Unit 8, 9, 10 Review

Kingdoms • There are 6 Kingdoms, in 3 different Domains:

– Domain Archaea:• Kingdom Archaebacteria: prokaryotes that seem

to have diverged very early from bacteria. More closely related to Eukaryotes than bacteria.

– Domain Bacteria:• Kingdom Eubacteria: prokaryotes that have the

same kind of lipid in their cell membranes as do eukaryotes.

– Domain Eukarya:• Kingdoms:

– Protista: Eukaryotes that are not fungi, plants, or animals. Unicellular or multi-cellular.

– Fungi: mostly multi-cellular eukaryotes with chitin in their cell walls.

– Plantae: complex multi-cellular organisms that produce their own food.

– Animalia: complex multi-cellular organisms that eat other organisms for food. » Vertebrates: an animal with a backbone» Invertebrates: an animal with no

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Domains and Kingdoms

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Classifying Organisms• There are eight levels of classification.• Similar genera are grouped into a family. • Similar families are grouped into an

order.• Similar orders are grouped into a class.• Similar classes are grouped into a

phylum.• Similar phyla are grouped into a kingdom.• Similar kingdom are grouped into

domains. • Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family

Genus Species• Do Kindly Pay Cash Or Furnish Good Security• Daring Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Silk

Groups at the top are more inclusive!

Groups towards the bottom are less inclusive!

Observations from fossils, comparative morphology, and comparative biochemistry are used to construct taxonomic systems and to organism organisms into these various groups.

Adaptations of Plants

• The first plants lived near water, where drying out was not a problem.

• Eventually, plants developed traits to allow them to live in drier habitats.– Cuticle: a waxy, watertight covering

that reduces water loss• Covers the non-woody aboveground

plant parts

– Stomata (singular: stomata): pores that permit plants to exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide.

– Guard Cells: Specialized cells that border stoma • Stomata open and close as the guard

cells change shape

Plant Tissue Types

1. Dermal Tissue: the protective outer layer of a plant.

2. Ground Tissue: makes up much of the inside of the non-woody parts of a plant, including roots, stems, and leaves.

3. Vascular Tissue: tissues that distribute materials efficiently through the plant.– Xylem– Phloem

Conducting Tissue• Vascular Plant: a plant with a vascular

system– Vascular system: a system of well-

developed vascular tissues that distribute materials efficiently through the plant in larger, complex plants.

• Non-vascular Plant: a plant with no vascular system.

• Types of Vascular Tissue:– Phloem: soft-welled cells that transport

organic nutrients– Xylem: hard-walled cells that transport

water in mineral nutrients – The Xylem and the phloem are

contained in a strand of conducting tissue called the Vascular Bundle.

Root Conducting Tissue • Plants developed roots to absorb nutrients

– Roots are made of 3 types of tissue: 1. Epidermis: the outside layer2. Vascular tissue: the conducting tissue, contains the xylem and

phloem3. Cortex tissue: stores sugar and starch

– All roots have a protective covering at the end of the root called a root cap, And tiny root hairs along the side of the root that increase absorption of nutrients by increasing surface area.

– Roots are divided into 2 categories based upon shape.• Tap roots: large central roots from which many smaller

roots branch• Fibrous root: highly branched root system• Additionally, some plants also have roots that grow from

aboveground stems or leaves, which are called adventitious roots.

Monocots and Dicots

• Monocots: flowering plants that produce seeds with one seed leaf

– Most monocots also produce flowers with parts that are in multiples of three

– Have long, narrow leaves with parallel veins

• Dicots: flowering plants that produce seeds with two seed leaves– Most dicots produce flowers with

parts in multiples of two, four, or five– Have leaves with branching veins

Ground Tissue • Makes up most of the

inside of plants. • Can have different

functions:– Leaf Ground Tissue: full of

chloroplasts for photosynthesis

– Stem Ground Tissue: stores water, sugar, and starch.

– Root Ground Tissue: sores water, sugar, and starch. Buck 2011

Flowers Male Parts:• Anther• Filament

• The anther and filament together make up the stamen.

Female Parts:• Stigma• Style• Ovary

• The stigma, style, and ovary together make up the pistil.

Other Parts:• Petal• Sepal

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Movement of Water• Water moves from the roots to the leaves in the xylem.• Basically, water is pulled up through the plant through

transpiration pull as water evaporates. • Transpiration: the loss of water vapor from a plant• Root Pressure: root pressure, in plants, force that helps to

drive fluids upward into the water-conducting vessels (xylem)

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Guard Cells and Transpiration • A stoma is surrounded by a pair of guard cells that are shaped like two

cupped hands.• Changes in water pressure within in the guard cells cause the stoma to

open or close.• When the guard cells take in water, the swell, opening the stoma an

allowing transpiration to occur.• When water leaves the guard cells, the shorten and move close to each

other, closing the stoma and stopping transpiration.

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Movement of Organic Compounds • Organic compounds move through

a plant within the phloem.• Source: the part of a plant that

provides organic compounds for other parts– A leaf is a source because it makes

starch in photosynthesis• Sink: the part of a plant that

organic compounds are delivered to– Actively growing areas are sinks

because they need sugar to grow• Translocation: the movement of

organic compounds within a plant from a source to a sink

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• Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the male reproductive structures of a plant to the female reproductive structures of a plant.

• Germination: the beginning of growth or development in a seed, spore, or zygote, especially after a period of inactivity.

Pollination and Germination

Pollination

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Germination

• Seeds contain a plant embryo that is in a state of suspended animation.

• Seeds sprout with a burst of growth in response to certain changes in the environment. – Examples: rising temperature, increased moisture

• Endosperm: a triploid tissue that develops in the seeds of angiosperms and that provides food for a developing embryo

Seeds Sprout

Seeds

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• Meristem: a region of undifferentiated plant cells that are capable of dividing and developing into specialized plant tissues.

• Primary Growth: growth that increases the length or height of a plant.cell division.

• Secondary Growth: growth that increases the width of stems and roots.

Meristems

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• Plants bend toward light as they grow.

• Auxin: the chemical that causes the stem to bend towards light.

Hormonal Control of Growth

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• Tropism: a response in which a plant grows either toward or away from a stimulus.

• Three Types of Tropisms:– Phototropism: responses to light• A plant bends towards light, this is called positive

phototrophism.

– Gravitropisms: responses to gravity • The upward growth of shoots is a negative gravitropism;

the downward growth of roots is a positive gravitropism.

– Thigmotropism: response to touch • The coiling of a grapevine around a wire is

thigmotropism.

Tropisms

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Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

• Arteries: blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. Eventually blood is pushed through to the much smaller capillaries.

• Capillaries: tiny blood vessels that allow the exchange of gases, nutrients, hormones, and other molecules in the blood. From the capillaries, the blood flows into venules and then veins.

• Veins: blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart.

Three Types of Blood Cells• Red Blood Cells: the majority of blood cells, these are

cells that carry oxygen. Also called erythrocytes.• White Blood Cells: defend the body against disease.• Platelets: help blood to clot, so that all of your blood

won’t leak out of your body!

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The Digestive System• Mouth• Pharynx• Salivary Glands• Esophagus• Stomach• Small Intestine• Large Intestine• Duodenum • Rectum• Anus• Gallbladder• Liver• Pancreas

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Neurons and Synapses• Neurons: nerve cells• Dendrites: extend from nerve cell body• Axon: Long membrane-covered extension of

cytoplasm that conducts nerve impulses• Nerves: Bundles of axons• Synapse: a junction at which a neuron meets

another

The Brain• The Brain: The body’s main

processing center.• Cerebrum: controls learning,

memory, perception, and intellectual function.

• Cerebellum: regulates balance, posture, and movement.

• Brain Stem: important to homeostasis; regulates heart rate, breathing rate, body temperature.

• Thalamus: sensory processing• Hypothalamus: help regulates

breathing, heart rate, hunger, thirst, and the endocrine system– The Hypothalamus is a great

example of the important connection between the nervous and endocrine systems.

The Spinal Cord: a dense cable of nervous tissue that runs through the vertebral column, starting at the medulla oblongata.

The Endocrine System• Endocrine Glands:

ductless organs that secrete hormones directly into either the bloodstream or the fluid around cells (extracellular fluid).

• All endocrine glands and hormones together make up the Endocrine System.

Feedback Mechanisms

• The human body makes more than 40 hormones, and it must regulate the release.

• The endocrine system plays an important role in homeostasis: different hormones moving through the bloodstream affect specific target tissues, and the amounts of various hormones must be maintained in a very narrow range.

• Feedback mechanisms detect the amount of hormones in circulation and the endocrine system then adjusts the amount of hormones being made or released.

Negative Feedback• Positive Feedback: when high levels of a hormone stimulate the output of even

MORE hormone.– Example: the hormone that stimulates egg release also regulates the female hormone

estrogen. A rise in estrogen levels, however, will stimulate the release of more of the regulatory hormone.

• Negative Feedback: a change in one direction stimulates the control mechanism to counteract further change in the same direction. – Controls most hormone release in humans.– Example: high levels of a hormone inhibit the production of more hormone, whereas low

levels of a hormone stimulate the production of more hormone. – The liver plays a role in negative feedback by removing the hormones from the blood and

breaking them down. – Negative feedback works like trying to maintain a certain speed by pressing or releasing the

gas pedal. In negative feedback, a

secondary substance blocks production of its

initial stimulating substance.

Succession• Once new species start moving into this newly

formed habitat, they go through process called succession.

• Succession: a somewhat regular progression of species replacement

• Primary Succession: succession that occurs where life has not existed before– Volcanic island

• Secondary Succession: succession that occurs in areas where there has been previous growth– Abandoned field

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Trophic Levels• Trophic Level: one of the steps in a food chain or pyramid.• First Level (lowest level): producers which perform photosynthesis and sometimes

absorb nitrogen gas with the help of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.• Second Level: Herbivores, which eat primary producers. Use microorganisms to

help digest plant materials in their guts.• Third Level: Secondary consumers; animals that eat other animals. • Fourth Level: Tertiary Consumers; carnivores that eat other carnivores• Detritivores: organisms that obtain their energy from the organic wastes produced

at all trophic levels. – Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi are decomposers because they cause decay.– Decay is very important because it allows for the recycling of nutrients.

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The Pyramid of Energy• Ecologists often illustrate the flow of energy through

an ecosystem using an energy pyramid. • Energy Pyramid: a diagram in which each Trophic

level is represented by blocks stacked one another.– The width of the block indicates how much energy is

stored at each trophic level. – Only about 1/10 of the energy in a trophic level is found in

the next trophic level, so it takes a pyramid shape.

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The Water Cycle• Of all nonliving

components of an ecosystem, water has the greatest impact on the inhabitants:

• Precipitation (rain and snow)

• Ground water (water stored under ground)

• Ultimately the water cycle is caused by heating by the sun leading to evaporation.

• Living Systems:– Transpiration

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The Carbon Cycle• Carbon cycles between the

nonliving environment and living organisms.

• The nutrient cycling of carbon is very closely related to the cycling of Oxygen (O2).

• Carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air/water is used by plants, algae, or bacteria in photosynthesis to make new organic nutrients (sugars). Carbon atoms can return to the pool of CO2 in the air and water in three ways:

1. Respiration2. Combustion3. Erosion Buck 2011

The Phosphorus Cycle

• Phosphorus is an essential part of our bodies.– Essential for ATP and DNA creation.

• Phosphorous is usually stored in soil and rock as calcium phosphate.

• It dissolves in water to form phosphate ions, PO43-.

• This phosphate is absorbed by the roots of plants and used to build organic molecules.

• Animals eat the plants and reuse the organic phosphorus.

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The Nitrogen Cycle• The atmosphere is 78 percent nitrogen gas, N2. • In spite of how much nitrogen is around us, most

organisms cannot use it in that form because of the strong bonds between the two N atoms.

• Some bacteria can break the bond and make ammonia, NH3 in a process called Nitrogen Fixation. •Nitrogen Fixation: the

process by which gaseous nitrogen is converted into ammonia, a compound that organisms can use to make amino acids.•Nitrogen fixation is performed by bacteria that live in the soil and root nodules (swellings) of plants like alder trees.

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Acid Rain• Coal-burning power plants make

smoke with lots of sulfur, because the coal contained lots of sulfur.

• Sulfur introduced into the atmosphere combines with water vapor to form sulfuric acid.

• Sulfuric acid carried back to Earth’s surface in precipitation (rain or snow) is called Acid Rain.

• Lowering the pH of water (making it more acidic) can cause death of organisms such as lake animals, tree root fungi, and plant death. Buck 2011

Ozone Destruction• The ozone is being destroyed primarily by a class of

chemicals called Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs are normally stable.

• CFCs are used as coolants in refrigerators and air conditions, as propellants in aerosol spray cans, and foaming agents in plastic-foam creation.

• It turns out, high in the atmosphere where we find the ozone layer, CFCs are not so stable.

• They lose a chlorine atom, which enters into a series of reactions that destroy the Ozone (O3) and turn it into regular Oxygen (O2).

• CFCS are now banned as aerosol can propellants in the U.S. Buck 2011

The Greenhouse Effect• Our planet would be cold except that we have a layer of Greenhouse

Gases containing water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide keeping it warm because the bonds between these atoms absorbs solar energy as heat radiates from earth. This is called the Greenhouse Effect.– Greenhouse Effect: heat is trapped within the atmosphere of the Earth in the

same way that glass traps heat in a greenhouse. • Due to the burning of fossil fuels, we have increased the carbon dioxide

in the atmosphere.

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Types of Chemical Pollution

• Biological Magnification: the accumulation of increasingly large amounts of toxic substances within each successive link of the food chain.

• In birds, DDT causes eggs to be thin, and fragile—these eggs often break.

• This was the worst in predatory birds because they are high in the food chain and occupy a high trophic level.

• As such, the numbers of predatory birds dwindled.

• In 1972 the use of DDT was restricted in the U.S. Buck 2011

Climate, Temperature, and Moisture