uk history

8/13/2019 UK History

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THE UNITED KINGDOM OF

GREAT BRITAIN &

NORTI=IERN IRELAND

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United Kingdom of Great Britain & Northern lreland

Status: KingdomArea: 244.7 55 I{n2Population: 55.5 14.500Capital: LondonLanguage: English, Welsh, GaelicReligion: protestant majority, roman catholic, Jewish, Muslimand Hindu minoritiesCurrency: pound sterling (GBP)

EnglandStatus : Constituent CountryArea: 130.360 km'Population: 46.1 70.3 00Capital: London

Northern IrelandStatus: Constituent RegionArea: 14. 150 km'Population: 1.589.000Capital: Belfast

ScotlandStatus: ConstituentCountty Area: 78.750 km'Population: 4.957.000Capital: Edinburgh

WalesStatus: PrincipalityArea: 20.760 km'Population: 2.798.200Capital: Cardiff

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The United Kingdom is part of the British lsles, which aresituated off the coast of north-western Europe, separated from Franceby the English Channel and from Belgium, the Netherlands andScandinavi'a by the North Sea. There are two main islands: thelarger, Great Britain, comprises England, Scotland and Wales: theother, the island of lreland separated from Britain by the lrish Sea,comprises Northern lreland and the lrish Republic.

The LandOne of the main physiographic features of England, as well as

of the entire island of Great Britain is the deeply indented coast.

Most of the indentations are excellent natural harbours, easilyaccessible to deepwater shipping, a factor that has been decisivein the economic development and imperial expansion of England.By virtue of the high tides that prevail along the eastern coast, anumber of rivers and their estuaries provide this region with safeanchorage. The most important of these belong to such ports asNewcastle upon Tyne, on the Tyne River; MiddlesborouEh, in theTess River; Hull, on the Hunberg River; Great Yarmount, on theestuary of the Yare River; and London, on the Thames River. The

most important harbous on the southern coast include those ofDover, Hastings, Eastbourne, Bringhton, Portsmounth,Bournemoth, and Plymounth. The Western coast, considerablymore broken than either the eastern or southern coast, also hasnumerous anchorages. Of outstanding comercial importance arethe harbour of Bristol, at the confluence of Bristol Channel and theSevern River and Liverpool Harbour, at the mounth of the MerseyRiver.

The relief of England is diversified. The northern and western

portions are generally mountainous. The principal highland region,the Pennine Chain (or the Pennies ), forms the backbone of northernEngland. lt is composed of several ranges extending south from theCheviot Hills to the valley of the Trent River and numerous spursand extensions that radiate in all directions. The extreme elevationfor the Pennine Chain and the highest summit in England is ScafellPike (978 m 3210 ft above sea level). A large portion of the areaoccupied by the Pennine Chain comprises the Lake District, oneof the most picturesque regions in Engalnd. The relief east of Wales

and between the southern extremities of the Pennine Chain and

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the Bristol Channel is an extension of the rolling plain that occupiesmost of central and eastern Engiand "

fu{uch of the western part of this central region is known as theiVlidlands. t eontains an area that is known as the Black Country

because cf its intensive industrial development. To the east lieThe Fens, a vast drain marsh area. To the south of the Bristol Channelan elevated plateau slopes upward, culminating in the barrenuplands and nroors of Cornwall and Devon Dartmoor (about 610I about 2000 ft abcve sea level on the wildest tracts in England).

As a resuli cf the relative lvarmth cf the nearby seas, Englandl3S 3 '.i-,cderaie cirrnaie i-areiyu markecj by extremes of heat or cold.T-:

a^',a iemceratui-e rarges between 11 1' c (52' F) in thes:-r:' a^.8 9' C r48' Fi rn the northeast, Seasonal temperatures.2', :e:,.'e3r a i'nean of about 16.1" C (61" F) during July, the^r::es: -'cntn cf the year, and 4.4'C (4A" F) during January, the:l3es: rontli, The average January and July temperatures for ther . , :f London are 4.5" c (40" F) and 18' c (04' F), respectively.tcgs nrists, and overcast skies are frequent, particularly in thePennine and tnland regions. Precipitation, heaviest during Cctober,averages about 760 mm (about 30 in) annually in rnost of England.

, i I ," i,, a::j .1. , := :'. .r.:,'1. I 't i..r l' - l ]rlEngland has some agricultural and mineral resources but relies

on imports of both. Approximately two-fifths of the land area arearable, with the richest soils found in the east. Substanlial reservescf iron ore are concentrated in Cumbria, Staffordshire, andL-ancashire. waterpower resources are small and mosilyconcentrated in the highlancs of Cunnbria. in northern England.

z'-" '": ::th honne and exporta'aa s 'a.m and.The main:s =:-.z:oes. suqar beet and

-: : -'. 20oto of the land is==' s:cck: and 28% of the-s=r'o' rough grazing of

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Although a tiny percen:oge :':^3 -e: c.r s,,.,,c.kforce is employedin agriculture, farm produce smarkets. 76% of the tota ,,(cereal crops are wheat, bar er aEreen vegetable crops o[ \,i' c ,,permanent pasture for raising taland, mainly hill and mounta'r esheep.


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Pigs and poultry are widespread in both England and lowlandBritain. The best fruit-growing areas are the south-east, especiallyKent, and East Anglia and the central Vale of Evesham for apples,

pears and soft fruit. Both forestry and fishing industries contributeto the economy.The major mineral resources of the UK are coal, oil and natural

gas. Coal output, mostly from the fields of South Wales, CentralScotland, North-East England, Yorkshire and the Midlands, goestowards the generation of electricity but oil and natural gas from theNorth Sea, and to a lesser extent nuclear power, are dividedbetween the needs of industry and the consumer. lron ore, oncemined sufficiently to satisfy industry, is now important to support the

iron and steel-manufacturing sector.The UK produces a great rangeof industrial goods for home consumption and export. Heavyindustry, particularly the production of iron and steel, is traditionallylocated close to fuel sources (coal) in South Wales, the North-East-at Teesside and South Yorkshire. Most of the ore is imported. Themain shipbuilding areas are Clydeside in westein Scotland, Belfastin Northern lreland and Tyneside in the North-East. Other heavyindustrial goods, vehicles, engines and machinery are produced inMerseyside, Derby and Nottingham in the North Midlands,Birmingham in the West Midlands, Cardiff in South

Wales,Clydeside and Belfast.

General 'and consumer goods manufacturing is located in allheavy industriai areas but the London area, West Midlands andLancashire and Merseyside predominate. The main products are foodand drinks, chemicals, light engineering products, cotton andwoolen textiles, electrical and electronic goods.

.The UK is a trading nation, The balance of trade has changedduring the last 30 years because of stronger economic, military and

politiCal ties within Europe - the EC and NATO- and consequently

reduced trading links with former colonies particularly in Australasia.The UK has a highly developed transport network to move

goods and services. Motorways, trunk roads and principal roadst,otal over 50.000km (31.070 miles). The railway network covers16.730km (10.395 miles) and now carries over'X40 million tons offreight annually.

The inland waterway system, once a major freight carrier, totalsonly 563 navigable kilometers (350 miles) but still carries over 4

million tons of goods annuallY.

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THE COUNTRIES OF ENGLAND1. AVON2" BEDFORDSHIRE3. BERKSHIRE4. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE5. CAMBRIDGESFIIRE5, CHESHIRE7, CLEVELANT}8. GORNWALL9. CAMBRIA{O. DERBYSH RE11. DEVON{2. DOR$ET, 3" DURHAM14. EAST SUSSEX

' 5. ESSEX,i 6. GLOUCESTERSI'IIRE{7. GREATER LONDON18. GREATER MANCHESTER,'9. HAMPSHIRE20. HEREFORD AND FIERTFORDSHIRE2,I. HUMBERSIDE22" |SLE OF ylilcHT23. KENT24. LANCASHIRE25. LEICESTERSHIRE26. LINCO|-NSHtRE27. MEREYSIDE28. NORFOLK29. NORTHAMPTONSHIRE30. NORTHUMBERLAND3{. NORTH YORKSHIRE32- NOTTINGHAMSHIRE33" OXFORDSHIRE34. SHROPSHIRE35. SOMERSET36. SOUTH YORKSHiRE3?. STAFFORDSHIRE38" SUFFOLK39. Si"rRRY40. TYNE AND WEAR4{. VIIARWICKSHIRE42. WEST IVIIDLANDS43. WEST SUSSEX44. WEST YORKSHIRE45. WILTSHIRE46. WORCESTER

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THE HISTORY OF BRITAINOne might expect that the historical evolution of Britain be linkedexciuslveiy with its insular status. lndeed, the British prefer to consider

themselves as a distinct, even opposite entity to the Continent. This iscniy partly true but, ironicaliy, if it had not been for Europe, we wouldnct have spoken today of the British as a powerful nation which rn itstur"r: has infiuenced the history of the Old Continent and of the world.

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,ff" $""Fyffi4}ffiffiffi,- ffiffiffi#,Britain became an island only after the iast ice age. lt is said that

th* pe*pling b*gsr: before this, about 250,c00 BC. Glaciens lradc,3t*c a iand bricg* {c the eentinent; it is this bnidge that allowedrlcn:asie *ontincntai ili'clups tc settle rn Britain. They were followeei byilei**iithrchunters {abni-rt 3G,000 BC}, Mesolithie peopl* (8,300 -+,**ui *C:. F,,**ui 3.50'i ffiC, *s the island had taken its present shape,ilenpie fr*n: th* continent brought the Neolithic "revolution""i#*sl hls?*r'tarrs beiieve thai

due to its remoteness and isoiaticn, the,*oll:si: *arli' elviiisatrcr-l developed specific features such as ai*i:ui*':riitci,vai'd giant elimensiorrs (e.9. Stonehenge) and a lack cfili:,\j:# "arias seen in Spain cr Fnance.

,*, n*w wa',r* nf ne*ple settled beiween 2,500 - ''l ,500 BC. They*r* {ni}v'ri-}as th* "fieak*r'" pecple because they are the ones whotii:'**u*cr"rp*tt*ry i:*axers ar:cj bronze civilisation in Britain. Theyi";nm* f;"o*: ioda\i-'s Ger-nranyr and also frcm Northern Eurcpe. The llcno** be#an af*ili-iei I*fi*e ntitlr the arrivai of the Celts. Histcrians findr. ':.."fir-ji *rffier;it t* d*r:i,Je whether ihe Celts invaded the islanc

ar they;#nj.,r, p*ae,*f,;iiy &s B. consequence of thre trade relatioi''lshipijs,i,::ii::;i$n*d netweer-i tft* "Br;tish" BeaKer people and Cerrtral EurCIpe.

tir *.r ':ai ,$r:,*tiaird rs c*ncerned ths first CIecple landec fr*m thei-,,-.,,:i;n*:r: a***t3"slt BC The finsi s*ttiers of reiar''rd can-le fr*mr':r-..irt'tfi. rAlaie.':,i enr: Britgin. l-atec- nr: trr* **itictrihes whc riae* settleC';' i:'iii#li',,Liil$i]**lh* i:i"evi3US SettierS lr-lianC and forCed,;th*rS tC:-:*itrl ir,l Si:r:tie:r11 *nqi ireiarrd.

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The Celts were never united as a nation. Each local group had itschieftain or King. A typical Celtic community was made up ofaristocrats, Druids and common people. Most of the members of theCeltic tribe were descending from the same ancestor. Their lack ofunity helped the Romans conquer them even though Celtic braverywas legendary.

ROMAN BRITAIN(55 BG - AD 4tO)

The first Roman expeditions in Britain were led by Julius Caesar(55 BC : 54 BC). He never actually annexed the island to the RomanEmpire. Still the Romans started influencing its development evenfrom then. lt was emperor Claudius who invaded Britain. ln AD 43scme 40.000 Roman soldiers conquered part of the island in asixteen-day expedition. Under Vespasian, resistence in the West wasalso crushed and by AD 59 Wales was also conquered. Trojanconsolidated Rome's power overthe island.

The conquered tribes tried to rebel against the Romans but theywere always defeated because they chose to fight the Romans asseparate tribes. Queen Boudicca managed to unite several tribes buther rebellion of AD 59 - 60 ended with her death and that of herdaughters and allies.

In the years that followed, the Roman military effort concentratedon making the Northern frontier safer. ln 121, emperor Hadrian beganwork on the Wall which separated The Roman - province from thetribes of the Scots and Picts. The work was completed in 128. The 7meters high barrier ran for 76 miles and had 16 forts. lt is his Wall aswell as efficient Roman administration, that provided the island withthree centuries of relative peace at the end of which, the Scots andPicts swept over the Wall. In 401 , emperor Honorius took most of theWall's legions to fight Alaric's Visigoths on the Continent. Theremaining soldiers were also called to protect Rome against theGoths this time,in 410. Thus, by the middle of the fifth century directlinks with Rome were broken.

New invaders threatened the Britons: the Angles, the Saxonsand the Jutes. These eventually settled in various parls of Britain.

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THE INVADER$r A}IGLE$, SAX0HS' JUTE$

AND VIKIHG$(early 5th century - 10661

The Britons tried in vain to resist these invaders. Two legendaryfigures are linked to the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons: Vortigern (about449) and Artorius (about the year 500). The latter seems to havegenerated the countless stories about King Arthur.

By the middle of the sixth century, the invaders were in control

of most of Britain and had organised themselves into 7 Kingdoms:Kent, Sussex, EastAnglia and Essex were smaller than NorthumbriaMercia and Wessex. By the eighth century only the latter three wereleft , each dominating over the others in turn. King Offa of Mercia(757 - 796) was the first to call himself RexAnglorum (King of theEnglish). After his death, King Egbert ofEssex (802 - S39) extended over the other Saxon states and namedhis Kingd om Engtalond and his people Angelcynn (from the name ofthe Angles).

The conversion to Christianity was led at first by two separateparties: the Celtic monks (in Scotland and the Midlands) ancl theRoman missionaries. But, during the second half of the seventhcentury, a synod at Whitby decided in favour of the Ronrans and assuch the inhabitants of Britain were united under Rome once again.

At the beginning of the nineth eentury a new group of raidersattacked the island: the Vikings, who were coming from Norway andDanmark. The only major opposition against them was led by KingAlfred of Wessex (871 - 899). His victory in a decisive battle in B7Ballowed him to make a treaty with the Vikings: the Danes were forcedto leave Wessex and convert to Christianity. Alfred reigned over thesouth of England only, while the rest of the island belonged to theVikings and was known as Danelaw. After Alfred's death, his sonEdward (899 - 925) started the reconquest of the Danelaw which wasfinished by Athelstan (925 - 939) who claimed the title Rex TotiusBritanniae (King of all Britain).


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The reign of Edgar the Peaceful (959 - 975) was devoted to theimprovement of the administration of the country (a new ccinage, anew code of laws). He was crowned and anointed King rather latern his reign (973) in a ceremony which seems to have provided thennodel for all the later coronations. Ethelred Unread (g7s - 1010)showed little desire to face the Danes and ended up paying a hugetribute. His son, Edmund (1016) tried to fight them but he was killed.

In 1016, King Cnut of Denmark was alsc crowned King ofEngland. He become Christian and married Ethelred's widow, EmmaHis successor invited the son of Ethelred and Emrna to his court andrecognised him as his heir. As such, the house of wessex wasrestored through Edward the e onfessor (1042 - 1066). He had spentmuch time in France and he introduced the French language andfashion at the English court. He appointed William, Duke of Normandy,as his heir but the nobles elected Harold Godwin (1066).

ENGLAND AFTER THE NORMAN GONQUEST(1066 . {455)

The year 1066 saw the arrival in Britain of a new invading force:the Normans, led by the one who was to be remembered as Williannthe Conqueror {1066. 1087}. During his reign the British island wasunder Norman (military) occupation. William's son, Henry I {1100 -1135) had three legitimate children by a descendentof Alfred the Greai. The two boys died before their father, so when -{enry died, a descendant of the conqueror, Stephen of Blois(1135 - 11541 became King. Henry's daughter, Matilda, invadedEngland in 1139. Her father had married her to Gecffrey ofPEantagenet, count of Anjou and had forced his bar^ons tc swarealiegiance to her. A Civil War broke out in these ccnditions and it did

not end before Stephen agreed that Henry Flantagenet, Matilda's son,could succeed him.

When he became King, Henry ll (1154 - 1189) pulled dcwn thecastles of his opposers barons and forced them to iive in unprotectedmanor houses. He ruled over England, Wales. lreland, Anjou,Normandy Brittany andAquitaine (the latterfourwere in France).

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His name is linked to that of Thomas Becket. In f7A, he hadBecket rnurdered in his own cathedral (Canterbury). Four yearslater, he had to fight his rebellions sons, Henry, Richard and John,in alliance with the French monarch.

Richard I Coeur de Lion (1189 - 1199) spent only five months inEngland; he went campaigning in France, Palestine, Sicily. Englandpaid the expenses of all these campaigns and also the huge ransom{X50,C00 marks) because he had been captured in 1192, in Viennacn his way back from a Crusade. He left no heir and the throne wentio his brother John (1199 - 1216) who lost Normandy in 1204.lr,, iZtr 5 he was fcrced by his nobles to sign the lllagna Carta whichbe*anre a iandrnark of Engiish liberties. Constitutional developmentsfai *i'ueci during the reign of l-lenry lll (1216 - 1272j who was only ten=Ve#rs old when he became King. At twenty-five. he reissued thef#agna Carfa. His nobles ferced him to also accept the Prcvisions of*xf*:^d, ihat lirniiecl his powers, His son, Edward l(1272' 1307) hadtc *,ensent tn i'uie the ccuntry together with a parliament. lt is dt-.lringnis i'*ign that \l/ales wes finally annexed to the English crown and hiss*n was prr:*lairned Prince of Wales, the first heir tc the Englishthrone to h*id this title.

Hdward lf {1307 - 132V} was the first rnonarch tc be dethroned

bil parlianr*nt. Hrs son, Edward lll (1327 - 137V'i is famous fcr his*lairn tc the French crown, his mother was the daughter of Philip theFair nf France. The Hundred Years War {1337 - 1453)broke out*,-:r nE his reign. At the enei of the war , the English had lost all theirSrench possessions excepi for Calais. Edward's Successor wasi*reed to resign the crown to Henry of Bolingbroke, Duke of *ancaster, his cousin. The next King frorn the house of Lancaster ,-#emry V {14i3 - 1 422'i restored England's continental empire bydefeating the French at Agincourt (1415). His son proved to be a

weaker King, from a military point of view.

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THE WARS OF THE ROSES(1455 - 1487 )

Henry Vl (1 422 - 1461) founded Eton and King's College,.Cambridge but he lost all the possessions his father had regainedand failed to stop the outbreak of the Wars of the Roses(1455 - 1487). He was murdered in the Tower of London in 1471,after he had become insane. Richard , Duke of York, becomeProtector. The nobles in'the North remained loyal to the King whilethose in the South deserted him. At the same time, after the duke'sdeath, his son was proclaimed Kirig of England. Edward lV (1461 -1483) inaugurated a new dynasty on theEnglish throne. He named hisbrother, Richard of Gloucester, as Protector. Edward's heir was onlytwelve years old when he become King.Richard sentthe boy king andhis brothertothe towerwhere theywere killed.

Richard lll (1483 - 1485) is one of England's most controversialcharacters. Some historians see him as a monster,others as an English prototype of the Renaissance ruler.He improved finances but was never able to ensure the loyalty of hismen who betrayec him in the battle at Bosworth where he died.Lord Stanley picked Richard's crown from the battlefield and placed

it on Henry Tudor's head. The latter had gathened round him bothLancasterians and Yorkists, all opposing Richard lll.Henry VII (1485 - 1509) put an end to the Wars of the Roses

(called so from the badges of the rival armies: the red Lancaster roseand the white York one) and inaugurated what some historiansconsider the most glorious period in English history: the century ofTudor rule.

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#ffiffi - ffi*ffiFHenry Vll restored royal autharity, trade traditioirs and created a

new nobility (most lords had died during the \A/ars cf the Prcses)ccmpietely dependent on the crown. Still, one of the b*si knn'r,rn Kingsof the house of Tudor is Henry Vlll {1509 - '854?}. L{e is r*r-nenrheredfcr standing up te the authority cf the Cathclic Chureh, in a t m* ,r'rhenh/lartin Luther in Gernrany and Jean Calvin rn Sv'ritzeriand wereleading the refcrrnist me>vernent againsi the Catho ie ehr="1i"*l-i. F-ienrywas initiaiiy on Rcm*':* side {ti:e F*pe had *ctualiy giv*r: h r: thc

title of Fidei Defensoi". ilefender of Faith) but h**vei:iue iv ti;rned

against it u.'hen the Fope ejei:ie# hirn ih* divor*e frcm i;ethen ne nfAragon who had failed t* give hir;:.* rivir"rg son :n i534 th* Englisf-rKing was recoEnrzeei by ihe parliernerll as th* S*r:;"::rt* l-l*ee *f theer:ilrcli of Engianci. f'lenrr,,'r1lii s a s* farneus ir"r: hi* * "r, i:iilrs*nut;v*rnarriages. He eiiv*reed thr+ first l,,iifs, eaiherrnr= ,;1 Aia,;*n vrh* i^radglven him a daugnter, i+' *r"t/ H* tir*i: i'':"larried Anii***i#'li't"'q'h* g&v*Sirth tC yet Ail{-}?her dAr;ght*r". Eii;:eb**th. Hgnr.'' ir,** Arlr::.--: *.}i*euted.ac*usii'rg hei" i".;' adultery. *in{iy"nenli*d .iane S*ly.1su:" ,lin* di** nchile bi*h, pr*vldirlg Henry

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Anna ef Clev* wa$ nepia**ci b'i th* rnore *eau'irfu , Kath*rin*[-{oy,yard wha was cv*ntually *xeei,:tcd lusi llke her ,lrl;sin, Ar:n*Soleyn.The last wtfe, Ka{hes'ine trarr. "*r"lt l"red **i'li"v.

The Church *f England hee*rne sti"enger rjn**r th* ,"eiSn nfF-{enry's son, ffidward VB {1547.. 1553}. tsut Mcry {i:}S3 "'tSSS},the daughter of Catherine of Aimgc*. persecuted ti-r* Frnt*stants.Thausands cf men, womefi ana ehild '*n were burnt f*r th*il beiiefs'lr: '1558, the English lost th*ir last French p:r:*s*ssicn, eaiais.

Elizabetht,fi

5SS - 16C3) ls one cf the gr"eat*st nronarchs ofEngland. She proclaimed Protestantisrn with vigour. she rnaintained acount which employed and supporteci Shakespeare. Spencer andothers. Her reign was ais* dedicateei to eNtendingFngland's influence overseas with the help of Sir iohs'l Hauvkin*, SirFrances Drake and Sir Walter R*leigh. Th* latter estaniisn** Virglnlaas an Engiish colony cn theAmctlc*n cilFt, in 1578.

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Her well-known moment of glory was in 15BB when the largeSpanish fleet (the lnvincible Armada) was defeated. Not even the badharvests inflation and the loss of public morale from her later years,did diminish the glorious aura that surrounded her figure. She is still

remembered as Gloriana.

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{{003 .17141Shortly before dying Elizabeth I had designated ..iames Vl of

Scotland as her successor. A new dynasty began with the son ofMary Stuart. He reigned as James | (1603 - 1o2s) and united England,Scotland and lreland. He become senile during the later part of hisreign and the country was ruled by carr and Buckingham. Hissuccessor Charles I (1625 - 1649) got into financiai conflict with theparliament: he asked them money to meet the costs of various wars.Before granting him any, they presented him with A petition of Right,forcing him not to decide upon any taxes without their consent.The King assented to it but then dissolved the assembly. There wasno parliament since 1629 to 164a, when Charles needed monevagain.

The Givil war (1642 - 1646) broke out when the restoredparliament asked him to give up the command of the army and herefused. This time, Charles was captured, he had to stand trial and hewas executed in January 1649.In May 1649, England was declared aCommonwealth.

The new rulers of the country were Oliver Gromwelt and his NewModel Army, though there was a Council of forty-one members.Cromwell became Sovereign of England in 1653 when he was namedLord Protector. His son held the power after his death ,for avery shortwhile before the parliament decided to restore monarchy in England.Charles ll (1660 - 1685) was greeted enthusiastically by thepeople and his reign meant a period of naval and commercialprosperity for Britain. Restoration ended though in 1689. Charles'sbrother, James, the heir to the throne, had converted in 1G72 to.Catholicism. Upon ascending the throne he tried not only to turnEngland back to Catholicism but also to achieve power for himself.

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In 1688, the country made a formal invitation to James's son-in-low,William, Prince of Orange-Nassau. James ll (1685 - 1688) wasdeposed and fled to France. This was the Glorious Revolution and it

saw the ascendence tothe throne of William lll and Mary ll

{1689 - 169a); the parliament gave the crown to thenn, jointly. Afterhlary died of srnallpox, William ruled by himself until 17A2.

The throne passed to Mary's sister, Anne. William lll and his wifehad not had any children. Anne's reign {1702 ' 1714) sow theernergence of the conflict between the Whigs and Tories. She wasmarried to prince George of Denmark with whom she had 17children; all died in infancy or early childhood.

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{$?S4 - *m th* prmxmm?}Upon Anne's death the crown went to the closest Protestant

relative, George, Elector of Hanover who aS King George It1714 - 1724b inaugurated the Hanoverian dynasty in England' Theoffice of Prime Minister was created during his reign since he was

mcre German than English and loved spending time in Hanover'Robert Walpole is generally considered Britain's first Prime Minister.He directed the government for 20 years and was neplaced in 1742by Henry Pelhann.

George l {1V27 - 1760} was the last English monarch to leadtroops into battle .George lll (1760 - 1820) was an English King,ratherthan a German ruler. His reign was confronted with the politicalproblems raised by the American and French Revolutions (the lossof the Arnerican colonies) but also the developments associated with

the Industrial Revolution" His son George lV {1820-

1830)eroded

sorne of the respect that his father had gained for the monarchy.Later on Williarn lV {1830 - 1837) did very little to stop monarchy frombeing seen as a disneputable if not unnecessary institution.

It was Queen Victoria (1S37 - 1901) that restored the usefulnessof the e rown. Her hard work, dedication tn family values and religiouspiety turned her into the incarnate spirit of the British nation just likeEiizabeth had been. She was the daughter of the Duke of Kent,Willianr lV's brother. She become queen at the age of eighteen and

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THE SOUL OF ENGLANDTHE CITY

The story of London begins. as it did centuries ago, in the'square mile' called the City. Here. within its boundaries ca'- De

found landmarks to London's fortunes througr^:ê aJ3sThe Romans laid the first foundations of LcnJ3' ,'.:- =:=-*---:^.fortified and walleci settlennent in lne a'ee ,,,^ t- -=::., :: -=*: .thriving trading center The N:',*a- ^, as :^ a '.': -::-: .:3's .':'gave the Cit;' a fol'esspower ever since

THE TOWER OF LOHDOHIt rras 3ee- e : :a:e 'J: z :? a:a 3:=. :' _ : , :.- -e-. a- :

aiso the scene o" sct*g 3' :^9 : :.:'::s: a.:-:s - I-: s- - Stt-.*Kings. cueer']s o'rr---------------,ces a-: ;e3: : :':-e - l-:s: -:-" '2,? s-:-3:the sarne fate wrthrrr iis ',,,dr s ES st es J J:g-s e': :-3::-s -^=tower of Loncon ts whe:e :ney ,,','t'e ic{tJrec. oeêa:e: "'--ce-e:or imprisoned, lt rs also the nation's treasure nouse ccr:a ntnE iêCrown Jewels. William the Conqueror pianned nis rnassr','e fortressto proteci the city, subdue and cverawe its citizens and guard theapproach to London by river fror;r its strategic position at the City'seastern bounciary. The White tcwer, dating from 1078. has walls

11-15 feet thick and has been built of white Cane stone fromNormandy. lt contains a collection of arms and armour. The oldestchurch in London, the Chapel of St. John dating from 1080, lieswithin the White Tower's walls. Frorn this central dominant Normankeep, the Tower of London grew over 400 years. Ringed by twoprotective walls both strung with numerous towers, these in turnare surrounded and defended by a moat-dry now-and drawbridgesYet this formidable fontress has never been seriously put to the testin its 900 year history. Trainor's Gate, with an arch 60 feet wide ,

was the entrace to the state. lt gave direct entrance to the Tower byboat or by the moat. The Tower has been associated withsensational events throughout its history. One king's exploits inpanticular have left a notorious mark. King Henry Vlllwas marriedin the Tower to Catherine of Aragon in 1509. Her successor', AnneBoleyn, rode io her coronation from the Tower and was beheadedin the same place in 1536. A similar fate befell Henry's fifth queen,

Catherine Howard. in 1 542.

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The Tower's prisoners included King David ll of Scotland inthe 14th century, Princess (later Queen) Elizabeth in the 16th century,Guy Fawkes and his fellow conspirators who plotted to blow up theHouses of Parliament in the 17th century and Rudolph Hess, Hitler'sdeputy, in the 20th century, Tower Green is where many of royal andnoble birth met their death. Nearby is the Chapel Royal of St. Peterand Vincula where many victims are buried. Ravens can always beseen on Tower Green. Their disappearance is said to herald the fall ofthe British Empire and the White Tower, so their wings are clipped toconfine them. A Raven Master feeds and protects them. As well asbeing home to the relics of English history, the Tower also houses itsglory. The Crown jewels are permanently on display in a specially built

modern vault. The oldest crown in the royal regalia is St. Edward's,made forthe coronation of King Charles ll in 1661 and is still used forthe coronation ceremony. The lmperial State Crown, made forQueen Victoria's coronation in 1838, is set with 3,000 diamonds andother precious stones, including the ruby given to the Black Princein 1367 and worn by King Henry V at the battle of Agincourt in 1415.At the brow of the crown is one of the Stars of Africa diamonds cutfrom the Cullinan, the largest diamond ever found, which weighedone and a half pounds uncut. The Crown of Queen E'lizabeth made

in 1937 is set with the Koh-i-noor or 'Mountain of Light' diamondwhose legendary history goes back five thousand years.Ceremonial is still part of the daily life within the Tower. Each

night the Chief Warder locks the gates and gives the keys to theResident Governor-a ritual that has taken place for 700 years.Yeoman warders who assist today's visitors to the Tower still wearthe distinctive colourful uniform dating from Tudor times.

An opening in the wall by Traitor's Gate leads to Tower Wharfwhere cannon gun salutes are fired to mark significant royal events

and anniversaries. Tower Wharf offers a strategic view of London'smost famous bridge. A miracle of hydraulic engineering TOWERBRIDGE raises its 1,000 tonne drawbridges as if in salute to allow tallships to pass between its twin Gothic-style towers. Rising from theriverbed, the towers house the original machinery, which lifts theroadway in one and a half minutes. Started in lBBO and finished in1894 at a cost of 800,000 pounds, Tower Bridge has been raisedover half a million times since it was built. The towers are connectedat the top by a walkway 142feet above the water level.

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Designers of the bridge lvere Sir Horace Jones. who died aswork began. and Sir John iVotfe Barry. Just opposite the westside of the Tower of London is Tower Hill Pageant. Ridein a time-car through 2000 years of London's history. See theRoman invasion. watch the Vikings attacking, smell thehorrible plague and relive the Great Fire of London.

ST.PAUL'S CATHEDRALThe spiritual center of the City rose out of the devastation of the

Great Fire of London of 1666, which razed two thirds of Londonto ashes in four days. lt was the fifth cathedral to be built on thesite of the present building, completed in 1710, and has remainedlarEely unalterated to this day. St. Paul's has been the setting forsolemn and significant occasions in the nation's history, from thefuneral of Sir Winston Churchill to the wedding of the Prince andPrincess of Wales. King Charles ll authorized the new cathedralbuilding in 1673 and a higher tax on coal entering the port ofLondon was levied to pay for it. The King knighted the chosenarchitect Sir Christopher Wren, before building started as a signof his confidence. After the old cathedral had been cleared fromthe site, Sir Christopher Wren called for a stone to nrark out thefoundation of the new one. A workman chose one at random froma heap of rubble. lt was part of a brok*,"r tombstone carved withthe word RESURGAM (l shall rise again). From the foundationsrose the magnificent Renaissance build ng seen today. Built ofPortland stone, the cathedral's main west front portico, carvedwith a sculpture of the conversior: of St. Paul's, is flanked by twotowers. The north tower contains a peal of twelve bells and thesouth houses a clock and Great Paul, the largest beli in England,weighing over 16 tons. The Dome, the second largest in the worldafter St. Peter's in Rome, rises 365 feet into the air and supportsa lantern and cross weighing around 700 tons. The altar is amodern monument to those who died in the two World Wars.The fine woodcarving on the choir stalls is the work of GrinlingGibbons and Hampton Court. Steps lead to the Dome's Whisperinggallery (a word whispered into the wall will be clearly heard on theother side). This is the best vantage point to view Sir James Thomhill's decoration of the Dome depicting the life of St. Paul.

More steps lead up to the Stone and Golden Galleries.A ball and cross surmount the top. St. Paul's contains monuments

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--

-:

to the nation's heroes, including Admiral Nelson and the Duke ofWellington, statesmen, writers and artists. But the simplest andhumblest epitaph is to St. Paul's architect, Sir Christopher Wren.Translated from Latin it says: "Reader, if you

seek a rnonument,look about you".

THE CITY OF LONDONToday it is the financial powerhouse of London. Bankers,

brokers, buyers and traders conciuct their daily business within itsboundaries. Here, the ancient halls of the medieval craft guildsshelter in the shadow of modern steel and glass office Ulocks iikethe controversial Lloyd's building and the Stock Exchange.

THE BANK OF ENGLANDln Threadneedle Street,there is the national bank. lts vaults hold

the country's gold reserves. The Bank is known as the 'old Lady ofThreadneedle Street'-a reference to the sculpture of Britannia overthe main entrance. The city has its own Lord Mayor, its owngovernment and its own police force. Even th': sovereign has to stop atthe City's frontiers until the Lord F/ ayor allows admittance. Built byJohn Nash in 1B26,the Royal Mews houses the collection of coacheiincluding the state carriage used fe r coronations, the lrish state coachused fon the State Opening of Parliarr:ent and the 'glass' state coachused for royal weddings.

THE GUILDHALLDating from the 15th century,it is the place where the Lord Mayor

Alderrnen and City fathers conduct the City's affairs. lmportantbanquets and ceremonial occasions are held there. The MansionHouse, built in 1735, is the official home of Lord Mayor, who holdsoffice for a year.

The Monument, a 202 feet high coiumn, commemorates theGreat Fire of London of 1666, which broke out in a baker's shop inPudding Lane, 202 feet away from the column's plinth. Designed bySir Christopher Wren, it symbolizes the City's ability to restoreitself from disaster from a bombsite. The Barbican Centre hasdeveloped into a vast 60 acre commercial, residential and leisurecomplex. The Center includes a concert hall,an exhibition gallery,

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a cinema, restaurants, bars, gardens and theatre (the London home ofthe Royal Shakespeare Company) The Museum Of Londondepicts London's history from prehistory to the present day, withmany archaeolog ical finds on d isplay.

WESTMINSTERC6ncentrated,within a half-mile square of Westminsterthere are

the centers of power in British life: Civil power is represented byparliament and government, based in the Houses Of Commons AndLords and in Whitehall. Spiritual power is focused in Westminsterhistoric ABBEY and CATHEDRAL. For 900 years, nearly every kingor queen of England has been crowned in Westminster Abbey. TheAbbey was refunded in the 11th century by a king Edward theConfessor-and the strong royal link and special royal status havebeen maintained over the centuries. Many English monarchs areburied here. The site had been used as a place of worship for centuriesearlier. lts name refers to its position to the west of the City of London-'west monastery' of Westminster. "Minster" means large church. Themagnificent Gothic building seen today largely dates from the 13thand 14th centuries, although the Chapel of the Pyx and the Undercroft(now the Abbey museum) are 11th century. The Abbey museumfeatures wooden or wax funerary effigies of monarchs and treasuresincluding Henry V's shield and helmet from the battlefield of Agincourt.Monuments to those who were born to high rank and those whoachieved glory line the walls of theAbbey. St. Edward the Confessor'schapel, the most sacred part of theAbbey, is the burial place of kings.But a simple black marble slab in the nave pays tribute to thoseunknown and unsung heroes who also served their country-the tombof the unknown warrior. Beside it there is a green marble slab to thememory of Sir Winston Churchill. The Sanctuary, within the altar rails,is the setting of coronations. Behind the 1Sth century carved stonescreen, which forms the back of the high altar, stands the oakCoronation Chair. Until 1996 the Stone of Scone lay underneath it.This block of sandstone was used as coronation seat of the kings ofScotland and seized in'1297 by the English,

The stone, now housed in Edinburgh Castle, will be returned tothe Abbey for future coronations. Henry Vll's chapel, recentlyrestored, is notable for the delicate and intricate fan vaulting of its roof.The Abbey nave vaulting is the highest of any church inEngland at 1 03 feet.

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The 16 Waterford crystal chandeliers, which hang in the Abbey,were a gift to mark in 1965 the 900th anniversa 'y of its consecration.Opening off the east walk of the cloisters is the Chapter House, anoctagonal chamber 60 feet across dating from the l3thcentury.Called'the cradle of all free parliaments'it was the meeting placefor Parliament from the 14th to the 16th centuries. In the Chamberof Pyx, part of Edward the Ccnfessor's church, was stored the 'pyx'or chest containing the trial plates of gold and silver used asstandards of quality for coins of the realm. The Abbey precincts,which include Dean's Yard on the site of the Abbey gardens, are aquiet and timeless sanctuary. The Westminster Abbey towers overThe St. Margaret's" the parish church of the House ofCommons. Founded in the I lth or 12th century, it has been afashionable place for weddings over the centuries. Diarist SamuelPepys was married here in 1655,the poet John Milton a year laterand Winston Churchill in 19il8. Westminster Cathedral isthe leading Roman Cathc ie Church in England" Designed by JohnFrancis Bentley and built around the turn of the century in Byzantinestyle, its red brick (tweive anei d half million of them) and whitePortland stone give its exteri*r & striking striped appearance.This is highlited by the campanri* ?73 feet high, wich stands outlike a beacon over the surroundlrig area. The cross, 11 feet high,that tops the campanile contains a nelic of the True Cross.The cathedrai is 342 feet long , 117 feet to the top of the domesand the nave is the widest in England at 60 feet across, giving theinterior a feeling of massive magnificence. While the bare wallsand vaults were designed to be covered with mosaics and marble,the intended effect can be seen in the cathedral's chapel, notablythe elaborated decorated Lady Chapel. Eric Gill's relief depictingStations of the Cross is considered one of the cathedral's treasures.Sir Winston Churchill's statue is among those of famous statesmenand former prime ministers in Parliament Square. A patch of greenuniting the House of Comrnons on one side, Westminster Abbey onanother and Whitehall, Parliament Square was laid out by SirCharles Barry, architect of The Houses Of Parliament. TheHouses of Parliament form an elaborate Gothic-style carved stonegroup of buildings on the banks of the River Thames. Here lawsgoverning British life are formulated, debated and passed. Begunin 1B40,after a disastrous fire destroyed the previous building, the

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Houses of Parliament cover eight acres and include 100 staircases,eleven courtyards, rnore than 1,000 apartments and two miles ofpassages.

Its ofticial title is New Palace of Westminster, as a royal palacehas existed on the site since the 11th century. One of the bestknownlandmarks in the world is the 320 feet high clock tower, popularlyknown as Big Ben" This is actually the name of the thirteen and ahalf ton bell that strikes the hours. The clock's four dials are each23 feet across and the hands over 14 feet long. A light in the towerat night shows where the House of Commons are sitting. At theopposite corner of the building rises the Victoria Tower, the largestand tallest square tower in the world. Through its archway themonarch enters for the State Opening of Parliament eachNovember. In 1605, Guy Fawkes and fellow Roman Catholicconspirators were discovered in the cellars ready to blow up kingJames I together with the Lords and Commons as they assembledfor the opening of Panliament on the sth of November"

The vaults are still searched by Yeoman of the Guard eachyear before the State Opening of a new Parliamentary session.650 Members of Parliament represent the British people in theHouse of Commons. The House of Lords comprises peers of therealmdukes, earls, countesses, marquises, viscounts, barons andbaronesses - and archbishops and bishops. Their Lordship'scharnber is a richly carved hali with a dais for the monarch's ornatethrone. ln front of the throne is the Woolsack, a seat stuffed with thewool from Britain and Commonwealth, which was traditionallystood in the House since the time of Edward lll in the 14th century.This is the seat of the Lord Chancellor when the House is sitting.The House of Commons, completely destroyed in an air raid in1941,is simpler in style. The green leather parallel rows of benchesthat face towards the well of the chamber offer seating for only two

thirds of the 650 elected members at any one time. The mace(a symbol of authority) is placed on a table in the center of thechamber at the start of each day's proceedings. Each daily sittingis presided over by the Speaker" Westminster Hali, the great haliof the royal palace, is the only remaining medieval part of thecomplex apart from St. Stephan's Crypt and the Jewel Tower. KingCharles I stood trial at Westminster Hali after ne lost the Civil Warand was sentenced to die. A statue erected in front of Westminster

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Hall commernorates his adversary, Oliver Cromwell, whoestablished supremacy of Parliament over the monarchy and madeFr-rgland a republrc for '11 years. Whitehall is named after a royalpalace"

which existed on the site. lt burned down in 1698 when onecf King William's Dutch laundry maids hung some clothes to drytoo close to charcoal fire. The Palace was razed tc the ground bythe next day" The only remaining part is the Banqueting House, amasterpiece cf classical architecture by Inigo Jones, which wasbuilt in the 17ln century. Rubens painted its ceilings. The HorseGuards, whose entrance is guarded by two mounted troopers ofti:* Household Cavalry, was built on the site of the guardhouse forth* *id palace of Whitehall. The troopers are at their posts daily

fr*n:trCI

arn tc 4pm.

At11

arn(10

am on Sundays) the colourfuleer#ffiony of changing the Guard is performed. Government offices rn* bcth sides of \4/hitehall. The Cenotaph, a memorial to thosewhr: died rn the Z*th centuny \Frars, forms an island in the center oft 'r* brcaej road" Each year on Rernembrance Sunday (in Ncvernber)a trs* r:rrr"rr-rte siience is observed during a service attended by theilllrcer: anC i"evai farnily, statesnren and representatives of thearmed f*r**sof eomm*nwealth. The ofticiai home of the Prirnetu{ir:lster. nurr:ber 10 Downing Street, leads off Whitehail. Duringr"t*bu;idir:fiwark behind its Georgian facade in the 1960s were foundi'*r;-ra:ns t:f Rar*eil pattery, a Saxon haii and the Tudon palace ofiitlhit*fl:all.Eowning Street was named after George Downing, a,*ipi*nrat spy anC prcper-iy deveioper. He was taken as a child toF{assachusetts ln Arnerica but returned home when CliverCnornweil seized power. Atter becoming Crcrnwell's chief spy on the*cntinent, he switched sides to spy for King Charles and wasr"ewarded with a knighthcod and a crown iease on the pancei cf lancj.i4e developed the site. which subsequently became home tosuccessive British Prime Ministers from 1735 onward. Sixty roomslie behind the narrow front. The Cabinet Room is on the ground floorand State Rocms on the finst where official receptions and banquetsare heid. A door and passageway lead from number 10 tc number11 next docr-the officiai residence of the Chancellon of the Exchequer.The undergncund Cabinet War Rooms in King Charles Street nowshow vrsitors where the cabinet, led by Churchill, met in the 1940sr,vhen Londcn was under attack during World War ll.

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TRAFALGAR SQUAREFrom his perch 167 feet above TRAFALGAR SQUARE, Admiral

Lord Nelson surveys the memorial to his great naval victory in 1805.Laid out in 1840 by Sir Charles Barry, who designed the Houses of

Parliament, Trafalgar Square is a popular venue for politicaidemonstrations - and pigeons. The Admiral's statue, 17 feet highand carved in granite, looks towards the Houses of Parliament atthe end of Whitehall. Four panels at the foot of the famous columncast from captured cannons depict the Battles of St. Vincent andthe Nile, the Bombardment of Copenhagen and the death of Nelson.Four magnificent bronze lions, each 20 feet long and 11 feet high,stand guard. The fountains in the square were remodeled in 1939to the designs of Sir Edwin Lutyens. Every Christmas, a fir tree is

set up in Trafalgar Square, a gift from the people of Norway inthanks for the Gallery's classical columns pro vide the backdrop forthe north side of the square. Containing one of the richest and mostexpensive collections of art in the world, the National Gallery wasbuilt on the site of a royal stable.

Behind the National Gallery is the National Portrait Gallery, apictorial hall of fame whose treasures include a painting of QueenElizabeth lafter the triumphant defeat of the Spanish Armada.Admiralty Arch was erected in 1910 as one of the nationalmemorials to Queen Victoria.St. James's Palace is now the official office of the LordChamberlain's department. Clarence House, at the southwest frontof the St. James's Palace, was added in 1825. Across the stableyard from St James's Palace is Lancaster House, a richly decoratedsetting for great state occasions and banquets.

KENSINGTONKensington is one of London's royal boroughs. Many members

of the royal family continue a royal tradition by making it theirLondon base. Kensington Palace was formerly the home of theEad of Nottingham. King William lll, an asthmatic who found theair of Whitehall disagreeable and crowds objectionable, bought thehouse in 1689 for 18,000 pounds and employed Sir ChristopherWren, architect of St. Paul's, to rebuild it. The south wing of the redbrick Palace is the notable surviving part of Wren's work.

Later monarchs ordered subsequent improvements andalterations.

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T 9 state Apartments were restored and opened to the public in1975.King william's Gallery, designed by wren, features finewoodcarving, probably by the mastercarver Grilling Gibbons, and aselection of paintings from the Queen's private collection. Mementosof Queen Victoria, who was born and lived at Kensington palace asa princess, include her toys and dolls' house. The Cupola room,where Princess Victoria was christened, is one of the mostextravagantly decorated State Rooms. The private part of the palaceis now a select series of apartments for Princess Margaret and otherroyal relatives. Kensington Gardens, once the privite grounds ofthe Palace, is now a public park, separated from Hyde Fark by theserpentive Lake. Features incrude the orangery, now containingstatuary, a sunken garden and the statue of peter pan, hero of sirJames Barrie's fairy, story. lt was erected in 1g12,at night, tosurprise the local children. The Albert Memorial is within KenJingtonGardens. The elaborate memorial to Prince Albert Consort to eueenVictoria was erected between 1863-76.The Prince in gilt bronze isdepicted under an ornate canopy, a copy of ftre catalogue of theGreat Exhibition on his lap. He inspired the idea of -irre GreatExhibition in 1851 as a showcase of British artistic and engineeringexpertise and craftsmanship. The exhibition also raised money tobuild Kensington's museums nearby. The Albert Memoriai isopposite the Royal Albert Hali, an oval amphitheatre covered by aglass dome-the home of good music from the classical Promenadeconcerts to pop. Completed in 1B71to the designs of captain FrancisFowke, it measures 273 feet across, 155 feei high and is capableof accommodating audiences of up to 8,000 p-eople. The Hall'sfamous organ, with nearly 10,000 pipes, is one of the mightiest inthe world. The Victoria and Albert Museum is a national collectionof fine and applied art. Over its main entrance in Cromwell Road arestatues of Queen Victoria and prince Albert. The museum hasaround seven miles of galleries and exhibits ranging from the16th century Great Bed of ware to the Canning Jewel, a mermanforged in precious gold and jewels and brought from India by LordCanning after the Mutiny of 1857-59. The museum is a vast treasurehouse of arts and crafts culled from all periods and cultures. TheScience Museum's emphasis on working models, which visitors canexplore and handle, brings science to life. lt shows scientificdiscoveries and "ihe evolution of technorogy to the present cJay.

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GRAMMARTENSES

SIGNALS FOR THE TENSES

2a

TENSE SIMPLE (-ONTINI I.)I IqPRESEi.\T I read Lvery morning he reads th(

you read newspapershe/sirelit readswe/vou,/thev read

I mthintingyou aretirinling "What are you thinking about?hershetil isthinkingu'e/rnrr/ther erethirk ino

PRESENTPERFECT

I have workeC I have lived here sfu.e 199:vou have workedhe/she/it has worked..,-h,^.. /+L-,. L..,-,,,^-L-i

f ha.,p hapn.' -,itinc

lou have beenwaiting Dan has been waiting for Surhershetit hasbeenu'aiting ./blthreehourssbr/^rr/rhav L..,- k---.,,";1 ;--

PAST 1 cleanedyou cieaned I cleaned mv room lasl weekhe/she/it cleaneriwe/vou'thev cleaned

I wastalkingyou weretalking I was talking with Mary rry'rile m'he/she,/it wastalk ing brother was listening to his stereowe,'vou,/thev weretalk ing

rA) tPERFECT

I had startedyou had starled The shou' had started belo^heishe,/it had startcd u,e arrived at the theatrenre/von/fherr had stafed

I had been swinrn ingyou had been sn'imm ing He had been swimming/br two hourheishe/it hadbeensu'imming belbrehereachedtheislandrvntrrn,,/thcrr horl hpen ru-imnr ino

FUTURE i will playyou rvill play Mike will play chess at Tonheishelit will play tomorrowwe/vou/thev will nlav

I will betlying1'gu will befl_ving Lucky youl You rvill be tlying to Hawaihe/shelii will be fll ing ot this time tomorrowwe/r'orr/thev will heflv ins

IttIUKtPERIECT

i will have flnishedyou wil) have finished By the end o/ the Juntheisherit will have finishcd we will have finishetwe/you/they will have finished school

I will have beendo ingyou will have beendoing I will have been doing thisjob/brhe'sheiit will have beendoing thifiy five years by Julywervou/they will have been do ing

TENSE SIGNAL EXAMPI-ESrrus[l\ ISIMPLE

every oay/ weee monrD yearalways, sometimes. never. often,seldomusually, occasionaily, regularly,generallyat the weekends, on Monday momings

I do exerciscs cvery day.I often visitmy grandparents in tlre country sidc.Hc usually reads or listens to music in his frec ttmeWe goto the cinema at the weekendsShe presents her repod on Monday rnomings.

rruD[lf rCONTINUOUS

now, at present, at tne moment, curTentlythis week/ month, right nowstill, justlook

Cunently, i am prepanngmy cxams.We are studying this table right nou'.I amstill readingthe book you lent to me.Lookl It's rainins

fAsl slll4tsLt; JvrLuruoJ r@il tr 5r1utwo minutes/ hours/ weeks/ months/ yearsago in 2000, on Mrch 26thduring our last meeting

I linlshedmy paper last nlght.He leftschool two years ago.Shc travelledto Spain in 1985.He talkedall the time durins our last meetin

PASTCONTTNITOIIS at three o'clock vesterday. at this time..

When she called me" I wasjust leavrngWherc rrrercvnr onino at nine n'elnclt laqr nioht'/

PRESENTPERFECT

Iorsincealready, justyettoday/ this week/ month/ yearin/ over the last few weeks/ months/ yearsso far, up to now, until nowlatelv, recently

She has worked on her project for two months.She has worked on hcr project since November.His fax hasjust anivedSorry, I haven't sentthe reply.vet.No, I haven't seenher today.In the last few years it has rained a lot.Nothing has been decided so farThere have been manv cultural events latelv.

rKl,stlN IPERFECT

(-ONTINITf|ITSslnce

He has been workingin this olllcc for 35 learsiShe's been cooking since ten o'clock. no wonder


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FORMS EXAMPLES- to be into the same tense as the active verb +Past Particiole of the active verh.

Active: We keep the wine in the cellar.Pasive: The wine is kenf in the cellar.

- the subject of the active sdrltence becomes theagent and is introduced by bv

The X-mas tree is decked by the whole family.Lord of the Rings is read bv my friends.

Simple Present The kitten is keot in a small box.Present Continuous The packet is beins carried to the deliverv oointSimple Past I was invited to have a meal at McDonald'sPast Continuous A new house was heino huild at that timePresent Perfect A lot of eood deeds have been done bv the hero.Past Perfect She had heen fold olhis witFuture The patient will be nut under suerveillance.

EXAMPLES- We do not know who does the action or this isobvious.

You will be met there. (we do not know by who)When he got in ire was arrested (bv the police)

- We are more interested in the action than theperson who does it.

Two new e-cafes have been opened on my street.A new comouter same is hcino dcwclnnod-

- Verb + preposition + object? the prepositionremains risht after the verb.

W'e must write to him? He must be written to.The new sDorts equioment can he nleved wifh sa.felv

- The indirect object may become the subject. The guide showed him the new museum?He was shown the new museum.

THE PASSIVE VOIGETEI\TSiES;

TNDIREGT SPEECH

-_\

Sam says, I,ll_ran hcq serd.

I

with reporting t'erb.s in a. present, prcsent petfect or.fitture ten..ge, there is no t:hange of tenses.

"I want to walk out the dog"."We have lost our dog"

I I Peter says that he wants to walk out the dog.| | Jack has said that they have l651their dog.

With reportirLg yerb,y in the past, the chctnges are present tense - past tensepresent perfect - past perfect

Alan saitl,

past tense ? past perfectfuture ? futwe-in-the-past

"I amvery hungry. I haven't eaten tbr hours. I Alan said that he ryss very hungry that he had not eatenfor hours;Andlhadbreakfastat6o'clockinthemorning lhementionedthathehadhadbreakfastat6o'clockinthemornirsSo I will order a large meal now - but I he added (that) he would order a large meal and would like somefirst I would like some steak." I steak for a starl.

N.B.: Motlul.s (ntigltt. should, coLtld) und the set:ond conditional do not chttnge in the inclirect.speechWith both yesh'Lo questiotl,r and u-lt- que.stions, lJtere is no question forn in the indirect .speech

Sue asked,|

"ts tt.re post office near?"Paul asked, | "Where didyou meetGerry?"

Sue asked iflwheter the post office was near,Paul askcd me where I had met Gerry.

Lfit.h orders. reque.\t.\ ttntJ adtir:e, the imperative r:hunges inlo the infinitit,eMom said. | "Tuk".ur. of you "Dad sard. I Don't make so much noisel" l1

Mom adr iscJ me to take care.Dad told me not to make so much noise.

Other chon.ges refet to prcnoutts' cutd udjet:tives; this - that these - thosefim saicl, "I will sqe you a1 my office this week'' Dan said he would see me at his offrce rhar week.Adverb,s of time and place : today

tomorrowyesterdaythe day after tomorrowthe day before yesterdaylast week/ month/ yeartwo years agohere

that daythe next/ following daythe day beforein two day's timetwo days beforethe previous week etc.two years beforethere

27


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MODAL VERBSEXPRESSING EXAMPLES

CAN/COULD Ability. capabilitl' (ro &cahle to)

I canspeak Irish. He couldplay golf" but couldn'tski. (but He was able toleamChinese in one \ ear.)

Kcqucst. penrrssron Can I rnake a phone cail? Could i take a day offl ( could is more polite)Possibr lrt-v, suggestlons Do you think this answer couldbe corect? We couldpaint the room a dift-erent colour

for a chanse.+perfectinfinitive

Pre s supo si ti on s.hvoothesis

The visitors didn't come to the meetins - thev could have missedthe train.

Past possibility nothapoend

You could have toldme there r""'as no money 1eft for the holiday

+not lmn()sslbllltv t can't betrue - he can't have metme tn Rotne because l-\e ne\er bcen thcrelN{AY/MIGHT Permission (to be aLlov,ed

l pernitted to)Dad, rnayi go to the movic? Mightl call you up tomonow? ( nlgfttis more polite)Ther,' ll bc allowcdto travel alone.

Possibility, presupposition He maycome today. We mightfind the money u,e need, but I'm not sure. ( mightshows sreater doubt)

+pertect infinitivt Past possibility no1happend

It nright have beena solution - unfortunately, we thought ofit too late.

MUST / HAVETO

Necessltv. obllgatlon You mustwash the dishes before you get out. I musthave my hair cut (speaker:\order. u-ill).

Somc pupils have to wear uniforms. I' vegot to hnish the reporl in an hour (external

oblisation).Advice You mustgo and see Harry p617nr' - it's absolutely terific You mustgo to the

doctor - vou look ill.Deducrion" orobabilirr We haven't seen Mike today - he mustbe on the business trip he told us about.

+perfectinfinitive

Deductron 1n the past She didn't answer the phone she must have been in a rneeting

+not Prohibition, interdiction Passagers must notcarry dangerous materials in their luggage. You'mustn'tp1ay withthe knife

Absence of oblieation You don't have toeat up the 50up if-you don't like it

NEED Necessity, requirement Need l/ Do I need tosign the paper right now? - I haven't talked to my lawyer yet

+not Ahsence of oblisation You needn'ti don't need towait for me - l'11 come alons later.

infinitiveUnnecessary, yet done We r-reedn't have hurried tothe aircor1. the plane was late.No longer necessan I didn't have totell him the news. he had already found out.

SHALL/

SHOULD/

OUGHTTO

Offerins heln ShallI brins vou some collee? Shall I make a copv fbr vou? (lirst person ottlt'.')5USSeSilOn Shallwe have a shorl break now? I think vou shouldtry this cake - it's deliciousOprnion, advice We shouldi ought tobe more patient with our new collegues. You should/ ought to

smoke less.Duty, moral obligation Books shall/ shouldbe retumed within 30 days. You shouldvisit your grandparents

more often.Expectation There shouldn'ti ought not tobe any problem. They should/ ought to have arrivedby

+perfectinfinifiwe

Criticism He should have apologised You shouldn't have spent all the money. You ought tohcrre fnld me earlier

WILLiWOULD

Firm decision,commltment

We willdo everything in our power to win. I wouldtell him, but he didn't listen to me.

Polite requests

Offers and invitations

Willyou give me that book, please? Wbuldyou help me carry these handbags? (v'ouldis more polite)I'l1 eivethem a ring if vou iike. Wouldyou like me to finish this reporl for yout

Instant decision andthought

What would you have? - I' llhave some pizza. I think I' llgo home now.

Repeated action Most days they will get home at about 6 p.m. He would always give her flowers whenthev had a date.

*no1 Retusa Hc u'on'tever do that I te1l him to do. They u'ouldn'tfollow their guide and they gotlost in the woods.


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THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOODFORMS EXAMPLES- Exactly the same form as the Infinitive.Therefore the Present Subjunctive ofto be is be forall persons, and the Present Subjunctive ofall otherverbs is the same as their Present Tense exceot that -sis not added for the third person singular.

lf this be so, you are both to be blamed.Far be it from meHe asked that the project be done in time.

Everybody come to parlySomebody go and fetch me the remote, pleaseLong live freedom

- Exactly the same form as the Simple Past.With the verb tre the Past Subjunctive form is lverefor all persons (note that the use ofwas for all personsis also quite common').

I wish he were in town for St. Valentine's day.(As vrea sa fie in oras...)Don't you wish we went to Constanta for thesummer? (N-ai vrea sa mergem...?)

- Exactly the same form as the Past Perfect. I wish he had visited me when he arrived here.He wished he had not spent all the money.

- In cefiain exclamations, to express wish orhone.

Godbless you Godhelp usMav vour wish come truel

- After 'had better', 'would rather''would sooner'

I'd better go now. I'd rather buy the blue sweater.I'd soonerhave a cat as a pet than a dog.

- After ceftain verbs and expressionsfollowed by a pronoun (noun)

- as if / as though- even if / even though- it is (high) time ('high') is used for

emphasis)- wish- if only (is more dramatic than

ttwishtt)- would ('d) ruther

He behaves as if he owned the place.He talked as though he had found the solution.Even if it were cold, we should leave on time.It is time we went to the station. (Este timoul saplecam...)it is (high) time Bob got a job. (Ar fi timpul...)I wish you were here. (as vrea sa fii aici)I wish I had bcen slimmer rvhen I was young.(as vrea sa fi fost... /as vrea sa fiu...)

Ifonly he had taken

my adviceI'd rather Dan played Hearts with us. (as prefera caDan sa joace...)I'd rather he didn't leave for the cinema.

In if cluuse, conditional sentencestypeII and III

If I were you, I would accept this job right now.If you lived nearer, we could meet more often.If you had not wasted the time. the projectwould have been finished risht now.

USAGE EXAMPLES

SUBJUNCTIVE EGIUIVALENTS- Should + infinitive- Should I have + Pasi

Participle

It was arranged that I should meet them.It's absolutely necessary that I should travel toFrance.It is great that he should have done so well in thesuitar concert.

In the construction should *infinitir e. we sometilnesomit should

especially in American Enelish)

He ordered that an action (should) be taken.He advised that they (should) be there to supporltheir basketbali team.

May (might) + infinitive introducedby the conjunction so that

Send me an e-mail so that i mar' (might) know ofyour anivai.He worked hard so that he might win the prize.

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INFINITIVE OR GERUND ?VERBS FOLLOWED ONLY BY THE INFINITIVE

appesr ask sttempt bother(negative) choose deicide demand deserv expect Jitil happen hope manageofJbr plan prepare pretend promise prove refuse tend threaten want wish

He asked to seethe document. Shedidn't

bother to reply They decided to set upa firm. She expects to be giventhejob. I hope to stafla new career.We managed to raisc enough funds for a neu' school. He off'ered to bring the music. Thcy seem to be very happy. I lvish to see the managcr right now.

VERBS FOLLOWED ONLYBY THE GERUND

admin appreciate avoid canlhelp can'tstand deqt detest enjoy excuse fancy Jinnish.forgive imagine involvekeep mind miss postpone practice pret)ent resist risk suggest it's no good it s rLo use it s (not) worth

I admit be'ing wrong. She avoided making the same mistake. They enjoy playing ciress every day. Please excuse m.rr disturbing you.Fancl'meeting him on top of the mountain My aunt kept complaining about food. Would you mind answering the phone?You missed seeing the sunrise. He risks iosing all his money. I suggested visiting the cathedral. The fi1m is worth seing.

VERBS FOLLOWED BY THE INFINITIVE OR THE GERUND'k begin can't bear cease continue intend it neetls/requires/wants sturt - with slight or no change oimcaning:

She began to sing. He intends to buy the bouse. I have learnt cooking. Thc room needs/ requiresl rvants decorating.Shc began singing. He intends buying the house. I have learnt to cook Chinese lbod. The room needs to be decorated.

* distike hate like love preJbr - the ger-und refers to general tastes; the infinitive refers to a particular moment:I like visiting my relatives quite often. I hate spending holidays alone. I prel'er walking io driving.I would like to visit Aunt Maggy tomorrow. I rvould hate to spend New Year alone. I preter to walk - it's a fine day today.

a forget regret remember - the gerund expresses an earlier action: the infinitive expresses an action to happen later:I will never forget buying my first bike. I regret telling you those stupid words. Nou that you askcd nte. I remembergiving hcr thc lcller.Don't forget to buy some bread

* go on mean stop tty use to

I regret to tell you that I cannot accept your offer. I remembered to give her the ietter when I met her.

He rvent on talking about his childhood till the audier.rce got bored. (the same toptc)Afier a f-ew jokes, he went on to talk about his childhood (a change of the topic)

I didn't mean to upset hcr at ali. (it was not lrv intention)I told her the story even ifit meantupsetting her. (this is

what it involved)He stopped drinking on his doctor's advice. (he didn't ddnk any more) I tried to leam Japanese (I rnade an attempl but $'itltout t]]uch succcsscs)He stopped (talking.t to drink some water (that rvas his purposc) i tricd leaming ten words a day (l made an erpcrinrent tc. sec iiit t'orks)

Thev used to travel a lot a1i over the country during the holidays: nou'thcv sia)'home most ofthe tinte. (a past habbit or ruLrtinetThey were used to travelling a lot, therefore ther-' didn't feel tired aftet- such 3 lpng jounter. (thcr s ere accusilrllled lLr lt)

(a_o)


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a - v/ith consonant or semivowel sounds: a child a hall a uniform a Europeanan - with vowel sounds: an egg an hour an uncle an exercise

USAGE EXAMPLESWith unspecified singular countablenouns

I live in a nice flat. She has a daushter

With singular nouns which representa class of thinss

A fridge is a very useful thing in our homes.A child needs love.

After to De to describe:someone or somethingsomeone's iob

He is a nice man. London is a very busy city.She is an architect. I am a translator.

In expressions of measurement(oer can also be used)

Three times a/per day 15p a/per kilo65 km an/per hour $11.000 a/per month

In exclamations It's a Ditv What a fine davln some expresslons as a rule, on an average, at a distance

THE TNDEFINTTE ARTIGLE

THE DEFINITE ARTTGLE

'3r-

the - pronounced [d6] before consonant or semivowel soundsi6il before vowel sounds

USAGE EXAMPLESWith things that are unique or well-known the sun the stars the sea the wind

Shut the door Where is the staff room?With a specif,rc noun, defined by a phrase orclause

the library round the corrrerThe school where I leamt was verv sood.

With nouns mentioned before He wrote a novel. The novel was brilliant.Specilic meanings with plural or uncountablenouns

The young people we met here are students.The information I got from them was wrong.

lJelore acuectlves to speclly a category 01oeoDle or thinss

the English, the rich, the poor, the elderly,the bankins svstem. the mobile nhone

In suoerlative conshuctlons I wish vou all the best. The latest news is bad.Ordrnal numbers in the first olace the third winnerProper names:

- seas, rivers, groups ofislands- chains of mountains, desefis- some countries and cities- adjective + piace- phrases with "of'- poiitical entities- newspapers, ships, hotels- mlrseums, famous burldings- some orsanisations

the Atlantic, the Thames, the Seychellesthe Carpathials, the Saharathe Netherlands, fhe Haguethe Red Sea, the Middle Eastthe Towerof London,the Gulf of Mexico

the European Union, the United Kingdomthe Times, the Titanic, the Ambassadorthe British Museum, the Eiffel Towerthe BBC, the United Nations Organisation

Plural surnames ( the family) The Johnsons will eo on holidav.Points of the comoass the north. the south-eastIn some time nhrases in thc mornins. in the eveninsPlavins instruments Andrew plavs the suitar in his soare time.Job titles and official titles the Finance Director. the Prime MinisterAfter prepositions He laid his notebook on the table.In some expresslons atthc beginning, forthe moment. onthe left

in the future.


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THE PLURAL OF NOUNS

COMPARISON OF ADJEGTIVES

S-rRL'G-rTJI?ESoFcotvlPARISoN

EqualityWales is

Inns(just) as interesting a country as Scotland and attracts many tourists,

are not asi so expresive as hotels and are located near motorwaComparative

Holiday camps are cheaper than Hoiiday camps areLisbon is less expe

less quiet than hotels.Neu York is morc exoensir e lve New York.

SuperlativeThe Himaiayas are by far the tallest

mountains in the world / o:[ all.The least expensive things can be bought

Your answers have been veryt good.The trip to Florence was extremely exciting.Harr1, Potter is an afisslulsly .fascinating book forchildren. and not onh,.

Gradual increaseThe weather is getting r.urmet uurl rtrntet..He becarne less untl less irttcre.stietl in the gamc.

Parallel increaseTht'rttort: we afe. lJte nterrier we shallThe less mistakes you make, the better

g,

\I EXAMPLES\iii -5 to the singular noun: Book - books. day - days, house - houses, bridge - bridges

-\dd - es to a noun ending in-ch, -o, -s, -sh, -ss, -tch, -x, -z

(but:radio - radios" photo - phot(

Church - churchss, kiss - kissss, fox - foxss, buzz ' buzz6,match - matchss,

Clhange nouns ending consonant + -yInto consonant + -ies

t3aby - babiss, country - countriss, party - pafiies,study - studies;

Change nouns cnding in -f(s) into yss:(but: roof - roofs. clifi- cliffs)

Lif'e - lives, knife - knives, leaf - leayss, shelf - shelves.calf - calyss, wife - wiy65, wolf - wolygs;

Nouns ot Greek or Latin origin:(but: album - albums, stadium - stadiums)

Urltenon - cnterla, phenomenon - phenomenn,crisis - crisss, analysis - analyses, datum - data,medium - media, formula - formulss, index - indiss5,

IRREGALAR PLURALS

man - men, woman - women, foot - fbet, goose - geese, tooth - teeth, mouse - mice, die - dice,louse - iiss, child - children, ox - oxensame.form, both for singular and plural: deer - deer, fish - fish, slieep - 5hsspcollective nottns (.crew, family, team) can take a singular or a plural verb (singular : a group or unit)

"Our team is the best " "Our team nys wearing their new T-shirts"always pltu'al: clothes, pants, pyjamas, binoculars, glasses, scissors, spectacles, compassesalwavs ,singular: (advice, equipment, furniture, information, klowledge, luggage, money, work):"Thc money i5 on tl're table"plural in.form bttt singular in metttting: ncws, murnps, pools, billiards "That news is good"initials: VIP5 (very important persons), UFO5 (unidentified flying objects)compottnd nouilst Dsnally the last words made plural: boy-friend5, travel agents, forget-me-not5man and wotnan are also made p1ural: men drivers, women doctor5(.but: nou.ns with -er l adverlts: hangers-on, runners-up; noLtn + preposition I noun; sisters-in-1a$,

Adjectives of one sltllableAd.jectives of one syllable ending vowel-consonantAdjectives o,f two qtllables ending in -y

Tw'o or more syllables

Positive cheap, nice; big. wet; easv. happv modem, interestingJomparatrve cheaper, nicer; bigger, wetter; easisr. happigl mglg modern, m61s interesting

Sr-rperlative Cheapest, nicest; biggest, wettesti easiest, hapiest most modem, most interesting

N.B. Some two-syllable adjectives, such as: clever, common, narrow, quiet, simple, can forrn in either way:e.8. COtnltlr)tt ComnlOItCf mofe Common COmmOnesl m}s;t COmmOn


35/40

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCESAdverb Subject Auxiliary

Modal VerbVerb Object Adverb

Ronald likes flowersThe visitors arrived cn tlme

will s9no the e-mail tomonow momlnqThe pupi has learnt the whole poem bv heaft.The funny litlle man was laughing all the tirne.

tler vounc brother can Dla\j the guitarJometrmes his uncle Han-v takes him to the mountains.-ast summer the whole class decided to travel around the country

Mamer I Plat:e lTineGeorge read a lol I at school I on Monday

I NTERROGATIVE SENTENGESvuesnon

wordAUXutAry

Modal VerbSubject Verb 0bject Adverb

Dn VOIIDoes Julia want I a pet lor her ,)Di,-l Itwilt the show )Have vou ridden I a donkev'.)Can the nuoils leave

What are vou readWhen did Gerry bu), I his new hat?

Who goes to the t

NEGATIVE SENTENGESJubJect

Modal verb + notuoJecr AAVeTD

Thel do not (don't) believe his storiesYOU ar - not'(aren't) llstenlng to melHe has not (hasn't) seerl that SF movie vet

Mary rvill not (won't) walt for rne at the stationI ne slllcent cannot (can't) speak spannlsn velv well

NEGATIVE INTERROGATIVE SENTENGESauest on

word4uxtltaryModal

verb

suDJect Not verb Object Notes

Did vou not see hcr? Usually contracted:Didn't vou see her?

whv 1S he not commlng with us'l Usually contracted:Why isn't he coming with us

here.ur umbrella

Let's go j to the cinema

flowwnat AdJectwe/ubJect JubJect yerb

How u'onderfulHor,r,' \ -arm 1t lr,'asWhat a DiwlWhat an interesting book this IS:

t3


36/40

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uk history

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