Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political PowerPower

1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious

wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change.

States are struggling with political questions, rapid economic change, growing secularism, and nationalism.

Continuing to question what had once been basic assumptions about life

Big Picture

Absolutism Enlightenment redefines government’s role

Political

Industrialization creates a new standard for

econ “leader” nations

Economic

Scientific knowledge spreads Emphasis on rationalism

Popularity of Scientific Revolution/Enlightenme

nt

Big pop. Spike in 16c

Population Change

Chapter 8: Consolidation Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Powerof Political Power

What is Happening?

centralized states. constant competition Church has lost power

Monarchs had complete control over kingdom- no

limits to power Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia

Two Models: Absolutism and Constitutionalism

Absolutism: Where?

Characteristics Philosophy of

The King IS the country, not subordinate to nobles or an assembly.

The king appoints/controls the bureaucracy. Large standing army.

Totalitarian

Jean Bodin/Thomas Hobbes wrote during civil wars in Fr and Eng- both believed the state (king) needed to be strong to protect the people from themselves

Bishop Bossuet- “divine right of kings”

Inquisition Trade fell 60% Eng and Dutch Taxes very high for peasants “price revolution”

Decline of Spain

In Book

Economic Difficulties

Defeat of Spanish Armada lost Netherlands Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict

from 30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands)

Political and Military Decline

Portugal - independent 1668 rebellions in Spanish holdings

Revolt and Secession

Absolutism in FranceHenry IV Louis XIII

Bourbon dynasty Navarre Weakened nobility by

not allowing feudal nobility (nobility of sword) to hold bureaucratic positions- created new noble titles (nobility of robe) for those- therefore those nobles loyal to king

R. 1610-1643 Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu

Rebuilt royal treasury

created intendant system for collecting revenue

A politique (like Henry IV)

Began to push down Huguenots

taking their rights to fortify towns and have independent armies

Duke of Sully Intendant System

Defined Mercantilism- use colonies to create favorable balance of trade (use colonies for raw materials/markets- don’t allow them an ind. Econ.)

Reformed tax system- encouraged gov’t to improve transportation system to improve trade

Civil servants (not noble- bourgeoisie) who report directly to king. Created greater efficiency in gov’t- more centralized control

The Fronde

In Book

Used army against population made him (and king) unpopular

Cardinal Mazarin

Golden age of France French Culture dominated Europe France had the largest population in Europe big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille-

head tax)

The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV

In book

Divine Right

Continued and expanded intendant system-

applied it to regional/local gov’t. Blocked power of noble assemblies

(parlements- which had been created in Fronde) by refusing to allow them to meet- never called Estates General

Building a Centralized Bureaucracy

Forced labor for king work 1 month of the year on royal projects. peasants conscripted into the royal army

Corvee

Often called a “theater state” of formalized

ritual. Also a “pleasure prison” for nobility- kept so entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they had lost their power

Versailles

Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister Mercantilism

Mercantilism

Goal of country is as much gold/silver as

possible. Originated French trading companies (French

East and West India Co) to make $$ and a French Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad. Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream

Bullionism

Created poor peasant conditions- and high

taxes Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no

navy Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for

new world

Weaknesses

60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on

building and maintaining Versailles

Court Culture at Versailles

A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of

order and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand and restrained at same time)

Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of Versailles

Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did the first French Operas

French Classicism

Revocation of Edict of NantesEdict of Fontainebleau

Jansenists

200,000 Huguenots left France-

French middle classes declined

Catholics who either sympathized with or had some Calvinist ideas

This was a professional army

Louis XIV’s Wars

Balance of Power System

Alliances shifting Start of 2nd 100 years of Conflict between Eng and Fr

Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French got to keep towns on border of Spanish Netherlands

War of Devolution 1667-1668

French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country.

Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy

Dutch War 1672-78

France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty Ended in tie

Nine Years War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688-1697

Philip of Anjou, French, became ruler of Spain Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France

(Grand Alliance) Peace of Utrecht 1714- most important since

Peace of Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne- but neither he nor successors can ever claim throne of France. Britain gets Asiento (slave trade) from Spain- as well as Gibraltar and Majorca.

War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714

Results of Wars

Destroyed the French economy

France is bankrupt 20% of French

population injured/killed in battle- or starved

Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central

and Eastern Europe All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia

most centralized in terms of royal power

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe

Different from France

powerful nobles, and serf population

Austria all that’s left of Hapsburgs

Prussia growing Russia growing

French middle class nobility decreased

power E. E.-little

centralization multi-ethnic multi-religious Not Prussia warfare pretty

constant

Revival in East Majority of peasant population Econ stays agricultural few large towns/cities to promote new ideas

Serfdom

Held together by Hapsburg Lots of land Not a lot of power

Consolidation of Austria

Catholic Schoenbrunn Siege of Vienna 1683.

Leopold I 1658-1705

Charles VI 1711-1740

“Pragmatic Sanction” asking rulers of Europe to respect his heir, and saying Hapsburg possession could never again be divided

Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate

areas (2 of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come to be dominated by Prussia

Rise of Brandenburg Prussia

Frederick William- The Great Elector 1640-1688

Taxes created a professional

army

Calvinist religious tolerance Involved with

Sweden/Poland over control of northern territory in Europe

Prussian militarism- heavy taxes to pay for strong military

Prussian nobility Dominate officer corps of new military trade/industry

Junkers

Frederick I 1688-1713

1st “king” of Prussia. Very popular

Frederick William I 1713-1740 Thrifty Army “Sparta of the North”

army with a state. 80% of gov’t revenue

went to military deterrence to avoid

actual war. Very efficient

bureaucracy- could come from any class, rise based on merit

Frederick the Great 1740-1786

Silesia- which doubled Prussia’s population

“Enlightened Despot”

Outside of “normal” European sphere seen as “backwards” and odd Europe feared the size, but always looked

down on Russia.

Russia: Emergence of an Absolutist State

Princes of Moscow became leading Russian

nobles- Mongols use them as their tax collectors

As Mongol rule collapses, they will step in to lead Russia

Expansion of Russia before 1650

“Tsar” of Russia Acquired land through war and marriage Cossack class of free peasants by giving them

freedom and land to settle in new Ivan the Great

Ivan III 1442-1505

Ivan IV 1533-1584

Russia was feudal- Boyars were Russian nobility- much more traditional style- with military obligations etc…

Ivan sought to control nobles by creating a new aristocracy Oprichniki- and killing boyars.

Killed son’s wife- and son/heir- Ivan the Terrible

Boyars resented newly created royal power. Ivan came to throne @ 3- they rebelled and threatened his life many times (killed mom)

Created 1st version of Russia’s secret police for reign of terror.

Gained territory in black sea (taking land from Poland- a Russian theme)

Increased serfdom to keep peasants tied to noble lands- also bound merchants to particular towns- limited capitalism

Time of Troubles Romanov

Dynasty 1584- 1600ish Ivan died w/o an heir- so

competition, quasi war broke out between boyar families for who would control throne

Michael Romanov elected Tsar in 1613 (Romanovs favored keeping power in hands of boyars in return for their support)

Expanded Russia to East 1689 Russia is largest

country in World- 3x the size of Europe- most of Empire not IN Europe

Peter the Great 1682-1724

Tsar primarily responsible for transforming Europe into a western power. Understood that changes were happening in Europe- wanted to get on board

Not all boyars/peasants liked the idea of change- he didn’t care

Peter was a giant- literally- nearly 7 ft tall, could bend a horseshoe barehanded.

Russia is Feudal- Tsars technically “own” all the land- there are no representative political bodies.

Old Believers: people who resisted (severely persecuted)

Big focus on creating a modern military (75% of budget) each village had to send a certain # of troops for a 25 year enlistment.

St Petersburg

Wanted a warm water port for navy and trade. Gained access to Baltic Sea (through Great Northern War against Poland/Denmark)

Built a new capital as showplace of modernization- his “window on the west”

Copied Amsterdam (soggy territory) built Winter Palace to rival Versailles

Created a cosmopolitan city by inviting the people he needed (artists, musicians, philosophers) to live there

Program for Westernization

As a young man, Peter travelled (incognito) to Europe to observe and study other countries.

Imported western technicians and artisans to bring new industries (like shipbuilding) to Russia.

State controlled industry- not really capitalistic (Tsar gave monopolies) but had huge resources- but end of reign Russia out produced Eng in iron

Military

Built army by drafting peasants- created soldiers by offering them an alternative to serfdom (pay etc…) Royal army 200,000.

Introduced cannons and firearms to Russian combat- modern military technology

Built roads and bridges to transport army- and a navy from scratch (which decline after he died)

Peter required adoption of European cultural attitudes- styles of dress, cut the beards (by force if necessary) Women required to appear at court society Introduced French language to his court- required all

nobles to learn it and speak it exclusively. Kept taxes high (but not for nobles) used secret

police to enforce

Social

Reorganized bureaucracy for greater efficiency

in tax collection and industrial production. Set education standards for bureaucrats.

Table of Ranks: you gain gov’t positions based on merit rather than just aristocratic status. Eliminated many titles- issued new ones (loyalty)

Bureaucratic

Results

Significant conflict of Slavic culture vs. westernization. Peter imitated selectively- not interested in business or capitalism

Brought Russia into Europe- but not really mainstream yet.

Alternatives to AbsolutismConstitutionalism: what is

it?

The government (king) is limited by law- the law itself is the supreme power in the country.

Implies a balance between power of gov’t and rights of citizens

Used in Sweden, Poland, England, and the Netherlands

Opportunities for other voices/powers will allow capitalistic growth- allowing econ to grow particularly strong in Netherlands and England

Sweden

King Gustavas Adolphus (1611-1632) got Sweden involved in European affairs through 30 years war. Sweden dominated Baltic region (defeating Russia and Poland- until Peter...)

Riksdag: assembly of nobles, clergy, townspeople which had highest legislative authority. Shared power with king

Sweden began some Atlantic colonizing/trade (Delaware) then pulled back

Charles XII 1697-1718

Defeated by Peter the Great in Baltic. Nobles took advantage of that defeat (and king died in battle) to force Queen Ulrika to accept a constitution which gave nobles significant power.

Riksdag restructured to be more like Parliament (though with nobles in charge, not gentry)

In 16c was a Commonwealth bordered by Russia, HRE, Austria,and Ottoman Empire (included Belarus and Ukraine) Polish and Lithuania kingdoms united by treaty

of Lubin in 1569. Had a weak king elected by nobles- made country a “republic of nobles”

For a time was the most diverse, tolerant society in Europe. Eventually divided between Austria, Russia and Prussia

Poland Lithuania

A small country- but the Dutch ideasattitudes played a significant role inshaping the modern world view. Recognized as independent in the treaty of

Westphalia. Seven provinces- each with considerable autonomy

Religious tolerance- Calvinist- but not exclusive Amsterdam replaces Antwerp (in Sp

Netherlands) as banking/commercial center of Netherlands

The Netherlands

Greatest mercantile nation- went out in the

world to trade (not conquer) Carrying Trade- served as shipping company for many colonies- charged a fee and made a profit.

Center of scientific, literary, and artistic achievements.

Gov’t dominated by bourgeoisie- whose wealth limited power of king

Golden Age

Stadholders

Netherlands did not have ancient aristocratic families- they had oligarchies of merchants, financiers and traders, Burghers- town officials. “Regents” elected provincial “stadholder”- executive officer. House of Orange unofficial leader of stadholders (William the Silent)

In times of crisis (war) power of all 7 powers could be given to one stadholder- making him effective king.

Problems with England

During English Civil War Cromwell’s parliament passed Navigation acts- colonies cannot trade with anyone but Eng.

Seemed to target Dutch carrying trade

So Dutch begin to fight England (sometimes- also allies against Fr)

Had to rely on commerce b/c they have so few natural resources. Not big enough to create large colonies- but had largest fleet in Euro and Significant fishing trade.

Dutch East/West India Co.

Often preferred by native populations- seen as having less of an agenda

William II of Orange

War of League of Augsburg made him permanent head stadholder. In 1688 he became King of England (through his wife Mary- they were co-rulers) brought Eng. More into affairs of continent

Used balance of power to contain Fr. Ambition

Heavily involved in wars against Louis XIV- they fight all in (flooding countryside etc…) It was expensive – even when they were winning- they use up a lot of energy, never again quite as large a force in Euro politics

Constitutionalism in England

Began with Magna Carta. Kings willing to have a legislature, particularly if they could use it to legitimize their own ideas.

Really won POWER in English Civil War- they deposed (and beheaded) Charles I, reinstated Charles II

Capitalism played a significant role in constitutionalism- created social mobility. England had a larger middle class than anywhere in Europe (except Netherlands- also constitutional)

BeginningsGentry

One Parliament for the whole country (unlike France)

House of Lords- all hereditary nobles

House of Commons -> gentry

Wealthy landowners w/o significant noble title (knight at best) Many had made fortunes in commerce, then retired.

Paid taxes (as did nobles) less stigma on making $$ than in other parts of Euro

Stuart dynasty had absolutist tendencies

(spent too much time in France!) Real issue of war- can king govern without

consent of parliament (as Charles I was trying to do)

Petition of Right 1628: Parliament attempted to settle this question before war began- said only parliament can levy taxes, said there had to be due process of law (Habeas Corpus)

Problems with Stuarts (not on outline- add to side)

The Protectorate/Interregnum

1653-1658 When Charles I executed

in 1649 parliament declared martial law- then a Commonwealth. (Parliament technically in charge- Cromwell really ruling as a military dictatorship- Lord Protector)

England at its most absolutist during this period- just Puritan absolutism. Censored press, closed theaters & entertainments. Crushed Ireland (feared royalist stronghold)

Pride’s Purge- 1653 all non puritans removed from gov’t.

Act of Settlement- 2/3 of land in Ireland taken from Irish and given to English Landlords

The Restoration Charles II 1660-1685 England got tired of

Cromwell and Puritanism. When he died parliament decided to “restore” Charles II to his father’s throne.

Charles always careful not to provoke parliament- avoided extremes. Kept a permanent council of 5 men who were his advisors as well as members of Parliament- kept communication going- Cabinet

Charles had an affable personality. Did not punish parliament or country for war/father’s death- seemed just as anxious as they were for a good time. Known as the “merry monarch”

Tension between religious factions remains

very strong in Euro during 17c. Stuarts nominally protestant- really very pro-RC (and pro French)

Whigs: (liberal) anti RC- did not want James II (openly RC) to inherit throne. Middle class, Calvinist, favored Business and Econ progress

Tories: (conservative) supported strong monarchy. Anglican. Nobility, clergy, favored status quo.

Political Parties

Charles II suspended laws against Catholics

and Protestant dissenters. Parliament responded by passing a law which

said you had to be Anglican (or at least take Anglican Communion) to hold gov’t office or military officership

Religious Issues: Test Act 1673

Final chapter in English struggle over

sovereignty. England doesn’t have a single document as

it’s constitution- significant acts join together as body of law- lots of them created here

Glorious Revolution 1688

James II

Charles II’s younger bro- became king in 1685 at 55 years old. Pro Catholic and Absolutist- and proud of it baby

Appointed Catholics to gov’t positions in defiance of law- passed Act of Indulgence: freedom of worship for RC

At first, parliament (and people) figure they will just hold on- he’s not a young guy, and his heirs (2 grown daughters) are both protestant

But he married again (20 year old daughter of Louis xiv) in 1686, she gave birth to a son 1688. Faced with a Catholic heir, and absolutist Fr. Regent- parliament decided they have to act

Complete the journey towards

constitutionalism Parliament offered throne to oldest daughter

Mary (married to William of Orange- who offered Dutch army to force James out if necessary) James leaves (he and heirs become “pretenders” to the throne) William and Mary are crowned as co-rulers

“Glorious” b/c there is no bloodshed

William and Mary

Bill of Right Toleration Act

1688 W & M agree not to keep standing army w/o parliament’s consent. Parliament will meet every year and have elections every 3 years, have sole power to tax.

Says king CANNOT be RC

Ensures no Cruel and Unusual punishment and trial by Jury

1689 All forms of protestants have freedom of worship and may hold office

Did not offer those same rights to Catholics or Jews, but did not punish them for their faith either.

Act of Settlement Act of Union

1701 If W & M, or Anne (other sister) die w/o heir (which they did)- throne does not revert to heirs of James II, but to grandchildren of James I- the Electors of Hanover. George I of Hanoverian dynasty will become king in 1714

1707 United England and Scotland (reconquered by Charles II w/o much fuss) into Great Britain. Union was to prevent Stuarts from using Scotland as launching spot for invasion of England (which is what they were doing in Ireland) Scots fine- wanted access to Eng’s trade empire

NOT Democracy

Bloodless revolution- but not “by the people” Parliament only represented the top of society- voting rights were strictly limited to large landowners

Parliament represents the upper 10% at this point- but that is still 10% more than have a voice in most of the countries of Europe

John Locke: wrote to defend the Glor. Rev- saying that people have the right to overthrow a gov’t that is not defending their rights