rest of the world.

Discussion Questions

1. Do the cultural practices of your nation have an impact on the wellbeing of marine ecosystems? Does the government of your nation condone or support these practices?

2. Do the major industries of your nation perpetuate climate change or cause harm to oceans?

3. What has your nation done to prevent marine harm due to their industries?

4. Does your nation have legislation or laws that ensure industries practice in a way in which to minimize marine harm?

5. Does your nation acknowledge global warming as a real concept?

Additional Resources Ocean Getting Louder

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CrpkZkwTvu0

Great Barrier Reef


https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BO44JlAElXM

Keeping Plastics Out of Oceans

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQTUWK7CM-Y

Ocean Full of Plastic

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D41rO7mL6zM

Rising Oceans

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kp6_sDiup6U

Ocean Marine Conservation

http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/09/140922-pristine-seas-expansion-ocean-marine-conservation/

Threat to Human Life

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/sep/20/fish-are-dying-but-human-life-is-threatened-too


Bibliography

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Palmer, Mark J. “The Tragic Taiji Dolphin Hunt So Far.” The Huffington Post, TheHuffingtonPost.com, 26 Jan. 2016, www.huffingtonpost.com/mark-j-palmer/the-tragic-taiji-dolphin-_b_9083586.html.

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Roberts, Callum. “Our Seas Are Being Degraded. Fish Are Dying, but Human Life Is Threatened Too | Callum Roberts.” The Observer, Guardian News and Media, 19 Sept. 2015, www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/sep/20/fish-are-dying-but-human-life-is-threatened-too.

Slavo , Mac. “‘The Ocean Is Dying’: Marine and Animal Life Die Offs, California Coast.”Global Research , Global Research , www.globalresearch.ca/the-ocean-is-dying-marine-and-animal-life-die-offs-california-coast/5451836.

“UN Ocean Conference Wraps up with Actions.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2017/06/un-ocean-conference-wraps-up-with-actions-to-restore-ocean-health-protect-marine-life/.

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“Which Countries Are Still Whaling?” IFAW - International Fund for Animal Welfare, IFAW, www.ifaw.org/united-states/our-work/whales/which-countries-are-still-whaling.

“Why We Protect Our Oceans.” Marine Conservation Institute, Marine Conservation Institute, marine-conservation.org/what-we-do/advocate/why-we-protect-our-oceans/.

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