Unit 6

Reviewing the Basics

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Chapter 25

The Simple Sentence

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Every sentence must contain two basic elements: a subject and a verb.

A subject is the who or what word that performs the action or the who or what word about which a statement is made.

Some sentences have more than one subject, joined by and.

Sometimes an -ing word can be the subject of a sentence.

Defining and Spotting Subjects

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One group of words that may confuse you as you look for subjects is the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase contains a preposition (a word like at, in, of, from) and its object.

The object of a preposition cannot be the subject of a sentence. Therefore, spotting and crossing out prepositional phrases will help you find the subject.

Common Prepositions

about before in throughabove behind into toacross between like towardafter by near underalong during of untilamong for on upat from over with

Spotting Prepositional Phrases

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Action VerbsIn order to be complete, every sentence must contain a verb. One kind of verb,called an action verb, expresses the action that the subject is performing:

The star quarterback fumbled.

The carpenters worked all day, but the bricklayers went home early.

Defining and Spotting Verbs

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Linking VerbsAnother kind of verb, called a linking verb, links the subject to words that describe or identify it:

Don is a fine mathematician.This fabric feels rough and scratchy.

Common Linking Verbsappearbe (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been . . . )become feel look seem

Defining and Spotting Verbs

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Many verbs consist of more than one word:

He should have taken the train home.Are Tanya and Joe practicing the piano?The lounge was painted last week.

Verbs of More Than One Word—Helping Verbs

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EXPLORING ONLINE

http://a4esl.org/a/g3.html

Interactive preposition quizzes: scroll down to “prepositions.”

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Chapter 26

Coordination and Subordination

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A clause is a group of words that includes a subject and a verb.

If a clause can stand alone as a complete idea, it is an independent clause and can be written as a simple sentence.

Here are two independent clauses written as simple sentences:

The dog barked all night.The neighbors didn’t complain.

You can join two clauses together by placing a comma and a coordinating conjunction between them:

The dog barked all night, but the neighbors didn’t complain.

Coordination

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The coordinating conjunctions but and for join together two clauses.

Note that a comma precedes each coordinating conjunction.

The Most Common Coordinating Conjunctions

and for or yetbut nor so

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Two clauses can also be joined with a subordinating conjunction. The clause following a subordinating conjunction is called a subordinate or dependent clause because it depends on an independent clause to complete its meaning:

We will light the candles when Flora arrives.

(When Flora arrives is a subordinate or dependent clause introduced by the subordinating conjunction when. By itself, when Flora arrives is incomplete; it depends on the independent clause to complete its meaning.)

Subordination

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Subordinating Conjunctions

After if unlessAlthough if only untilas in order that whenas if once wheneveras though provided that wherebecause rather than whereasBefore since wherevereven if so that whethereven though though while

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You can join two independent clauses by placing a semicolon between them.

The semicolon takes the place of a conjunction:

She hopes to receive good grades this semester; her scholarship depends on her maintaining a 3.5 average.

Tony is a careless driver; he has had three minor accidents this year alone.

(Each of the sentences above could also be made into two separate sentences by replacing the semicolon with a period. Note that the first word after a semicolon is not capitalized (unless, of course, it is a word that is normally capitalized.)

Semicolons

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Most transitional expressions (such as however, for example, and therefore) are conjunctive adverbs.

A conjunctive adverb placed after a semicolon can help clarify the relationship between two clauses:

I like the sound of that stereo; however, the price is too high. They have not seen that film; moreover, they have not been to a theater forthree years.

(Note that a comma follows the conjunctive adverb.)

Conjunctive Adverbs

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Addition: also, besides, furthermore, in addition, moreover

Comparison: likewise, similarly

Contrast: however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand

Example: for example, for instance

Emphasis: indeed, in fact, of course

Result: consequently, therefore, thus

Conjunctive Adverbs or Transitional Expressions

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Sentence Pattern Review Chart

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EXPLORING ONLINE

http://depts.dyc.edu/learningcenter/owl/exercises/conjunctions_ex2.htm

Exercises in subordination, with answers

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Chapter 27

Avoiding Sentence Errors

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A run-on sentence incorrectly runs together two independent clauses without a conjunction or punctuation.

This error confuses the reader, who cannot tell where one thought stops and the next begins:

My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Avoiding Run-Ons

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A comma splice incorrectly joins two independent clauses with a comma but no conjunction:

My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old, he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Avoiding Comma Splices

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The run-on and the comma splice can be corrected in five ways:

Use two separate sentences.

My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old. He plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Use a coordinating conjunction.

My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old, but he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

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Use a subordinating conjunction.

Although my neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old, he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Use a semicolon.

My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old; he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

Use a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb.

My neighbor Mr. Hoffman is seventy-five years old; however, he plays tennis every Saturday afternoon.

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A sentence fragment is incomplete.

It lacks a subject, a verb, or both—or it does not stand alone as a complete idea.

Avoiding Fragments

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Six common sentence fragments:

Dependent Clause FragmentsA dependent clause fragment often starts with a subordinating conjunction like although, because, if, and when.

Relative Clause FragmentsA dependent clause fragment can also start with who, whose, which, or that.

-ing FragmentsAn -ing fragment starts with an -ing verb form.

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Six common sentence fragments (continued):

Prepositional Phrase FragmentsAppositive Phrase FragmentsInfinitive Phrase Fragments

Watch out for fragments beginning with a subordinating conjunction; who, which, or that; or an -ing verb form. These groups of words cannot stand alone, but must be combined with another sentence or changed into a complete sentence.

Watch out for phrase fragments. A prepositional phrase, appositive phrase, or infinitive cannot stand alone, but must be combined with another sentence or changed into a complete sentence.

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Review Chart: Correcting Sentence Fragments

Type of Fragment F FragmentC Corrected

1. Dependent clause F After Jake moved to Colorado.C After Jake moved to Colorado, he learned

to ski.2. Relative clause F Who loves computer games.

C My niece, who loves computer games, repairs my computer.

3. -ing modifier F Surfing the Web.C Surfing the Web, we visited European art

museum sites.4. Prepositional phrase F Inside the cave.

C They found mastodon bones inside the cave.

5. Appositive F A slow student.C Einstein, a slow student, proved to be a

genius.6. Infinitive F To go dancing tonight.

C She wants to go dancing tonight.

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EXPLORING ONLINE

http://www.chompchomp.exercises.htm

If you like immediate feedback, you will love this interactive quiz.

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Chapter 28

Present Tense (Agreement)

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Subjects and verbs in the present tense must agree in number; that is, singular subjects take verbs with singular endings, and plural subjects take verbs with plural endings.

Defining Subject-Verb Agreement

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Three Troublesome Verbs in the Present Tense: To Be, To Have, To Do

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Each of these constructions takes a singular verb:

either (of) . . . each (of) . . . every one (of) . . .neither (of) . . . one (of) . . . which one (of) . . .

Special Singular Constructions

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Sometimes a phrase or a clause separates the subject from the verb. First, look for the subject; then make sure that the verb agrees with the subject.

1. The economist’s ideas on this matter seem well thought out.

2. Radios that were made in the 1930s are now collectors’ items.

In sentence 1, the ideas are well thought out. The prepositional phrase on this matter separates the subject ideas from the verb seem.

In sentence 2, radios are now collectors’ items. The relative clause that were made in the 1930s separates the subject radios from the verb are.

Separation of Subject and Verb

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In sentences that begin with there or here, the subject usually follows the verb:

1.There seem to be two flies in my soup.

2.Here is my prediction for the coming year.

In sentence 1, the plural subject flies takes the plural verb seem.

In sentence 2, the singular subject prediction takes the singular verb is.

Sentences Beginning with There and Here

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In questions, the subject usually follows the verb:

1. What is the secret of your success?

2. Where are the copies of the review?

In sentence 1, the subject secret takes the singular verb is.

In sentence 2, the subject copies takes the plural verb are.

Agreement in Questions

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A relative clause is a subordinate clause that begins with who, which, or that. The verb in the relative clause must agree with the antecedent of the who, which, or that.

1.People who have a good sense of humor make good neighbors.

2.Be careful of a scheme that promises you a lot of money fast.

In sentence 1, the antecedent of who is people. People should take the plural verb have.

In sentence 2, the antecedent of that is scheme. Scheme takes the singular verb promises.

Agreement in Relative Clauses

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EXPLORING ONLINE

http://a4esl.org/q/h/vm/svagr.html

Take this verb quiz and get instant feedback on your answers.