Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political Chapter 8: Consolidation of Political PowerPower

1648 (Peace of Westphalia: end of religious wars) to 1815 (Congress of Vienna: end of Fr. Rev and Napoleonic wars) another time of tremendous change.

States are struggling with political questions, rapid economic change, growing secularism, and nationalism.

Continuing to question what had once been basic assumptions about life

Big Picture

Absolutism Peaks (standard form of gov’t except for constitutional areas in England and Netherlands)

Enlightenment creates interest in redefining government’s role- French Rev shakes traditionalists to their core

Political

European dominance expands locally and globally Nations around and engaged in Atlantic trade become dominant.

Industrialization creates a new standard for econ “leader” nations

Economic

Scientific knowledge spreads. Emphasis on rationalism encouraged people to approach other issues in the same way- say political or social problems- solve them with scientific tools/theories/methods

Popularity of Scientific Revolution/Enlightenment

Big pop. Spike in 16c- (due to changes in food, improved sanitation etc…) Widespread urbanization begins for 1st areas to go through I.R.

Population Change

What is Happening?

Consolidation of medieval (feudal) kingdoms into centralized states.

Europe is small- there is a limited amount of space- therefore constant competition

Church has lost power- which left more available for kings

Monarchs had complete control over kingdom- no limits to power

Spain, France, Prussia, Austria, Russia

Two Models: Absolutism and ConstitutionalismAbsolutism: Where?

Characteristics Philosophy of

The King IS the country, not subordinate to nobles or an assembly.

The king appoints/controls the bureaucracy. Large standing army.

Totalitarian (but w/o attempt of control daily lives of ordinary citizens)

Jean Bodin/Thomas Hobbes wrote during civil wars in Fr and Eng- both believed the state (king) needed to be strong to protect the people from themselves

Bishop Bossuet- “divine right of kings”

Decline of Spain

During 16c Spain was the most powerful country in Europe- but they fell almost as fast as they had risen

Inquisition- reduced population from 7.5-5.5 million- and the ones who left were best and brightest

Command econ controlled by crown- and not well. Trade fell 60% from 1600-1660 (lost out to Eng and Dutch)

Taxes very high for peasants- little incentive to start business etc…

Inflation from new world silver caused “price revolution”

Lots of $$ came in from vast colonial empire- but it only went to a few groups.

Castile controlled bureaucracy, Seville had monopoly on Atlantic shipping, Barcelona on Med. Shipping

Fought lots of wars- and lost a lot (expensive) New world silver started to dry up Lost Netherlands

Economic Difficulties

Defeat of Spanish Armada (1588)in their attempt to invade England a real turning point.

Also- on losing side of 30 years war (lost Netherlands)

By 1700 Spanish navy had 8 ships Treaty of Pyrenees 1658 (ended Fr/Sp conflict

from 30 years war- France took Spanish Netherlands) end of Spain as a great power- become a backwater dreaming of former glories

Political and Military Decline

“Spain” had been created by Ferdinand and Isabella out of Castile/Aragon- but there were still independent areas. Weak leadership of Philip III, Philip IV, Charles II encouraged them to challenge crown. 1630-40s revolts broke out- largest in Catalonia & Portugal (Portugal successfully independent 1668)

Also rebellions in Spanish holdings in Europe- like Italy (Sicily/Naples rebel) Losing power steadily

Revolt and Secession

Absolutism in France

Had a history of intermittently strong royal power since Charlemagne. Valois spent Renaissance building royal power- Bourbon planned to continue

Strong bureaucracy, invented concept of “divine right of kings”

Enhanced legitimacy of royalty all over Europe

Henry IV Louis XIII

1st king of Bourbon dynasty (r. 1589-1610) determined to strengthen Fr. by strengthening gov’t.

Weakened nobility by not allowing feudal nobility (nobility of sword) to hold bureaucratic positions- created new noble titles (nobility of robe) for those- therefore those nobles loyal to king

R. 1610-1643. Came to throne as child (Henry assassinated by RC fanatic)

Mother regent- but Fr. Ruled by his ministers (Richelieu) Irony- this is when Fr. Is becoming absolutist- but Louis never had strong personal power

Cardinal Richelieu

Minister to King 1585-1642.

Built royal power (which he used for himself, in name of king)

Rebuilt royal treasury after 30 years war- created intendant system for collecting revenue

A politique (like Henry IV) he cared more about power of France than personalities or religion. Ran policy during 30 years war- goal was to weaken the Hapsburg dynasty- supported whatever side needed to do that (so Fr. Flip flops around)

Began to push down Huguenots- whom he saw as a threat to power of Fr.- taking their rights to fortify towns and have independent armies

Duke of Sully Intendant System

Defined Mercantilism- use colonies to create favorable balance of trade (use colonies for raw materials/markets- don’t allow them an ind. Econ.)

Reformed tax system- encouraged gov’t to improve transportation system to improve trade

Civil servants (not noble- bourgeoisie) who report directly to king. Created greater efficiency in gov’t- more centralized control

The Fronde

1648-1653 When Louis XIII died- his 5 year old son

became king. Another regency made nobles unhappy- led to an uprising (fronde=slingshot)

Nobles demanded parlements w/right to approve taxes. Royal family in danger several times- made a big impression on young Louis XIV

Revolt ended in failure- primarily because competition between noble families prevented them from uniting effectively

Cardinal Mazarin Chief minister while Louis xiv a child

(not as ambitious as Richelieu) used power to gain $$ for himself.

Used army against population to ensure prompt/full payment of taxes- made him (and king) unpopular

Louis ended regency in 1652 when he was 14-Mazarin remained an “advisor” until he was 23

The Absolute Monarchy of Louis XIV

Ruled 72 years. Dominated Europe- this was the “Age of Louis XIV, the “Sun King” who said “L’etat C’est Moi”

Manipulated affections/ambitions of his courtiers- made sure all gov’t ministers loyal only to him- tolerated no opposition.

Tricky balancing act nobles/peasants/clergy all had to be managed

Golden age of France Louis Personified the

idea that the sovereignty and glory of the nation reside in it’s ruler. French Culture dominated Europe

France had the largest population in Europe- 17 million in 1650- allowed them to keep a big army, and collect a lot of taxes (taille- head tax)

Divine Right

Louis XIV was very religious. Believed kings were a race apart from mortal men, appointed and anointed by God.

Kings had to follow God’s laws (man’s, not so much)

Expected to rule for the good of their people, but could not be questioned

Louis believed France existed to serve his glory- that by living the most magnificent life possible- he was making France a better place

Building a Centralized Bureaucracy

Richelieu and Mazarin had cleared old nobility out of gov’t but there was still more to be done. Provinces and nobles still had lots of local independent power- and Louis didn’t want that

Continued and expanded intendant system- applied it to regional/local gov’t.

Blocked power of noble assemblies (parlements- which had been created in Fronde) by refusing to allow them to meet- never called Estates General

Forced labor for king. (rather like old feudal obligations to nobles)

All peasants required to work 1 month of the year on royal projects.

Also allowed peasants to be conscripted into the royal army

Corvee

Versailles

Made it not only his home- but the center of gov’t. Kept nobles and bureaucrats there- so he could keep an eye on them

Often called a “theater state” of formalized ritual. Also a “pleasure prison” for nobility- kept so entertained and frivolous, they didn’t notice they had lost their power

Finances were Louis’s weak point- assumed France was a bottomless well of wealth. Appointed Jean Baptist Colbert as finance minister- defined new econ concept

Mercantilism: A country’s wealth is based on their supply of gold- so countries must sell more than buy abroad so they maintain gold reserves. Thought France should be self sufficient- led to development of new industries. Colonies helpful to mercantilism as sources of raw materials and markets for manufactured goods.

Mercantilism

Goal of country is as much gold/silver as possible.

Originated French trading companies (French East and West India Co) to make $$ and a French Merchant Marine to protect French interests abroad. Sugar of Caribbean and early revenue stream

Bullionism

Created poor peasant conditions- and high taxes (nobles don’t pay taxes- Louis wants them happy)

Louis keeps a massive army- but virtually no navy- will end up causing colonial issues

Huguenots are not allowed to leave France for new world (which would have solved several problems)

Weaknesses

Court Culture at Versailles

Elaborate entertainments and rituals. Nobles vied for the honor of serving the king (took 3 hrs to get dressed) Everyone engaged in petty competition- nobles busy- and useless.

Most spectacular palace ever (and huge- 15,000 people lived there) Made France center of culture Europe- French became language of sophistication

Original structure built by Louis XIII as a hunting lodge. Architect Louis Louvois “enveloped” the lodge- incorporating it into new palace. Palace 1/3 mile long

Built on swampland (drained- 1400 fountains: gardens by LeNotre) so that Louis could prove his will was greater than even nature’s

60% of royal revenue EACH YEAR spent on building and maintaining Versailles

A French twist on the Renaissance ideals of order and symmetry- while keeping much of the lushness and drama of Baroque architecture. (grand and restrained at same time)

Nicholas Poussain- master painter of frescos of Versailles

Also extended into other arts: plays by Jean Baptiste Moliere and Jean Racine entertained nobles, as did the first French Operas

French Classicism

Henry IV had meant edict as a compromise measure to end conflict- not as a permanent solution.

Louis VERY catholic- 1685 ordered revocation- all Huguenots had to be baptized- or exiled. Popular- but probably bad for France in the long run.

One king, One law, One faith- Louis felt this was necessary for his absolutist power to be effective.

Revocation of Edict of Nantes

Edict of FontainebleauJansenists

The law which revoked Nantes. 200,000 Huguenots left France- most for Holland, England or other colonies of New World (can’t go to French colonies) Cut significantly into French middle classes

Catholics who either sympathized with or had some Calvinist ideas- they got cracked down upon as well

France has borders with many countries Marquis de Louvois (military advisor to king)

said army is the base of the strength of the nation. Increased size of permanent army from 25,000 in 1625 to 100,000 in 1642 to 250,000 in 1659.

This was a professional army- with all high

ranking officers appointed by the king, uniforms, weapons, and training all standardized

Louis XIV’s Wars

Balance of Power System

Alliances of various states (based on their goals) were constantly shifting

The idea of trying to create a balance was new (borrowing from Italy during Ren)

France often won their wars- but still they were really expensive.

William of Orange (Netherlands) most important in blocking ambitions of Louis- but needed many other countries to challenge France’s strength

Start of 2nd 100 years of Conflict between Eng and Fr

Louis invaded Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte (Burgundy) saying that Spain had not fully paid the dowry of his wife- so these lands should “devolve” to him.

France beat Spain, but had to draw

back when England, Sweden, and

Dutch joined the Spanish side. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle- French

got to keep towns in Spanish

Netherlands

War of Devolution 1667-1668

To break up the Eng/Swed/Dutch alliance the French convinced the Eng to make an econ alliance (Eng/Dutch were trade rivals)

Louis personally led the invasion- Dutch opened their dykes- flooded their country. Prussia/Austria joined Dutch side

Peace of Nijmegen- France gets Burgundy

Dutch War 1672-78

France moved against the Hapsburg dynasty- (whom they saw as rivals) Invaded Strasbourg & Lorraine- wanted to push the border of France to the Rhine. (and nervous b/c William of Orange just became king of England)

Opposed by coalition of Eng, Dutch,

Spanish, Swed, Austrian, and German

princes

Nine Years War (War of League of Augsburg) 1688-1697

Last Spanish Hapsburg king (Charles II) dies w/o an heir. Louis and Leopold (HRE) both claim throne of France. Charles had left throne to Louis’ grandson (Charles’ nephew) Philip of Anjou. Other nations worry this will give France too much influence.

Dutch/Austria/Prussia join against France (Grand Alliance- commanded by Duke of Marlborough- who defeats France at battle of Blenheim)

Peace of Utrecht 1714- most important since Peace of Westphalia. Philip of Anjou gets throne- but neither he nor successors can ever claim throne of France. Britain gets Asiento (slave trade) from Spain- as well as Gibraltar and Majorca.

War of Spanish Succession 1701-1714

Results of Wars

Destroyed the French economy- monster debt- France is bankrupt when Louis XIV dies.

20% of French population injured/killed in battle- or starved as result of conflicts (seeds of French revolution)

People spend the next 150 years worrying about French aggression

Austria, Prussia, and Russia dominated Central and Eastern Europe

All 3 used absolutism- Austria least, Russia most centralized in terms of royal power

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe

Different from France

France had strong king, efficient bureaucracy/town councils/free peasants. E. Euro had powerful nobles, and serf population

Austria- After the 30 years war- Hapsburg dynasty had lost most of their western territory- focus on consolidating what they still had.

Prussia was a new nation- a growing power. (they will eventually unite the German states into “Germany”)

Russia was also a new power- newly involved in Europe.

French middle class was coming to dominate econ (overseas trade and manufacturing) the influence of the nobility had been waning since end of 100 years war.

E. Euro had little heritage of centralization, and multi-ethnic, multi-religious empires (not Prussia) and size issues.

Also Faced threat of invasion from outside civ (esp. Ottomans- who attacked Austria multiple times) kept warfare pretty constant

Serfdom died a natural death in western Europe- but experienced a revival in East during 1300s after population devastation of Black death. By 1500 the vast majority of peasant population fully enserfed- at complete legal mercy of local nobility. Will hold them back during this time of dynamic change- most of their population can’t change

Econ stays fully agricultural- with far fewer large towns/cities to promote new ideas

Serfdom

Consolidation of Austria

Southeastern territory of HRE: large, un-homogenous empire (Germans, Hungarians, Italians, Serbs, Romanians, Czechs, Slovenes, Croats), held together by Hapsburg Dynasty. Looks impressive on paper- lots of land. Not so impressive in terms of power

Hapsburgs are already a fading dynasty- in 1500 they controlled 2/3 of Euro and new world, now have lost significant territory

No single constitutional system for empire- different parts tied to Emperor with different rules/obligations. Would like to be absolutist (and are in many ways)- but have multiple issues to deal with

Fought Louis xiv for Spain in the War of Spanish Succession (lost) Inherited HRE after 30 years war- tried to consolidate royal power. Often blocked by nobles who had significant local authority- and he had no way to block them

Devote RC- gave all gov’t positions to Catholics (tricky in an empire that is about 1/3 protestant)

Built Schoenbrunn in Vienna to Rival Versailles in France

Ottomans attacking- had to give a lot of attention to Hungary which was a battle zone, culminating in the siege of Vienna 1683.

Leopold I 1658-1705

Charles VI 1711-1740

Threatened by French expansion- allied with England to check French aggression

Father of Maria Theresa (Austria’s most famous ruler) knew he would be leaving throne to a daughter- issued “Pragmatic Sanction” asking rulers of Europe to respect his heir, and saying Hapsburg possession could never again be divided

Rise of Brandenburg Prussia

Small states in Northern Germany- ruled by Hohenzollern dynasty. Scattered territories at first- will be fused together and become leader of German identity

Brandenburg and Prussia originally separate areas (2 of the “electors” of the HRE) Brandenburg will come to be dominated by Prussia

Frederick William- The Great Elector 1640-1688

Not a king, but created a kingdom.

Will mold Brand-Prussia into an independent (and absolutist) state. 3 disconnected pieces after treaty of Westphalia

Collected taxes, created a professional army, which allowed him to rule w/o support of nobles

Calvinist- but allowed religious tolerance (allow about what was efficient- avoid hassles)

Involved with Sweden/Poland over control of northern territory in Europe

Began to lay groundwork for Prussian militarism- heavy taxes to pay for strong military (2x that of France)

Prussian nobility. Fred. William created tradeoffs to get royal power he was looking for- and keep nobles happy. (for

example, he collected the taxes, they had total control over their serfs)

Junkers came to dominate officer corps of new military- took oath directly to elector (later king) which gave him power.

Unlike many nobles- Prussians were interested in trade/industry (ex. Of Eng and Holland) Did try overseas trade- big failure, lack of ports and navy

Junkers

Frederick I 1688-1713

1st “king” of Prussia. Got recognition from Hapsburgs in return for his support against Louis xiv in War of League of Augsburg and War of Sp. Succession.

Very popular

Frederick William I 1713-1740 Often called the “anti”

Louis- in that he cared nothing for “fancy” (pawned crown jewels to buy artillery)

Army was of prime importance to the strength of nation (doubled size). Always appeared in uniform (the soldier king)

Canton System: soldiers in regiment all came from same area.

Fought infrequently- frugal, left a full treasury to his son

Goal was to make Prussia the “Sparta of the North”- not a state with an army, but an army with a state.

80% of gov’t revenue went to military- used deterrence to avoid actual war.

Very efficient bureaucracy- could come from any class, rise based on merit

Frederick the Great 1740-1786

Used army to invaded and capture Silesia- which doubled Prussia’s population, helped est. Prussia as a great power.

Known as an “Enlightened Despot” for his appreciation of new ideas of gov’t, (Voltaire) while keeping reigns for himself.

Mad his dad nuts, loved art, music, poetry etc…

Kiev Rus- during middle ages Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe had built a variety of cities connected by trade routes from Scandinavia to the Byzantine empire. (Kiev largest and most important)

Main cultural influence came NOT from Latin heritage of Europe- but Greek influences of Constantinople (Cyrillic alphabet, Orthodox Christianity)

Conquered by Mongols (1250-1450) Get “left out” of Europe (miss renaissance, reformation etc…)

Far inland- and to the north- outside of “normal” European sphere. Always seen as “backwards” and odd- Europe feared the size, but always looked down on Russia.

Russia: Emergence of an Absolutist State

Princes of Moscow became leading Russian nobles- Mongols use them as their tax collectors

As Mongol rule collapses, they will step in to lead Russia

Expansion of Russia before 1650

In 1480 refused to pay any more tribute to the Mongol Khan (who were weak anyway) and declared himself “Tsar” of Russia (means “Caesar” he was married to a byzantine princess, when Constantinople fell to Turks he felt Moscow would take its place)

Acquired land through war and marriagecreated a Cossack class of free peasants by giving

them freedom and land to settle in new areas (spread his power) Ivan the Great

Ivan III 1442-1505

Ivan IV 1533-1584

Russia was feudal- Boyars were Russian nobility- much more traditional style- with military obligations etc…

Ivan sought to control nobles by creating a new aristocracy Oprichniki- and killing boyars.

Killed son’s wife- and son/heir- Ivan the Terrible

Boyars resented newly created royal power. Ivan came to throne @ 3- they rebelled and threatened his life many times (killed mom)

Created 1st version of Russia’s secret police for reign of terror.

Gained territory in black sea (taking land from Poland- a Russian theme)

Increased serfdom to keep peasants tied to noble lands- also bound merchants to particular towns- limited capitalism

Time of Troubles Romanov Dynasty

1584- 1600ish Ivan died w/o an heir- so

competition, quasi war broke out between boyar families for who would control throne

Michael Romanov elected Tsar in 1613 (Romanovs favored keeping power in hands of boyars in return for their support)

Expanded Russia to East 1689 Russia is largest

country in World- 3x the size of Europe- most of Empire not IN Europe

Peter the Great 1682-1724

Tsar primarily responsible for transforming Europe into a western power. Understood that changes were happening in Europe- wanted to get on board

Not all boyars/peasants liked the idea of change- he didn’t care

Peter was a giant- literally- nearly 7 ft tall, could bend a horseshoe barehanded.

Russia is Feudal- Tsars technically “own” all the land- there are no representative political bodies.

Old Believers: people who resisted (severely persecuted)

Big focus on creating a modern military (75% of budget) each village had to send a certain # of troops for a 25 year enlistment.

St Petersburg

Wanted a warm water port for navy and trade. Gained access to Baltic Sea (through Great Northern War against Poland/Denmark)

Built a new capital as showplace of modernization- his “window on the west”

Copied Amsterdam (soggy territory) built Winter Palace to rival Versailles

Created a cosmopolitan city by inviting the people he needed (artists, musicians, philosophers) to live there

Program for Westernization As a young man, Peter

travelled (incognito) to Europe to observe and study other countries.

Imported western technicians and artisans to bring new industries (like shipbuilding) to Russia.

State controlled industry- not really capitalistic (Tsar gave monopolies) but had huge resources- but end of reign Russia out produced Eng in iron

Military Built army by drafting

peasants- created soldiers by offering them an alternative to serfdom (pay etc…) Royal army 200,000.

Introduced cannons and firearms to Russian combat- modern military technology

Built roads and bridges to transport army- and a navy from scratch (which decline after he died)

Peter required adoption of European cultural attitudes- styles of dress, cut the beards (by force if necessary) Women required to appear at court society Introduced French language to his court- required

all nobles to learn it and speak it exclusively. Kept taxes high (but not for nobles) used secret

police to enforce

Social

Reorganized bureaucracy for greater efficiency in tax collection and industrial production. Set education standards for bureaucrats.

Table of Ranks: you gain gov’t positions based on merit rather than just aristocratic status. Eliminated many titles- issued new ones (loyalty)

Bureaucratic

Results

Significant conflict of Slavic culture vs. westernization. Peter imitated selectively- not interested in business or capitalism

Brought Russia into Europe- but not really mainstream yet.

Alternatives to AbsolutismConstitutionalism: what is it?

The government (king) is limited by law- the law itself is the supreme power in the country.

Implies a balance between power of gov’t and rights of citizens

Used in Sweden, Poland, England, and the Netherlands

Opportunities for other voices/powers will allow capitalistic growth- allowing econ to grow particularly strong in Netherlands and England

Sweden

King Gustavas Adolphus (1611-1632) got Sweden involved in European affairs through 30 years war. Sweden dominated Baltic region (defeating Russia and Poland- until Peter...)

Riksdag: assembly of nobles, clergy, townspeople which had highest legislative authority. Shared power with king

Sweden began some Atlantic colonizing/trade (Delaware) then pulled back

Charles XII 1697-1718

Defeated by Peter the Great in Baltic. Nobles took advantage of that defeat (and king died in battle) to force Queen Ulrika to accept a constitution which gave nobles significant power.

Riksdag restructured to be more like Parliament (though with nobles in charge, not gentry)

In 16c was a Commonwealth bordered by Russia, HRE, Austria,and Ottoman Empire (included Belarus and Ukraine) Polish and Lithuania kingdoms united by

treaty of Lubin in 1569. Had a weak king elected by nobles- made country a “republic of nobles”

For a time was the most diverse, tolerant society in Europe. Eventually divided between Austria, Russia and Prussia

Poland Lithuania

A small country- but the Dutch ideasattitudes played a significant role inshaping the modern world view. Recognized as independent in the treaty of

Westphalia. Seven provinces- each with considerable autonomy

Religious tolerance- Calvinist- but not exclusive Amsterdam replaces Antwerp (in Sp

Netherlands) as banking/commercial center of Netherlands

The Netherlands

Greatest mercantile nation- went out in the world to trade (not conquer) Carrying Trade- served as shipping company for many colonies- charged a fee and made a profit.

Center of scientific, literary, and artistic achievements.

Gov’t dominated by bourgeoisie-

whose wealth limited power of king

Golden Age

Stadholders

Netherlands did not have ancient aristocratic families- they had oligarchies of merchants, financiers and traders, Burghers- town officials. “Regents” elected provincial “stadholder”- executive officer. House of Orange unofficial leader of stadholders (William the Silent)

In times of crisis (war) power of all 7 powers could be given to one stadholder- making him effective king.

Problems with England

During English Civil War Cromwell’s parliament passed Navigation acts- colonies cannot trade with anyone but Eng.

Seemed to target Dutch carrying trade

So Dutch begin to fight England (sometimes- also allies against Fr)

Had to rely on commerce b/c they have so few natural resources. Not big enough to create large colonies- but had largest fleet in Euro and Significant fishing trade.

Dutch East/West India Co.

Often preferred by native populations- seen as having less of an agenda

William II of Orange

War of League of Augsburg made him permanent head stadholder. In 1688 he became King of England (through his wife Mary- they were co-rulers) brought Eng. More into affairs of continent

Used balance of power to contain Fr. Ambition

Heavily involved in wars against Louis XIV- they fight all in (flooding countryside etc…) It was expensive – even when they were winning- they use up a lot of energy, never again quite as large a force in Euro politics

Constitutionalism in England

Began with Magna Carta. Kings willing to have a legislature, particularly if they could use it to legitimize their own ideas.

Really won POWER in English Civil War- they deposed (and beheaded) Charles I, reinstated Charles II

Capitalism played a significant role in constitutionalism- created social mobility. England had a larger middle class than anywhere in Europe (except Netherlands- also constitutional)

Beginnings Gentry

One Parliament for the whole country (unlike France)

House of Lords- all hereditary nobles

House of Commons -> gentry

Wealthy landowners w/o significant noble title (knight at best) Many had made fortunes in commerce, then retired.

Paid taxes (as did nobles) less stigma on making $$ than in other parts of Euro

Stuart dynasty had absolutist tendencies (spent too much time in France!)

Real issue of war- can king govern without consent of parliament (as Charles I was trying to do)

Petition of Right 1628: Parliament attempted to settle this question before war began- said only parliament can levy taxes, said there had to be due process of law (Habeas Corpus)

Problems with Stuarts (not on outline- add to side)

The Protectorate/Interregnum1653-1658

When Charles I executed in 1649 parliament declared martial law- then a Commonwealth. (Parliament technically in charge- Cromwell really ruling as a military dictatorship- Lord Protector)

England at its most absolutist during this period- just Puritan absolutism. Censored press, closed theaters & entertainments. Crushed Ireland (feared royalist stronghold)

Pride’s Purge- 1653 all non puritans removed from gov’t.

Act of Settlement- 2/3 of land in Ireland taken from Irish and given to English Landlords

The Restoration Charles II 1660-1685 England got tired of Cromwell and Puritanism. When

he died parliament decided to “restore” Charles II to his father’s throne.

Charles always careful not to provoke parliament- avoided extremes. Kept a permanent council of 5 men who were his advisors as well as members of Parliament- kept communication going- Cabinet

Charles had an affable personality. Did not punish parliament or country for war/father’s death- seemed just as anxious as they were for a good time. Known as the “merry monarch”

Tension between religious factions remains very strong in Euro during 17c. Stuarts nominally protestant- really very pro-RC (and pro French)

Whigs: (liberal) anti RC- did not want James II (openly RC) to inherit throne. Middle class, Calvinist, favored Business and Econ progress

Tories: (conservative) supported strong monarchy. Anglican. Nobility, clergy, favored status quo.

Political Parties

Charles II suspended laws against Catholics and Protestant dissenters.

Parliament responded by passing a law which said you had to be Anglican (or at least take Anglican Communion) to hold gov’t office or military officership

Religious Issues: Test Act 1673

Final chapter in English struggle over sovereignty.

England doesn’t have a single document as it’s constitution- significant acts join together as body of law- lots of them created here

Glorious Revolution 1688

James II

Charles II’s younger bro- became king in 1685 at 55 years old. Pro Catholic and Absolutist- and proud of it baby

Appointed Catholics to gov’t positions in defiance of law- passed Act of Indulgence: freedom of worship for RC

At first, parliament (and people) figure they will just hold on- he’s not a young guy, and his heirs (2 grown daughters) are both protestant

But he married again (20 year old daughter of Louis xiv) in 1686, she gave birth to a son 1688. Faced with a Catholic heir, and absolutist Fr. Regent- parliament decided they have to act

Complete the journey towards constitutionalism Parliament offered throne to oldest daughter

Mary (married to William of Orange- who offered Dutch army to force James out if necessary) James leaves (he and heirs become “pretenders” to the throne) William and Mary are crowned as co-rulers

“Glorious” b/c there is no bloodshed

William and Mary

Bill of Right Toleration Act

1688 W & M agree not to keep standing army w/o parliament’s consent. Parliament will meet every year and have elections every 3 years, have sole power to tax.

Says king CANNOT be RC

Ensures no Cruel and Unusual punishment and trial by Jury

1689 All forms of protestants have freedom of worship and may hold office

Did not offer those same rights to Catholics or Jews, but did not punish them for their faith either.

Act of Settlement Act of Union

1701 If W & M, or Anne (other sister) die w/o heir (which they did)- throne does not revert to heirs of James II, but to grandchildren of James I- the Electors of Hanover. George I of Hanoverian dynasty will become king in 1714

1707 United England and Scotland (reconquered by Charles II w/o much fuss) into Great Britain. Union was to prevent Stuarts from using Scotland as launching spot for invasion of England (which is what they were doing in Ireland) Scots fine- wanted access to Eng’s trade empire

NOT Democracy

Bloodless revolution- but not “by the people” Parliament only represented the top of society- voting rights were strictly limited to large landowners

Parliament represents the upper 10% at this point- but that is still 10% more than have a voice in most of the countries of Europe

John Locke: wrote to defend the Glor. Rev- saying that people have the right to overthrow a gov’t that is not defending their rights