Unheroic Beginnings: Canada at Confederation1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Not in a war, revolution, exception in North America

← Much to do with financing of railways

←← Lecture objectives:

To define and map Canadian Confederation

To explore some of the political and economic forces leading to this

political compromise

To question the meaning and outcomes of Confederation

←← Defining and Mapping Canada:

An administrative re-organization of the British North American

colonies as a Dominion of provinces.

o Political units under British imperialism did exist in the mid

18th century

o Confederation an attempt to reorganize the relations between

previously separate colonies

Under federation (dominion) , while maintaining some

autonomy as provinces

Imperial authority recedes, but individual colonies retain

some of their authority

A distinctive federal model: aiming to…?

o Diff from that in USA, diff balances of authority between fed

and regional governments

Differences made deliberately due to perceived

weaknesses in the American system, too much authority

ceded to state level with too little to the centre (one of

the causes of the American civil war, which is happening

at the same time as the discussions around

confederation and is a key event happening at the time

British North America Act, 1867 outlines separation of powers

o Made by British parliament, ceding greater authority to

colonies to run some of their own affairs

o Important in establishing how power functions in Canada

←← The original four, 1867: maps

← www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/confederation/023001-2101.8-e

notably absent is PEI, who had participated in much of the

negotiations, but would stay out at the beginning

expansion into lands under control of HBC shortly after 1867

o contentious expansion

Ontario and Quebec are slivers of their future selves, and they will

expand north into what used to be Rupert’s Land

←← Late Joiners:

1870: Manitoba

1870: Northwest Territories

1871: British Columbia

o problem: lack of connection between the territories,

politicians need to go via San Francisco and trans-USA train

o at first wanted a wagon road, became a railway

1873: Prince Edward Island

o found it hard to go it alone outside confederation

o huge debts amounted in constructing railways on the island

1880 Arctic Islands

o ceded from British empire to the dominion of Canada

←← Was Confederation the obvious course? - Improbable goal

A relatively small population (3.5 million), distributed across a vast,

unforgiving terrain.

o Most located in the St. Lawrence low lands

Still the most populated section of Canada

Core of early Canadian settlement

Quebec City in east to Sarnia in West along fertile land

o Coastal ports of maritime provinces

o Peoples

French in Qc

Métis and First Nations in prairies

First Nations in BC

1/3 French speaking

Aboriginal population dominant in prairies,

north, BC, and Maritimes and Québec

(~120K)

British

o just over 60% of Canadian population

o Majority in Maritimes and Ontario

25% of this Irish

40% of total pop English/Welsh

16% of total pop Scottish

o often region of origin more important

than national ones

Small Asian population in BC

Small German minority in Ontario

Considerable variety at confederation

o

Highly varied cultural geography.

o Trade differences, sea faring, lumber, fishing, widely varied

Few common transportation and communications linkages.

o Rough road between NB and Qc

o Railroad along St. Lawrence traveled through the USA to

Portland main in USA pre-confederation, avoided NB and NS

Key transportation lines fro Qc and Ont through USA

o Most letters traveled on railways and steam ships, so also

affected by lack of transportation infrastructure

o Telegraphs

Emerging technology

Without railroad lines, hard to build, so there weren’t

any to the west

All needed to travel through American networks

o Infrastructure for trade, commerce, distribution of news,

didn’t exist

BNA colonies had diverse and sometimes divergent interests.

o Maritimes – trade connections out of Boston and other east

coast ports

o Ont/Qc – debate on the issue of westward expansion to allow

for growing populations

What shared associations and interests existed? What geographical

patterns and processes united this vast space?

o Many important issues forced by external events

o Connection with Britain and the empire.

British instructions implanted as part of colonial

authority, parallel systems of government

Respect for the British crown

Reference to British metropolitan power and its

influence in the world

←← External factors:

Imperial Policy favours Confederation

o Changing views of imperialism, burden of military and admin.

expenditures, business influence

o Debates in Britain on the role of the empire for Britain

Previous mercantilist policy

Site to sell industrial output

Provided a market to sell colonial output

(resources, agricultural goods) at a preferred rate

Emerging idea of free trade threatens mercantilism

o Repeal of the Corn Laws

Regulated the market of gains, introduced free trade in

grain sails in British market

Theory: food prices down, ensure labout peace, good for

working class

Effects: increased competition for colonial farmers in the

British market

o Reorientation towards India as cornerstone of British Empire

Want to pull back on $$$ to North American defense

expenditures, want colonies to take more financial

responsibility

Willing to exchange for greater autonomy

Response to rebellions in 1830s in upper and lower

Canada and shift in imperial policy to download the

costs of imperialism to the colonies

o Pressure on Colonial office to facilitate confederation

in face of threat of increased military $$$ in face of

American civil war,

Business pressure to facilitate railway construction,

interest in investment opportunities

The US Civil War (1861-1865)

o Tear appart USA along lines of state powers and slavery etc.

long and very bloody war

o Range of issues potentially relevant British

Originally sympathetic to the Confederacy, so the North

is quite hostile to the British, and series of small

conflicts between north and British

British trade relations with US south around

cotton, and British textile industry in their British

North, and supplies of cotton came primarily from

the US south

Interruptions in supply lead to a reorientation of

production of textiles on a global scale

o Military threat/ expansionism

What will happen to the troops at the end of the conflict

Demobilization?

Turn north to attack British colonies to expand

powers?

British are counseling colonies to raise more of the $$$

for their own defense

How unification may strengthen their positions vs.

the united states at the end of the civil war

o End of Reciprocity Agreement (1866)

American attitude not friendly at the end of the civil war

End to trade agreement established in 1854 allowing for

relatively free trade of goods

Esp. relevant in the face of the repeal of the Corn

Laws

Incentives to increased internal trade between British

North American colonies

←← Internal factors:

Deadlock in the Canadas

o United in 1840s from Upper and Lower Canada

In response to 1830s rebellions

Canada West – Ontario

Canada East – Quebec

Hoped French would be assimilated into the English

speaking population

o Canada West

Wanted rep by pop., as it was growing much more

quickly, as opposed to “French Domination” in the

shared legislature

o Fractious legislatures

Had a hard time getting work done

Colonial politicians coming to the view that the system

didn’t work, and could not function

Began to explore the idea of federal system of

government, even by themselves, if they couldn’t

convince other colonies to join

Maritime Union

o NB, NS, PEI

o 1864 Charlottetown Conference initially to explore union of

Maritimes, the Canadian politicians suggested they should

also join the discussions too

Railway ambitions

o Vanguard of technology

o Sewn into fabric of agreements

o Discussed at every conference

Expansionism

o Claiming territories to the west, esp for Canada West

Growing population

Lack of farmland

o Areas formerly promoted as barren wasteland (esp by HBC)

Idea that it could be annexed and settled by the

Canadian population moving westward

←← Some outcomes of Confederation:

An expansionist, confederated state set in motion

Elements of a transportation policy established

o Plan for railway development

A de-coupling of power and interests within the British Empire

o Not outright independence (foreign policy, power of crown)

A more integrated political unit to face the American threat

(economic and military)

Not popular at first, essentially foisted upon the populations

←← Meanings of Confederation?

Canada created as a Dominion. Psalm 72 of the Bible: "He shall

have dominion also from sea to sea, and from the river unto the

ends of the earth."

o Invented for the purpose, but not first choice, which was

“Kingdom of Canada”

o Queen Victoria said she like “Dominion” so it stuck

o Speaks to issues of expansionism

Contemporary claims: A nascent political community? A British plot?

An act of political treachery? A waste of money? A convenient but

imperfect bargain?

Pointing towards independence while at same time staying in touch

with the British Empire, gradual independence.

←A Dissenting View

Jean-Baptist Côté’s cartoon published in a French-Canadian literary

journal derides Confederation with bathroom humour

←← Marine Hospitals

Gross Iles– often used for quarantine of immigrants after ship

voyages before being giving entry into Canada

Generic – particularly oriented to peoples coming from sea (sailors

etc.)

←← Canada’s position re. US civil war, and British support for the

confederacy

Diff between general empire sympathy and those that existed in an

individual colonial context

The north US was PERCEIVING sympathies from various actions as

ACTIVE sympathy, even if the British didn’t see it that way

o Ex. Confederate war ships being outfitted in British ports

o Ex. Other small events, that lead to a PERCEPTION of

sympathy

Perception may have been dfifferent form active support

Volunteers from British colonies on BOTH sides of the civil war,

many more on the north than on the side of the south. Many many

volunteers

ANNEXING THE NORTHWEST 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To analyze the imagination of the western Interior before

Confederation

To understand how expansion into this region was organized and

executed

To consider what expansion involved for Métis and indigenous

peoples in the region (plains)

←← Imagined geographies of the west

Pre-1850: fur trade hinterland

o ‘Barren waste’ and wilderness, unsuitable for agriculture

little interest in expansion, thanks to this self-interested

positioning by the HBC of the area as a fur-trapping

region

dominant image as circulated in press and in books

about geography of north American

could not be successfully farmed

o none of the politician’s had actually visited this region but

were responding to an imagined geography

Post-1850: settlement frontier

o Blodgett challenges assumptions about latitude/climate

association

In sphere of wider scientific discussions

Revision of common understanding of latitude relative

to climate

Not strictly governed by latitude position, but that

there could be variations, breaking of latitude

assumption

Opened up new scientific consideration of the nature of

the northwest territory

o Re-assessments of land occur in 1850s – range of expedition

to visit region and conduct resource assessments

Henry Youle Hind

Chemist at UofT

Esp. eastern edges, modern day Manitoba, not

much further west

Most optimistic appraisal that prior opinions,

qualified, cautious endorsement of farming land

John Palliser

British Geographic Survey

Across western Canada, investigating

Land

Resources

Growing conditions

IF A RAILROAD COULD BE BUILT across the

territory and through the rocky mountains

o Names for many of the lakes in the

Banff area

Thought some areas would work, others should be

avoided, and very skeptical of railroad possibilities

o Re-assessments publicized

Imagines geographies in rapid transition in this time from barren

waste to ripe for settlement

Hime, The Prairie, on the Banks of Red River, Looking South,

1858. – think about context and how they were

perceived, received, circulated and talked about. Vast fertile plain

or waste land

Was Palliser’s Triangle land unfarmable? Did technology change the

nature of the possibilities?

o Yes misinformed to an extent – particularly dry climate cycle

o Yes technology advancements made some areas conceivable

Massive irrigation operation, aqueducts etc.

← A new vision of fertile land

←← Northwest as Homeland – not entering an empty land

Palliser went to Ft. Edmonton for permission from Blackfoot to entre

rocky mountain area, entered into aboriginal environment, was

political consideration, though much left out in final report

Western interior experiencing extensive change through contact

and trade and social change, major population shifts – Ashinabe

moved into Manitoba, other groups moved north-south based on

disease and political alliances

o Effect to realign groups and impact relations between

different culture groups in the region

o Fur trade, internal changes, outside changes, arms trade

Indigenous peoples held complex territoriality

o Blackfoot map

rivers in straight lines, bends of rives not very important

because they were plains peoples. Important in where

they could be crossed and travel times to re-supply

people and horses

mountains – landmarks only make sense if you have the

view of standing on the prairies, not if you have a birds

eye view

o Names world that was understood spatially that was being

renamed by western concepts as if they didn’t have names

already

Recent challenges: extension of fur trade, warfare, epidemic

disease, decline of bison

o Bison hunt central to many first nations economy

American settlement westward changed bison market

Industrial demand to make belts for machines

Impact on bison herds moving north and sout

o Rapid decline in 1850s, extinguished by 1870s

←← Métis Homeland

Métis ethnogenesis: a self-consciously new cultural group emerged

from fur trade society

o Michif, a hybrid language of French, English and Cree

Linguistic difference, grammar and vocab from all three

o Homeland around Red River settlement

o Land divided in long lots and commons

Riverine access and high points of land to escape

flooding, and varied resources as moved back from river

Access to a range of resources, as opposed to

square parcel of farm land in southern ontario

Commons accessible on basis of community consent as

they needed resources

o Mixed economy: farming, carting, hunting

Agricultural settlements, not all Métis livelihoods from

agriculture, mixed economy tied to fur trade, hunting

and agriculture

Hunting

Labour – carters for HBC

Sell bison meet to feed forts

o Not small settlement – 12000 Métis

o 33000 indigenous peoples more widely dispersed across the

prairies

←← Northwest and settler colonialism

The Canadian Party, forming in 1850s

o Goal to take over land in the area and promote it for

settlement of people from Canada west

o Expansionists in Red River who favour annexation to Canada

o Promote settlement through press and correspondence

Describing wonderful farming conditions

o View themselves as vanguard of settlement

Small group (600)

Imposing their brand of colonialism into the area and

beyond

←← Annexation/Transfer

Involves three parties: HBC, Great Britain and Canada (but not

residents)

o Shifting political authority over the vast western area from the

trade monopoly of HBC (granted by the crown). HBC didn’t

have control over the area

o Canadian government considering control over the area,

farming the area and changing the property regime in the are

o No consultation with settlers or indigenous groups

Concerns about US expansionism/ difficulties of governing area

Canada assumes control of Rupert’s Land, March 1869

HBC receives cash payment ($1.5 million) 1/20th land in fertile belt,

and rights to continue trade

o Relatively small payout (1/4 cost of Alaska in 1867)

o HBC could sell land, given real estate in kind gift, to be quite

lucrative for HBC in the future

←← Establishing Authority

Canadian government initiates new structure of authority under

Lieutenant Governor, William McDougall

o Not well briefed on the local opinion of Canadian authority

Contrasts previous Council system

o Impose system of government on the area

Goes against the pre-existing council system, while not

elected, did have some responsive aspect to it from

hisotry and region

Shift viewed form local authority to that from afar in

Ottawa

Canada initiates surveys for roads and land

o Many surveys being done

o Concerned that it would annihilate existing property

distribution, that Canada would change how property

distributed

This provokes residents who perceive (correctly) a challenge to the

established order of things.

o Immediate threat of loss of farms

←← Challenging Authority:

Le Comité National des Métis forms, led by Louis Riel

o Response to view of authority from afar

o Able to bridge the different worlds in the settlement,

interacted with catholic church (sympathetic), write well to

government

o Placed in leadership roll

When Canadian authority declared, confrontation ensues

o Métis committee counter reaction who did not support the

Canadian government, and wanted to control Canadian party.

One arrested and executed

Provisional government established

Prepares a Bill of Rights

o Discourse of liberal individualism and group rights of the time

o Lays out range of demands that a new Canadian government

must do to recognized the existing settlements and

community before the Canadian authority can be recognized

in the Red River

←← Colony or Province? Key aspects of the Bill of Rights

Makes demands re: rights to land, system of survey and tenure

Calls for self-determination: responsible government

o Like there is in the provinces and federal government

o Calling for provincial status, rather than being treated like a

colony

Canadian government needs to negotiate to get any type of

authority, and it does with reps from Red River who go to Ottawa

o Accepts some terms of Métis bill of rights and enters some

into Manitoba Act of 1870

←← Manitoba Act, 1870

An elected legislature

English and French recognized as languages of government

o Would not have been supported by the Canadian party who

were pro-anglo supremacy

Protestant and Catholic denominational schools maintained

o Not popular with Canadian Party (english, protestant)

Manitoba would NOT hold control over land and resources

o Major diff between Manitoba and the other provinces

o Didn’t change in prairies until 1930s

o Continues in territories today

Guarantee of land currently farmed as well as 1.4 million acres for

descendants – not successful in the long term

Key elements of this Act would erode in practice

o French in schools, catholic schools would be actively

challenged by Manitoba politicians over time

Stripped of some of the jurisdictions prescribed in the BNA Act

←← Key elements of this compromise erode in future years

New city Winnipeg, would be the key metropolis in the west

←←← Discussion Questions – Bower

Great Transformation

o Community based, moral economy to a more individual,

private property, less community focus

o Environmental changes from wetlands to the super-drainage,

agriculture - Shift driven by changes in environment

o Shift in the property regime from common to private property

and in conventions of control. From community control to

capitalist property system

Commons? Moral economy?

o Everyone has access, and moral economy changes depending

on what is best for the entire group, more equal, measuring

actions in how they treat each other, making sure it was

mutually beneficial

o Not rigid, flexible to the need and environment and the

situation

o Commons: area that is accessible to all – form which

resources can be taken

Are in fact unceded territories

o Moral economy: local conventions set the boundaries of

proper and improper activity, which may not be codified in

law

Haymaking important: feeds animals on the farms, and wild grasses

don’t use up arable land, access hay close at hand with very little

work

Hay priviledge: 2 miles beyond the first two river front miles

Extent: culturally based, english – hay, french - woodlot

o Depended on local environmental conditions

o Varriation on how hay priviledge opperates practically along

the river

After confederation

o Hay privilege ambiguous position as it is not something

“properly” owned. Lack of codification becomes problematic

o Try to simplify preexisting arrangements so they can be

recognized by the Canadian authorities

o Those who know how it works need to adapt to the new

control, authority and property regime, leads to confusion and

conflict in some areas

←

CONSTRUCTING POLITICAL & ECONOMIC SPACE1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

What federal policies sought to consolidate the political geography

outlined by Confederation? Internal trade? Build up industry and

infrastructure?

How did the so-called national policy recast

o 1) railroad development

o 2) trade and tariffs

fed area, key federal instruments to create coherent

national economy and build a domestic industry

o 3) Immigration

With what effects?

←← National Policy

Late19th century tariff policies of the national government to

benefit the national policy - at the time

Has be reclassified/bundled by scholars - current

o A whole group of policies working to build a coherent national

economy and development

←← Railroads and Confederation:

Confederation politics shaped by railroad ambitions

o Inter-colonial link to Maritime provinces (completed in 1876)

Should confederation happen it needs to build a

manageable infrastructure to join the colonies together

Private sector doesn’t look at like very profitable, so is

government infrastructure built not for profit, but for

political reasons

o Transcontinental link to BC (completed in 1885)

Started as request for wagon road

Was supposed to end up in Victoria, instead in unknown

small mill town of Vancouver

o PEI enters Confederation in part because of railroad debts

← Railroad map

Western lines at tail end of building period in the late 19th century

Density in southern Ontario with rich agricultural land and market

towns lead to lots of railroad construction in the region

Going through northern NB as opposed to Portland would be way

longer across relatively uninhabited lands, Portland Maine makes

better business sense

Connections deepened after confederation with new railroad

between provinces to allow for increase in trade

Mostly linear connections running along the most inhabited sections

of urban and agricultural land in Canada

←← The idea and significance of a transcontinental railroad

Predates Confederation

Comparative significance with US

o Population in US 10x larger than that of Canada, and would

connect substantial areas, less so the case in Canada,

following rather than leading settlement

o Very different situation in the USA than in Canada when

looking at economy, infrastructure, population etc.

o Aspirational in Canada

Some argument that it was waster of resources, overbuilt and ill-

advised (White)

Politics of development

o Business interests, CPR and federal Conservatives

Those who wanted contracts saught to influence

politicians in their awarding

o Pacific Scandal (1873) derails railroad

Sir John A. Macdonald reelected with substantial funding

from business interests who wanted to obtain the CPR

contract

Broke out in the house when letters were published in

the press

Sir John A. Macdonald telegram to businessman in

Montréal “we are out of money, send it now, do

not disappoint me”

American investors

Scandal undermined government and it fell

Undermined plans for transcontinental railroad and

shelved

← Towards completion

Transcontinental line re-negotiated in 1880

o Return of Macdonald and cons. into government

o Established base in Montreal to pursue major construction

project

o Will take a long time to realize any sort of profit

Terms with CPR:

o Financial grant

Demands subsidies to pursue the project at the start

and along the way

Private contract subsidized by the federal government

o Land grant

Allow the CPR to acquire land along the line and have

some choice in the acquisition of those lands that is

“fairly fit for settlement”

Has the right to reject the land that it wants to in

some places, and take it in other places

Contract written to benefit CPR in real estate ownership

o Exemption from tariffs for materials

o 25 yr exemption from taxes

incl no land taxes on their buildings

o 20 yr monopoly clause

no competing branch lines SOUTH of the CPR line across

the prairies

←← Politics of Routes – some surprises in construction choices

Leaving aside question about title to land…

← A northern route is chosen first

o Through Edmonton and various market towns

But the CPR ultimately builds across the southern prairies. Why?

o Allow for more interconnection with American branch lines

o Avoids the problem of potential competition from Americans

who have hubs near the border that might draw settlers

o How to get through the Rockies

o Northern route for have substantial costs for building branch

lines to the south

o Revision of geographical imagination of the region, Palliser’s

triangle re-surveyed in wet year when it is full of grasses etc.

o The south would allow them to invent towns along the way,

allowing for greater profit realization from real estate

←← Railroads: space-time compression (people’s perceptions and

interactions)

Trade and expansion of markets

o Production and consumption don’t need to be in the same

area

Communications: telegraph, press circulation

o Market information, personal messages RAPIDLY

o Understanding news events at national level and

internationally

Newspaper shift from local orientation, to expand

market information, international events

o Changes understanding of political events due to speed

o News stories can be shared between papers

Passenger travel

o Conquered obstacle of seasonality and nighttime as travel

limitations, of horses bodies and their needs

o Shift form organic use of energy and transportation to an

industrial one

Conceptions of time and space (less local)

o Time keeping used to be locally based (noon whenever the

sun was at the highest point)

o Hard when trying to plan a railroad schedule

Standard time (1883); Sandford Fleming – to facilitate railroads

o All settlements in a certain band will have the same time

o Zones where the time changes

←←← Railroads and settlement

Metropolis-hinterland effects

o Relationship between urban-rural areas

o Cities become more important as economic centres/trade,

political importance increases

Development roads/ Corridors of settlement

o Many early railroads in north america were not between major

centres, but rather pursued development/pioneer routes

o Ambitions of resettling areas to build up a market for railroad

activity

o Building a plan for the economic development associated with

the railroad

Industrialization – capacity to build the railroads

o Construction

o Maintenance

Of railroads

boilers, cars, bridges

needed a knowledgeable workforce

o Backward linkages: rolling mills, coal, tools

Inputs that are required to build railroads

o Core foundation for industrialization in Canada

o Central to the design of urban space, lots in a grid pattern

oriented towards the railroads and it’s yards

City build around the railroad by the railroad

Grain elevators

o Farmers brought grain to central point where it was sorted

before sale

o Receive a receipt from the elevator from the grain

o Building of a grain exchange, in a wider international grain

market

←← National trade policies:

Shifting trade regimes shape context of Confederation

o End of imperial preferences (1840s)

End of corn laws, empire wide free trade, forced to

explore closer links with the US

o Reciprocity with US ends (1865)

End of the civil war

o Canada created to facilitate internal trade

Tariffs: revenue and protection instruments

o Tax charged at the border to import goods into Canada

o Protect domestic industry, if imported goods cost more than

Canadian goods

o Main source of revenue for governments (75% of federal

funds)

There was no sales tax or income tax, didn’t have the

infrastructure or general numeracy in the population

The ‘Long Depression’ (1870s)

o Domestic manufacturers appealed to government to help

them, because difficult economy, esp to deal with dumping

Manufacturers complain of ‘slaughter selling’ by US competitors

o Dumping, sold at or below costs to undercut Canadian

competitors

Deal with issues of over production

Ensure that Canadian competitors didn’t grow

←← The National Policy

Protective tariff idea gains traction in late 1870s

o Montreal manufacturers lobby

o Conservatives link notions of protection and loyalty (1878)

o Liberals object as free traders

National Policy (1879)

o Conservative tariff policy

o Tariffs on manufactured goods (20-25%)

Low to no tariffs on raw goods

High on manufactured goods

←← Effects of trade policy?

The jury remains out on the issue

Benefits are urban in orientation, not spread out across the entire

map

Tariff will only be one factor amongst many

←← Who paid for the tariff?

Regional and class implications

Redistribution of income from periphery to core

Industrial concentration in the St Lawrence corridor

← Critics point to: branch plant economy, inefficient industry

←← Immigration:

Promoting Canada

Receiving Immigrants (over 900,000, 1880s)

Exporting Emigrants (Over 1 million, 1880s)

DOMINION CHALLENGED: REBELLION & CONFLICT1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To consider how the Canadian state reorganized space and

dispossessed aboriginal peoples of the western interior.

To understand the factors shaping conflict in the Northwest

Rebellion of 1885.

←← The western interior in transition

New agents on the plains: whiskey traders, police

o There were no boundaries markers between Canada and the

US during this time, usually a notional line for those living in

the area, and didn’t mean much re. their travel, hunting and

trade routes

o Liquor was being introduced into the fur trade more

extensively than had been during the HBC era

Creating problems in the area that had not existed

before (shootouts etc)

o Cdn government established the northwest mounted police

from Winnipeg

Wisky traders and protect settlers (rhetoric) and

indigenous peoples (reality)

New institutions of law and order and authority part of

bringing into Canada, many markers of imperial police

forces (red surge etc)

The decline of the bison

o Too few bison to hunt, indigenous economies that worked

around the bison hunt were facing a moment of crisis,

reworking and shift in hunting effort, territorial locations shift

in response to resource crisis, undermined position of strength

at crucial moment when Canadian government was trying to

exert control over the area

Conditions of indigenous peoples

Making treaty: background

o Wanted to ensure that railroad building could be conducted in

a more peaceful manner, compared to very expensive military

approach in the USA

←← The Numbered Treaties

Treaties 1-10 unfolded the way they did along where the railroads

would go.

Followed path of settlements

← Treaty Provisions

‘Cede, release, surrender, and yield up to the Government of

Canada’

o strong language to ensure Canadian government power over

land

Right to hunt except where land was granted ‘from time to time for

settlement.’

o Vague enough to give much power to government and can

cause confusion in the future, and government plan was to

substantially settle in the future

Reserves. Land provisions per family varied.

Reserves to be administered by the government.

Annual payments and provisions. Some treaties contained

arrangements for on reserve schools.

←← Making Treaty

The government’s aims

o Clear control over land

o Settle matters

Indigenous perspectives

o Some groups were in severe food crisis, and were essentially

held for ransom, where the government promised them

rations once they took treaty

o Arbitrary, misunderstood, not along oral traditions

o Unknown exactly how treaty was understood and what was

said during the process

How words translate? Land, settlement

Making reserves

o Varied from place to place

o Different concerns re. resource distribution and access

o Suspicious of Canadian government intentions

Resisting Treaty

o Big Bear – treaty 6

None of the queen’s presence

Saw the treaty as an enticement that would not be

fulfilled

Treaty 7

o Made between many different language and culture groups,

with different goals and different translators

← Reserves: pliable spaces

←← Métis concerns:

Migrations

o Changing economic conditions

o Moved to both branches of the Sask. River

By 1885, Métis made up only 7 per cent of Manitoba’s population

o Falling in relative terms to new incoming settlers, and

migration out, and shere volumes of settlers coming into

Manitoba

The problem of land

o Many land title certificates sold to speculators in the time

after Manitoba’s creation

Dissatisfaction with government support

o Similar to when survey’s happened, and weren’t getting as

much support as new settlers, and felt their livelihoods, farms

and lifestyle was at risk

o Land being occupied and used by Métis families, that

Canadian legal saw as squatting in crown land, and crossed

over into land grants made to colonization companies

← Towards conflict

Métis organization

o Approached LR due to his ability to negotiate and knowledge

The role of Louis Riel

o Elected several times to Canadian government, but was never

able to take up his seat

Indigenous perspectives

o Diff from those of the métis and lr was unable to reach out

and come to some sort of consensus with them

o When violent conflict happened between Métis and CDn

governement, some grousp were very clear in wiring ottawa

in stating they were not part of this, and they offered suuportt

if the fighting becamme more widespread

←← Workshop questions

Carter:

o Explain chapter title “Turning Point”

Critical time for feelings re. relations between aboriginal

peoples and the Canadian government

Perceptions of the relationships and the threats of

aboriginal peoples, views of IP and M as threats to

“white Canadians”

How Canadians perceived the IP and M, and how they

would be encountered in the west

Amount of control the government exercised over the IP

and the M, institutions of governance

The two processes are linked together, how perceptions

effected the willingness, drive to change administration

o IP and M share same/similar goals in 1885

Overlapped in terms of land rights

M had more “western state model”

Diff situations on the ground with the representatives

o How to cdn government respond to 1885 events in the west

Move from ignoring, to negotiation to uneven power

Some military action, used propaganda, created NWMP

Insituted the pass system for controls of people on

reserve

More aggressive assimilation attempts

o How did IP admin change after 1885

IP administration changed to Indian Act to start

outlawing dances, potlaches, traditional ceremonies etc.

Became much more paternalistic, and controlling

Osborne

o How was Riel resurrected in post war Canada

Shift from bad to many things to many people to folk

hero

o What should we make of the shifting understanding/feeling of

Riel?

Symbol of Riel is used for different purposes at different

times depending on what policies/goals existed on the

political/social landscape

Used in a cultural economy of symbols

Western alienation

Heroic figure for wider constituency

New social movement in 1970s

Embrace of the ideal of a multicultural society

Wider discussion about social and cultural

difference

Statue debate

Produce conlift re. public expectations, artistic styles,

official sponsors interests in producing figures of a

certain mind

THICKENING CITIES:PATTERSNS AND CONSEQUENCS OF URBAN GROWTH 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To consider the scale and scope of urban growth in Canada in the

late nineteenth century.

To relate urbanization, economic change and social issues.

←← The Canadian Population, 1891

Best estimate: 4.8 million

3/4s of the population lived in southern Ont and Quebec

Majority of people lived in rural areas, but cities (with at least 1,000

people) growing rapidly.

o 1/3 of population

o shifts in population and in economic concentration, not just in

Canada, but in much of the western world associated with

increased industrialization

←← Map of populations

Close connection between rivers, lakes and the us border

Not a map dominated by one larger urban centre, many smaller

settlements (3-7000)

o Importance of agriculture and being close to land?

o Hierarchy emerging – some areas (Toronto, Montréal) due to

their ability to serve as transportation hubs

Which is first – pattern from Ontario because of railroads, or did

railroads connect areas to network?

o Agricultural settlement in SW Ontario preceded railroad

development

Canadian shield – not great agricultural land, so the railroads had no

reason to go there

Small ribbon of fertile land along St. Laurence river, then move

quickly into unsuitable areas for agricultural settlement

Maritimes

o Much more small costal settlements (300) fishing villages etc.

o New Brunswick has more settlements along the rivers and the

economies associated with the forest industry

o Settlement maps can explain key sectors of the economy

Contrasts between Ontario, Quebec and Maritimes and BC

West

o Vancouver, Victoria larger admin centres and terminus of

railroad in Vancouver

o Settlement patterns moving into the prairies/western Canada

from Winnipeg (where the railroads begin travels west)

Don’t see settlements with fewer than 300 people in the maps

Aboriginal populations counted, but 19th century census are

notoriously flawed, language barriers, coverage etc.

o Still useful tools

← Lower Mainland map

New settlements around new west and the Fraser river

o Controlled entry point to Fraser river – defensive point

Granville settlement for terminus to help increase profits from real

estate for railroad

o Restructures Vancouver away from the Fraser river towards

Burrard inlet

← Calgary Map

Modest ranching centre

Railroad would be transformative for economic foundation of

settlement

Ford at Calgary across the Bow River, initial rational for settlement

(Fort Calgary)

Land-police force-railroad

←← What cities were dominant and why?

Montreal and Toronto establish pre-eminence in urban system

o Montreal – key jumping off point in early settlement during

the fur trade, well located for river transport – island where

the st. lawrence and the Ottawa river join together, important

access point into the interior, good location for connecting

with Atlantic economy, water transportation network in the

pre-railroad period. During railroad time, montreal again has a

central position, line to Toronto and to Portland, Maine. Helps

continue to build its position

o Toronto – northern on Lake Ontario, not exposed along the

Niagara frontier (better defense from US invasion), central

trade hub in western Ontario trade, key point of railroad

connection between Montreal and all the lines going west

around the great lakes and towards the west

o Became important hubs where goods came off ships, stored,

moved to trains, investors and industrialists saw advantages

in setting up their centres in these cities

Contributing factors:

o Geographical position, economic foundations

o Trading hubs

o Rise of financial institutions

Capital, organizing credit

o Growth of manufacturing

Clustered around the same urban areas

o Once the preeminence of these situations established, other

areas had a harder time competing

What evidence might express the spatial consequences of this pre-

eminence?

o Look at how more regional newspapers carried the big city

news in their stories, measures how important the cities were

Montreal had a wider readership through the st.

Lawrence lowlands, maritime centres and into Ontario

Toronto much more concentrated in agricultural lands

around Toronto and west of London

←← Cities as social spaces: some lines of contrast and differentiation

Migration and natural increase

o Areas directly around urban centres are losing population

most directly

o May also be migrating south into the US or further west

o Also moving away from smaller market centres

o Small communities north along the st. lawrence and lac st.

jean, light settlement, but a significant change.

Male-female ratios different in urban centers

o Quebec City & Montreal 1891

More women than men – why?

Under the age of 10, more men born than females

High numbers of widows from smaller farming

communities, where she could find work

Resource based economy means men often work

in resource areas, small fraction

Maids and service in the home a primarily female

industry, young women brought into homes to

cook, clean, look after children, many young

women hired out of rural areas into urban

Montréal

By 1901, wealthiest part of the city is English speaking

professionals, while laborers around the Lachine canal

etc are predominantly French speaking

Shift to smokestacks dominating over church spires

Young population

Patterns of sexual division of labour change

Class, profession and craft

Ethno-linguistic boundaries

Race and space

←← Developing social contrasts (Montreal)

The City Above and Below the Hill (Ames, 1896)

o Social survey of Montreal in 1896

The look of the city:

o Above: “Tall and handsome houses, stately churches and well

built schools.”

o Below: “The tenement house replaces the single residence,

and the factory with its smoking chimney is in evidence on

every side.”

Health conditions above and below

o Below, 1/2 the houses lacked running water and used pit-in-

ground privies.

Transmission of communicable disease and the effect

on children

o Below the hill population densities twice the city average.

Way higher that merchant areas

o Below one of the highest infant mortality rates in the Western

World & British Empire

Conditions of milk delivery in Montreal and existing

sanitary conditions, difficulty in getting fresh water,

prevalence of open sewers

← Many divisions with the city socially

←← What were Montreal’s geographic advantages?

← Trades and manufacturing enterprises?

Dramatic variations, shoe making, textiles, dress making, tobacco,

clustering point of manufacturing in Canada during the period, food

processing, heavy industry

← Industrialization and sexual division of labour?

Some jobs identified socially as female/male employment

Huge differential in wage earners, women’s considered secondary

contributions to the economy, so wages lower

Wages followed how employment was defined socially

Women started working in offices (clerical work), some new jobs

with little precedent, so to the identification of the sexual division of

labour over time

← Wage labour transform daily rhythms?

Not working where you lived, had to leave home at a certain time

and start shift at certain, very different from artisinal economy

where employeres housed employees, small shop owners,

distancing between employer and employee

← Linguistic divisions in the cut harden in the latter half of the nineteenth

century?

French canadians become the working class, and anglophones

became owners

Breaking prairie sod: colonization, environment and social change 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To describe and explain Dominion Lands Policy

o What were the rules and regulations of federal government to

organize channeling-in of all the immigrants be sent it, who

benefited and in what way

To consider why settlement in the west occurred relatively slowly

after Confederation

o Many fed politicians felt this was too slow and they looked for

how to speed up the filling in. What were the factors slowing it

down, and look in relation to what was happening in the USA

at the same time

To examine the policies adopted in the 1890s to boost settlement

o Turning tide of settlement. Changing federal policies and

context

←← Establishing a new property regime- radical shift in property regimes

extending further west and in a much grander scale, competitive situation,

with American influcences

← Dominions Land Act, 1872

o Influences

Chose not to use existing policies from the eastern

provinces

Mimicked what USA doing – survey land, and lay in out

in a township and range system

Cut prairies into massive blocks of territory that

could be cut up and assigned to homesteaders

coming in

Very efficient system for prairie environment

quickly

Cdn government competing with USA for immigrants so

needed to look at what USA policies were for transfering

land, so looked to meet and improve upon the American

plan

Competitiv activity deeply influenced by previous

American experience

o Terms

Single Man (+18) or head of household could acquire

land of 160 acres (a quarter section)

Cost: $10.00 filing fee, and aquire access from an

office

No outright cost, very cheap

Not free and done, but terms that needed to be met

Proving up

Build strucutre

Clear land

Plant crop

Stay for 3 years (3 months of the year)

If you could go all this you would get clear title for

the land

Enterprising people found wiggle room

USA needed 5 years, for 3 year term meant to attract

people

Pre-empting Land

After 3 year term, you could acquire an adjacent

quarter section next door assuming it wasn’t

already settled

Could add to it substantially

Could sell land after 3 years on the open market, and

keep doing that over and over again

Some families specialized in property flipping

o Get people on to the land ASPA (government)

o Opportunities and difficulties of getting and settling land

(settlers)

o So comp. with USA, tried to be flexible to policies to attract

groups

An important exception: the hamlet clause

o Group settlements

Mennonite settlers etc. to settle in block units in

Manitoba outside individual property grid

Icelandic settlers on lake Winnipeg

Dukover settlers, weren’t granted same exceptions

o As became more popular, government became less and less

flexible to group exceptions

o No comparable exceptions in the USA

Amended, 1881

o Ranching lease policy (diff from the USA)

In USA, using open range, federal lands, grazing where

they will

Canada: tries to structure this process by assigned

particular leases of land (VAST) to different operations

so they have control of a territory where they can graze

their animals, not moving openly across the prairies

where they will

21 years long

100,000 Acres

$0.01/per acre/per year (for 100,000 acres would be

$1000/year)

not a money making endeavour for federal

government

help establish an emerging industry by giving

essentially free grass

Wanted capital to move from American west to the Canadian west

instead

←← The township survey system

HBC land seeded within settlement land and survey grid filled in

School land allocated within settlement grid

o Sold to incoming settlers who will pay price to be close to

neighbors, facilities etc, and the revenue would pay to build

schools

Railways – land grants

o Very resistant to committing early, didn’t end acquisition until

1907

o 1890s – huge political pressure on CPR to hurry up and

acquire lands, because fear of slowing down settlement

Crown – hold back some to allow for pre-emption, and if that didn’t

happen, they could then allocate it under normal homesteading

Factors

o Environment

Close to water

Ranching v. farming land (hills etc)

No view to topographical differences, availability of local

resources, too much water/flooding

Large areas were just removed from potential

settlement because it was too arid, and felt it would be

a social disaster, tried to protect under ranching leases

o Very dispersed settlement re. social context

Towns usually developed along railway depots

← Proving up a homestead

Very hard work

Access to local materials, very expensive to ship in wood and

windows etc.

o As wealth acquired through farming, could move on to build

more typical farm settlers

Huge range of house types

← Farm, market, spatial hierarchies

Connecting farms to grain elevators to markets

Urban systems emerging on lands the CPR system acquired on a

different urban grid

← Re-establishing cultural communities

Large blocks of land

o B4 railroads, so came up Red River from USA (mennonite)

o Iceland

Established own constitution and elected officials

Originally outside boundaries of Manitoba

Push factors

o Canadian gov’t assisted passage to Mennonites

o Canadian gov’t promised to respect religious beliefs, granted

leave NOT to serve in the military, Tzarist Russia was starting

to pressure this

o Icelanders seeking better economic opportunities

Marginal agriculture and limited fishery and rapid

population growth

← Mennonite cultural landscapes

Village cluster at centre with school and church

Adjacent fields in a rotating system

o Pasture, arable, hay

Houses and barns closely connected

o Easy access to animals and separations of space from

domestic

o Heat retention, saving time

← The ranching frontier

Leases – rolling foothills and protected valleys (key for protection

from winter winds)

Toolkit for operating ranching similar to USA

Social structure different

o Well connected eastern people with ties to conservative

government

o Younger sons of British gentry

Massive leasing of territory in a very short period of time in the

early 1880s

o Essentially blocked homestead settlement in the area

o Access to water hand for settlements beyond

o Disparity between ranching leases and Indian reserves

←← The result: Canada-US comparisons

Canadian census, the “Non-Indian” population

Manitoba and the Northwest

o 1881 118,000

o 1891 251,000

Montana and North Dakota

o 1880 100,000 (or slightly under)

o 1890 334,000

1/10 enumerated in these states (or 32, 085) were Canadian-born.

Relatively slower pace of development in Canada than in the USA

o CPR Monopoly

Monopoly and charged high costs for shipping goods out

and implements in

←← Addressing the slow pace: the 1890s

Changing immigration promotion and policy

o Liberal government, more aggressive immigration policy

o Target peasant households in eastern and central Europe v.

old targets of urban people form the UK

Opening CPR lands

o pressure by federal government to fulfill terms and acquire

their lands that had been set aside

Settling the semi-arid south

o The Northwest Irrigation Act, 1894

←← Changing Contextual Factors

Railroad policies: lower freight

Decrease in cheap available land in US

Expanding communication and transportation infrastructure

Improvements to wheat varieties and rise in wheat prices

←← Assignment Discussion

Do more than describe the photographs, or general history about

the subject proposal

Make sense of the photography

o Analyze its production of a scene,

Who took it, what circumstances of taking it

o person or place

what larger issues does the subject matter raise for

then and now

o You should also seek to explain hose contemporary viewers

might have understood it.

What you see, and what you can’t see in the photo

←← Step 1

Choose image to study

Read and analyses the image carefully (Rose and Schwartz provide

a model)

← Step 2

Look for sources to inform reading and viewing of photograph

Learn about period, place, context and convention

← Step 3

Focus for paper and your argument

Rose & Schwartz for examples and advice

← Step 4

Meet with prof/TA

←←

Thinning hinterlands: patterns and consequences of rural out-migration 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture Objectives:

To analyze the patterns and processes of out-migration from rural

regions in central and eastern Canada in the late 19th C

To consider how and why “Canadians” made new lives in the United

States

To consider the significance of these trends

←← The big picture:

In late 19th C eastern Canada, rural regions were losing settlers

In the second half of the 19th C the OUTFLOW of migrants was

greater than the INFLOW

o Native born Canadians moving to US

o Canada as train station in cross-Atlantic migration en route to

the USA

Over-arching changes in a continental and industrializing economy

shaped the emerging settlement geography of Canada

Migration estimation graphs

o after 1900s – more leaving then coming in, then switched

o more leaving after confederation than coming in

o 1890s depression - less migration in both directions

← Eastern Canada: thinning rural regions

Massive out migration except in cities, significant industrial areas or

new frontier lands

Rate of migration

o Larger into urban areas

o Similar long-term process over decades

←← What factors shaped this emerging map of population geography?

Employment, bounded space for agriculture combined with large

families and maybe soil degradation after 200 years of farming in

Quebec

Environmental factors? Less of an issue with this particular

situation, but will return to this in the future (ie dustbowl in 1930s)

Market factors? Connections more of a concern for farmers on the

north shore of the st. lawrence where there was lower access to

railway economics

Cheap farmland drawing outwards to unsettled areas

←

Ontario:

o less frontier agricultural land

o it had mostly been taken up by then 1860s

one of the motives for expansion into western canada

during confederation discussions

o many moved into Michigan (closer)

Quebec:

o high birth rate

o limited agricultural opportunities

bounded space of st lawrence lowlands

Maritime Provinces:

o declining agricultural economy

it became less viable when products could be purchased

way more cheaply from new lands west of Chicago

(inflows if cheap American wheat)

changes emphasis of crops, but threatens the

traditional family mixed farm

o challenges to traditional coastal craft economy

industrialization in north Atlantic comes with shift

towards steam and iron-hulled boats

wood sailing ships – extensive training and labour, no

longer viable

← Where did people go?

NE USA - +50% foreign born are Canadian

o Significant proportion from Quebec

North USA – many are +15% in border states

Ontario sending more people south and west into new farming in

what is now the mid-west

←← Work in destination regions

New England – textiles

o From Quebec, transferable skills from craft skills in textiles

which many rural industry had

o Companies could hire entire families and villages

o Men, women and children can work in textile mills

Perspective from family economy, wage labour

opportunities in textile mill town were much better

o Company town features as integrated wholes

o Missing: catholic parish

Farmers in Michigan, and west

Maritimes into large homes in Boston – you women servants

←← What was attractive about New England (for Quebecers in particular)?

Transferable skill set for rural peoples with experience in home

clothing production;

Employment opportunities for all members of the family;

Closer to home—easier to return to Quebec than from western

Canada and US Midwest.

←← Emigration at the county scale

← Berthier Gazette (1892): “If our population keeps on abandoning the

land for a few more years, the French Canadian nationality will be

transported to the US.”

← Places of residence in the US

← of migrants from Berthier County, 1875-1905

Rhode Island 40.5%

o Existing connections

Mass 35.3

Michigan 5.8

Connecticut 4.7

New York 4.2

←← Reading questions:

← when did migration cross-border come to be controlled? Why??

What constrained it more at later date/time?

o Late in 1890s to late 1900s more apparent

o Immigrating act 1891, more intense in the 1920s

What American groups wanted to restrict Canadian immigration?

o People along border and unions members were against

migration, thinking they would be taking away jobs, or being

brought in by companies as strike-breakers

o Arbitrary rule so that people from Canada wouldn’t move to

USA until they’d been there for 5 years

o Mostly the significance of organized labour in driving the

debate and comanding attention, filters through a whole other

range of instutions, including congressional politics (esp

around issues of race and cultural dominance)

Why did emigration from Canada cause alarm amongst Canadian

elites? What the problem of emigration discussed differently in

Quebec than elsewhere?

← Change from a fairly open border to that is observed and managed

by the US federal government

o 1891 immigration act (and 1893)

Canadian agreement 1894 – 5 year time limit before

being able to move

Why?

o Changing interpretation of immigration in the US, barriers

being set up

o Fear: immigrants would push down wages

Rivers, Salmon and Resettlement in British Columbia1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To analyze the centrality of one resource to the colonial process and

resettlement after Confederation.

To consider the complex interactions between social change, race

and fishing.

To consider the international dimensions of the salmon fishery.

←← Fraser River

One of 4-5 similar rivers that haven’t been dammed in the world

One of the largest salmon producers in the world (number 1 or 2)

←← The long view

Salmon and indigenous societies of the Northwest Pacific region

Coastal versus riverine fisheries

Technologies and their implications in terms of access

o Wiers

o Hoop

o Net

←← From fur trade to gold rush

Fur trade demands (and their limits)

o Connections made between this part of the world and global

markets and empires

o Limited to the coastal zone (sea otters)

o Connections to the interior were hard, because if was difficult

to travel etc.

Fraser river much harder to navigate, and rivers were

the traditional way for fur traders to transport their

goods

o Made connections with indigenous societies, including the

introduction of communicable diseases

The 1858 gold rush: implications for the fishery??

o Short lived, mainly people coming from California after 1840s

gold rush

o Brought many people in a short amount of time seeking

access to the river

o Created immediate tensions along the Fraser river

Placer mining bad for salmon life cycle

Mercury used in panning for gold

Territory grabs, reserves set up

←← The arrival of a coastal immigrant fishery

← The northward flow of capital

groups funded by US fisheries capital setting up canneries around

the Vancouver area, employing a whole range of people, (immigrant

Chinese, Japanese, Indigenous peoples)

o divisions in the canaries

o complex race, gender and class structure

← The importance of canning technology

important industrial technology that allows for the preservation and

shipping of food over long distances (part of the compression of

space)

← Engaging labour: race, gender and class

←← Confederation and fisheries

The reception of fisheries law from Canada

o How and when people could fish

Received in British Columbia

Revised in many many ways

o Origins and Implications

o The Fisheries Act, 1878

Limits on how indigenous peoples sell fish into wider

markets, should be for their food and their consumption

Limit movement upstream to keep near coast, keep

upstream areas for indigenous fisheries

o Extensions: inventing the food fishery, 1888

Reserve policy

o Fishing reserves (Doug Harris)?

o The parallels between reserve and fisheries policies

Very few treaties signed in BC, diff from the rest of

Canada

Closely linked to the significance of the salmon

resources

Tiny reserves along river locations on in coastal

areas

Fishing stations as particular reserves to protect

indigenous fisheries

←← The international problem: boundaries

Fish migration routes

o Regulatory nightmare – fish move

o Mobile resource, and points of exploitation are in 2 different

nations

Who do the fish belong to?

Flexible borders

o Labour flows

Indigenous peoples would come from the central coast

to work in canaries south of the boarder and north of

the boarder

o Smuggling

o Pirates

Conserving fish in a competitive environment

o Incredibly large fisheries (millions of millions in good years)

←← Hells Gate

← Accidental outcomes of railroad policy

starting in 1911 when crews were moving through the Fraser

canyon, used dynamite to create flat land, and dumped material

into canyon

unintentional dam created in, 1913 year of largest salmon run ever,

and none of them could get past, and they would drift down dead

without reproducing

1914 another landslide happened, and they had to start again

in 1917 (4 years later) run had cut down to only %25, and by the

1930s, only 1/25 size of original runs

decimated the fisheries

o commercial

role in indigenous economy

Cyclonic development? Moiling for gold in the Yukon Territory 1/10/12 9:36 AM

←← Lecture objectives

To analyze the background to the gold rush and the geographical

context of the Klondike region

To examine the social, political and environmental effects of the

gold rush

←←← Moiling for gold

←← Earlier 19th C gold rushes in western North America and the Pacific

The only gold rsh at the time in NA

Rushes elsewhere link by people who would move from one rush to

another

← Mining exploration precedes rush

Male dominated gold rush societies

← Mining populations

Some continuities

Primarily homo-social and segregated compared to other

metropolitan centres

Camp life

Custom and rough justice

No leader, self-governed

o Miner’s Meetings

o Concept moved from California to BC due to the gold rushes

←← Traditional territories before the rush

Vast territory involved, from San Francisco to Alaska

Aboriginal groups had control over certain point of entre and acted

as ‘packers’ helping to move goods

←← Economy and society before the rush

Fur trade and a limited mineral and commercial trade

o Distances, time and lags were large in the pre-gold rush era

Rivers as arteries of communications and transportation

o HBC steamship on the Mackenzie starts in 1880s

Missions

Mining camps

←← Striking gold

Bonanza Creek and Eldorado

o Klondike River renamed Bonanza Creek

o First place were gold found

Narratives of Discovery

o 3 members (in the reading) argument of who discovered it

o involved politics about who could stake a claim to first find

and the nature of the respect that would be generated

Over before it starts

o People coming to the Klondike were going to be disappointed

because of the permafrost, gold was in the form of nuggets

mixed in the soil

Great deal of work to thaw the soil to get to the gold

←←← 1898-99: why then?

After the initial discovery, arrival of others, lots of people taking out

large shipments of gold, generating interest when ship carrying the

shipments arrived in US ports

Late 19th C depression

Gold currency debate in the US

o Should US paper currency be tied to gold?

Gold shipments provided context

Easy attainment of gold promoting the idea of gold for

currency

Spectacular news reporting follows initial gold strikes

←← Getting there

3 routes:

o steamship from Seattle or Victoria up the Yukon River to

Dawson City (Easiest way, took the most time)

o Steamer to Skagway, Alaska and then overland via Chilkoot

Pass or White Pass

Most popular and most efficient, quick access

Difficult taks to get through costal region to the gold

fields

o By land from Edmonton, across Mackenzie, then down Yukon

tributaries to the gold fields

Very difficult route, took over a year of travel

←← The White Pass railway, completed after the rush

Infrastructure that was supposed to help people get to the gold

fields, but it was completed in 1889 after the rush was over

←← A Canadian problem?

Gold rush passed through the US and Canada

The administrative situation

o Boundary dispute between Us and Canada

o Needed administrative council and police to govern the

Klondike area

Inventing the Yukon territory

o Gold Rush led to the establishment of the Yukon territory

Government control needed in the area

Not unlike the formation of BC

Policing the territory

o 1895 a NWMP contingent arrives

tried to establish themselves in point of entry to the

Klondike

monitor movement of goods across the border

substantial establishment in Dawson City (gun control

o Reinforced by Yukon field force of 200 (one third of Canadian

army)

Monitoring the border

←← Who comprised the rush?

Based on records in points of entry and census of 1901

Origins

o Majority of birth place in North European countries, USA and

Canada

o Mounted Police census

Looked at citizenship rather than birthplace

Seemed like more people from the USA than there

actually were

Ie. People from Norway could have migrated to

the US and then moved to the gold rush after

obtaining citizenship

Gender ratios

o 1898-1921 censuses

90-70% Male

very skewed distribution

Occupational profile

o Census only recorded certain kinds of occupations, only broad

categories

o Didn’t include things like prostitution b/c illegal

o Miners 1/3, followed by accountants or clerks

← ‘Cyclonic’ settlements

←← Instant town: Dawson City

Bought area very cheaply, then resold lots of others at high prices

From seasonal Han fishing station to settlement of about 30,000 in

a couple of years

The society behind the mining claims

Population crashes to 10,000 by 1901

After peak claims were dealt out, ppl had little incentive to stay and

moved on to other gold rushes in Alaska

Begins decline

←← Environmental consequences

Animal and mobility

o Beast of burden killed in the Chilkoot pass because they

suffered when carrying goods up the mountains to get to gold

rush area

o Hunted for food

Placer mining in winter conditions

Wood consumption

o Building log cabins

o Heat the fire to burn permafrost for mining

Commodity trades

o Goods brought in, resources used in order to trade for these

commodities

Carved out pathways along the slopes of hillsides

Large piles of earth from excavated land

Activity was occurring even in the winter

o Due to permafrost, excavation in the summer could lead to

mine shaft collapses

←

Immigration: national policies, prejudice and settlement 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To consider how patterns of immigration changed after 1900

To outline the policies and ideas shaping immigration practice in the

early twentieth century

To analyze where and in what manner immigrants settled in Canada

←← Immigration expands

← Immigration to Canada:

← 1901: 49, 000

← 1905: 146, 000

← 1913: 402, 000

←← Total Canadian population:

← 1901: 5, 371, 315

← 1921: 8, 788, 949 (after WW1)

←← From 1900 to 1920, 3 million+ immigrants to Canada

←← Expansion in general, but not for all

← Between 1900-1920:

2/3rds of immigrants from British Isles and the US

Remaining 1/3 varied in terms of origins (Eup. and Asia)

Growth/contraction patterns specific to national or ethnic groups

Laws set up to limit immigration from non “white” countries of

origin

← Chart of changing immigration from different Asian countries

Changing Canadian immigration policies

Changing circumstances in countries of origin

←

← The paradox of immigration policy: expansive AND restrictive

Race-based restrictions:

o Wanted to attract more European immigrants because trying

to produce a Canadian country and population imagined

around a certain racial imagining of what makes an

“appropriate racial” background for Canada

Head taxes on Chinese immigrants:

o 1885: $50; 1901: $100; 1904: $500—more than a year’s

wages.

o 1885 – the railroad was completed, so head taxes introduced

immediately after its completion

o During building of City of Vancouver, Government of BC

included that companies that got infrastructure contracts

could not employ Chinese labourers

o Increases over time, and increases more quickly

Informal agreements: Japan, 1907

o Same year as a sig. race riot in Vancouver targeting Asian

immigrants

o Canada establishes a “gentleman’s agreement” with Japanese

government along with the US

Voluntary restriction on the part of the Japanese

government restricting Japanese emigration to North

America

No changes to acts, all at diplomatic level, but reduced

Japanese immigrants to Western Canada after 1907

Informal restrictions: India

o More difficult b/c India also part of the British Empire, so how

were other British subjects to be excluded

o The ‘continuous voyage’ clause, rev. Immig Act, 1910

Revision made to immigration act which called for the

continuous voyage to Canada from point of origin

Didn’t apply to most steamers from Europe etc, but did

apply to ships coming from South Asia that would need

to stop in Hong Kong or Hawaii

o Komagata Maru incident, 1914

Challenge to Continuous Voyage clause, organized by a

Sikh business man, Japanese ship originating from Hong

Kong

Denied entry in Vancouver on basis of Continuous

Voyage clause, turned around and sent out of the port

of Vancouver

Face of difficult conditions – strong protests on shore

from anti-Asian immigrant protestors

Prejudicial guidelines (1906) give wide scope for restrictions

o Range of categories that didn’t target anyone of a particular

ethnic backgrounds, but those of particular physical

backgrounds (disabled) and people of particular professional

backgrounds

o “Feeble-minded”, “afflicted by a loathsome disease”

“professional beggars” “prostitutes and pimps” “likely to

become a public charge or become dangerous to public

health”

o Boarder guards had significant scope to restrict people on

these grounds without much need for strong proof

o Allows for tightening of the reins of immigration and other

controls at the border

←← Destinations:

← Any patterns from this diagram?

Most immigrants in East went to Urban areas, and in the West went

to Rural areas

Language of origin in addition to country of origin

Actual opportunities for rural settlement in Eastern Canada much

more limited because land had already been taken up, and

incentives of ‘free’ land were all in western provinces

Vast majority of immigrants from Eastern Asia were much more

likely to settle in urban areas across the country (except Japanese in

western Canada)

Other than those from the British Isles, more people seem to be

going to Western Canada

~rarely the rural poor who were coming, but there was some

attempt on the Canadian government’s part to make it more

affordable

← Why is it difficult to map patterns of settlement?

← Were all immigrants settlers?

Not necessarily, many may have been single young men who were

coming to make money with the plan to return home and set up

there

Sojourning

←← 1896-1914 Immigration Map Alberta and BC

Much more American into Alberta than BC or Vancouver

More British Isles in BC than Alberta

Asian to BC more than rest of Canada (24,000 to BC, 10000 to Rest

of Canada)

o Chain migration, like seeing from east but this time from Asia

←← Who influenced immigration policy?

Liberal campaign pamphlet 1904

o Stereotypes: no non-whites and no women, includes only

voters, because at the time only white men could vote

The greatest influence:

o Large employers in transportation, industry and isolated

resource centers

o Needed workers, and didn’t care about race or language, they

just needed people, so they were large drivers of early

immigration policies in Canada

Governments nevertheless contended with (and helped to shape):

o Pressures for ‘Anglo-conformity’ (Howard Palmer)

English Canada, ties closely to notion of British

imperialism, and tried to impose this on Canadian

society

o Anxieties about a shrinking French-Canada

Quebec emigration concerns, loss of importance due to

realitce decline in population of french canadians in

relation to immigration that was not francophone

Most immigrants into quebec settled in Montreal,

created more urban/rural divide

o Racism (expressed through legal, informal and violent means)

← Varied immigration

Cultral, region, shapes human geography

Contradictory government policy, both opening and restrictive in

different areas

National imagination of production of Canadian society plays out for

much of the future

←←← Wood Readings

What extent did Italian immigrants consider themselves Italian?

o Not originally, because they idientified with their region in

what is now “Italy” - Italy was a development of late 19th

nationalism

o Context of settlement – how many, regional backgrounds of

those there etc.

o How were they seen by other groups? Italian by others, but

not by themselves

o Not necessarily a pre-existing Italian identity to draw upon,

Italian identity became stronger IN CANADA

Arrive in Canada or America? What does it matter?

o Didn’t really see the difference between the two, the border

was a less important, families on both sides

o “America” – idea of “over there” didn’t really matter whether

it was Canada or the US in actuality

How did common language groups forge belonging in dispersed

resource settlements

o Depends about how many people there are from the group

o Cultural lodge etc.

o When there were many Italians, they could associate with

those from their region, as opposed to where fewer they

linked by language group as a whole

o Catholic churches holding services in Italian produced a notion

of Italian identity at the same time that regional identities

were maintained

Make-Believe Canada: Parades, celebrations and commemoration 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To consider the affective construction of nationality in early 20th C

Canada

To explore the dynamic tensions of empire, nation and identity

embodied in the Tercentenary of Quebec, 1908

←← National belonging:

← “National-states have long made use of many devices and agencies

to create an emotional bonding with particular histories and geographies…

[through] the marking of time, the figuring of the landscape, and the

ritualization of remembering.”

←← From: Brian Osborne, “Constructing Landscapes of Power”, 1998, p.

432, emphasis added.

←← National belonging:

← Marking Time:

o Narrative

o Chronology

Figuring landscape:

o Encode with symbols

o Landscape the past

Ritualization of memory:

o Memory as experience

o Embodied performance

←← Landscapes of resistance

Did commemorations simply impose landscapes of power?

Or, did they allow for spaces of resistance?

←← Making memory in Canada

From Imperial to National Memory

o The stuff of memory: statuary, materials, memory

o Place identification

National Battlefields Commission, 1908

Historic Sites and Monuments Board, 1919

Fixed meanings?

←← The commemorative moment

Parallels and Precedents

Why parade, commemorate, and involve citizens?

←← Make-Believe Canada

The Tercentenary of Québec, 1908

o Instigators

o Where?

o Why? What was to be remembered? (1608) (1758-59)?

o What should be preserved?

o What should be performed?

o A nation-formation event?

← Agendas

The City

The British Crown

The Catholic Church

French-Canadian Nationalists

The Dominion

←← The glorious days of July 1908

Parading

Pageantry

Observing and Participating

← Criticism

←← Inclusions and exclusions

The explorers, the church, the military

The folk: habitants, men and women

The aboriginal presence

The problem of the conquest: all were winners!

←← Fixing meanings

Paintings, Souvenirs, Medallions and Books

The historic site: landscape of memory

Pleasure grounds: Inventing national parks 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives

To situate the invention of national parks within the broader history

of conservation in Canada

To explore why parks were founded and how they functioned

← Parks as an aspect of conservation?

Conservation: definitions

o Protection with a view to use or consumption at some point

o View to consumption KEY to the idea, not with a view to

preservation, using wisely different elements of the

environment to ensure perpetual use over time

o Not arguing for no use (preservation of landscapes) but

means to set aside lands and institute practises to ensure use

over the long term. Against waste, for thoughtful use.

Late 19th C origins

o American influences

After Yale, UofT started own school of forestry with

foresters from Germany

Early 20th century

Widespread concerns about loss of forests in Canada

and USA

o Timber companies and forestry

Concerns: wastefulness of fires in the forests, that fires

would be allowed to burn wasting fire

Led to legislation to restrict fire near forests and

limit activities that may trigger fires (including

activities of railway companies)

Fire thought to be unusual, not nature and

wasteful and best thing to do was to limit colossal

waste of capital and manage it strictly to ensure

a reliable return from the forest

We now know that fires play a key role in the

lifecycle of forests

Gifford Pinchot, prominent American forester and conservationist,

speaking to a Canadian conservation congress, 1906:

o “We must put every bit of land to its best use, no matter what

they may be—put it to the use that will make it contribute

most to the general welfare…Forestry with us is a business

proposition.”

← Conservation moves government?

o BNA and split jurisdictions, management occurened in a

patchwork fashion across the Canada

o The federal government in the west

Manitoba and NWT that hadn’t yet been formed in

provinces

Retain control over land and resources in prairies at the

time

Exerted influence over conservation matters

Control land base, managed settlement,

promoting irrigation, manage timberlands of

eastern rockies, wildlife control policies

Not ecological in design and scope, but did draw from

conservation docterine to sustain for exploitation in

perpetuity

o Provincial legislation (e.g., BC Forestry Act, 1912)

Ontario – late 19th century

BC – late joiner to these issues in 1912

Initiated by Lt. Governor from Quebec who lived

on large forest estate in Quebec and had a private

interest in forestry conservation

In broad intent conservationist, drew from

expertise elsewhere (usa) and inspiration from st.

lawurence

Very light management style, More formal system

for distributing timber rights, no great burden on

industry

o Conservation moves government through officials,

legistlation, but does not inforce a particularly high stansard

as we would call when it comes to environmental wtandards

o The Commission of Conservation (1909-1921)

Set up by fed govet in 1909 inspired by usa

conservation movement

Attended major convention in usa in year before the

commission was created and agreed that both countries

should implement intisutions that would address

conservation isues across different parts of

governement

Commission established at federal lelevel staffed by

scientit and those with extensive sresource experience

Very little power and no formal status like other federal

bodies, more ofan advisory body of experts that would

study certain issues and publish reports on them

Range of reports gernerated, but it is unclear what

actually happened with those reports and the geds has

limited ability to enforce some of the reporsta in areas

that they did not have jurisdiction

Limited practical impact, and shut down by feds in 1921

because seen to be redundant with nothing original or

important to add

Time of rapid resource extraction after WW1

WW1 shifts discussion around resources and

conservation in Canada, during war when

resource demands where high, conservation

swept away in the face of the demands of war

Became an issue of less interst in society and

government

Established National Research Council during the

war, which in a way displaced it as an expert

scientific body in government

Est. to develop tech during war

← Diplomacy of conservation

o The usa was pressing Canada to come to an agreement on

shared resource issues

o Boundary Waters Treaty, 1909

Many rivers that start in Canada that move into the

USA, USA saw it important enough that they wanted a

treaty to limit what Canadians could do to these shared

waters

Developed as uses around waters grew up

USA very diff approach with Mexico, where it was the

upstream country, and was able to be much more

forceful, upstream nation had the right to do what it

wanted

o The Migratory Birds Treaty, 1916

Almost no public group interested in the issue BEFORE

passage, done by bird conservationists in the USA

History of hunting songbirds etc. for food, fashion etc.

USA – limit interstate trade on bird feathers (for fashion)

very important piece of conservation activistim

2nd

migratory birds usually cut north and south into

Canada and central America

lobby congress to initiate an international treaty

process for an internation treaty on Canada, USA,

Mexico, which would also force the USA to restrict

hunting, bc it was hard to organize states

elevated issue to federal level through an

international treaty

Canada happy to participate, and without consultation,

many traditional uses of birds were then made illegal,

esp for first nations and maritime

Important conservation milestone and the distance

between federal government action in the threaty

process and the diff constituents would would be

impacted by these treaties

o The Pacific Halibut Commission, 1923

Model for later fisheries treaties (esp. salmon)

Easy to focus upon because there were specific waters,

fishers from both countries used the resource and both

countries agreed to implement scientific study of halibut

before recommending means of conservation and

management

Scientific study then legislation

The demise of Conservation?

o Commission axed in 1921 (as per above post WW1)

o After 1920s, conservation weekend in public discussion and

political attention

o 1930s – other priorities (great depression) that were more

immediately concerning

o

←← Park origins

International influences

o European parks

Origin to protect game to be hunted by the aristocracy

Urban space attached to social authority, closely

goverened and controlled

Over time, gradually opened up to other uses

o American wilderness parks

(Yosemite, Yellowstone)

landscape became celebrated at the same time that the

conservation docterin was also emerging

wilderness space that needed to be protected, context

of moment of concern of over exploitation and loss of

resources

defining features of early American parks

The immediate Canadian context

o Railroad development

Rockies hard to build through, very expensive etc.

What to do with land base in such an area – how to

make money like you would in the praries

o The problem with mountains

o Hot Springs!

Park could be attached with a health spa in the

mountains

o Watersheds

←← What were parks for?

What activities could continue?

What activities could not?

Idea that the wilderness was a place to experience, but not a place

to live, so indigenous peoples were removed from Banff

o Nakota groups transected rockies in seasonal movements and

hunting practives

o Asked to not continue, disposed of land

Timber birth at Castle Mountain and Silver City

o Ceded to blackfoot, reserve on Bow river

←

← The original parks legislation (1885) states that land is “hereby

reserved and set apart as a public park and pleasure ground for the benefit,

advantage, and enjoyment of the people.”

← Pleasure Grounds

o Access

Cars means more people can access, restrictions on

cars within the park – carriage or train and changes

after 1911 when redesigned for use by cars

Road planning, view scapes ets

Used to be very genteel people who visited

o Use

o Implications

Dispossessions

o What activities could continue?

o What activities could not?

← Mining, lumbering and power generation

←←← Discussion questions

What does BUILDING a park mean?

o Build an experience, less to enjoy nature for nature’s sake,

but for ACCESS to nature that needs to be controlled and

managed in various ways (hotels, beavers

o Social constructions, fenced off what is “nature”, picking and

choosing what should be in the park

How did the development of parks correspond with the historical

geography of settlement?

Business builds up around park, after established, much like

along the railroads

Redefining Canadian territory and citizenship: the North 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To examine the ways in which southern Canadians produced a

geographical imagination of “The North” during the 1920s.

To consider how prominent researchers sought to map the region

and interrogate its human geographies.

←← Beginning with Harold Innis (1894-1952)

Soldier in WW1, injured, discharged, wrote thesis on psych impact

of trench warfare at McMaster

Grad school of University of Chicago

o Here at end of war, shocked and alienated by the celebration

o Found it to be distasteful

o Study economic history, chose a Canadian topic for research

Study of economic history of CPR

New and relevant topic of the time

Study of the CPR

o Perhaps had began the study of Canadian economic history

from the middle of the story,

o CPR and construction like outcome of earlier, deeper

processes

o Decided to study the background of Canadian unity as the

future of his career

1920s

o began to study the background of Canadian unity, took

position of UofT in dept of political economy

o interesting choice due to personal history, now wanted to

understand Canada on its own terms

clear departure from previous interest in wider imperial issues,

perhaps backlash against European experience, part of a wider

agenda of asserting Canada on its own terms as a worthy subject

←← The Fur Trade in Canada, 1930 (book)

←

Thought river patterns, and thus their influence on the fur trade,

provided some fundamental economic background for Canadian

development

o Need to know about routes, conduct, interactions,

understanding of space and travel of the fur trade

o Agenda to study cross-Canada and examine historical basis in

archives and contemporary manifestations in the Canadian

north.

o How it operated over distance and social characteristics

o Boundaries of Canada and original political space not an

accident, but rather product of the fur trade. Very significant

statement

A Canadian northern vision and a territorial nationalism

The Fur Trade in Canada: context and significance

Foundations of Canadian social science

o Think through the development to think through territorial

development, key figure in the restructuring of various fields

and how people view Canadian space especially in the north

←← ‘The North’

Where was “the North” as such?

o North of 60? Lower density population? Northern prairies

provinces? Boundaries keep changing during early 20th

century.

o Maps form 1915 atlas of canada

West: showed Yukon territory, mineral deposites

How maps are set out are very important

o Range of visual cues from cultural corridors

Group of 7 paintings, distinctive style of landscape

painting, un-peopled landscapes from around Northern

Ontario, imaginly constructed area for new generation

of intellectual who were looking for something in the

north that would define an essentially Canadian

something

Resource terms: range of economic interests for the

resource development, esp re mineral development and

pulp and paper development

New Ontario (north) from old Ontario, almost a

colonial development, to exploit resources for

betterment of province and the country

Idea of north as the immediate environment through

which to think about the issues of Canadian

development

Idea of wilderness, of unfolding frontier, cutting edge of

‘civilization’

What ideas informed this imagined geography?

o Imagined frontiers of civilization v. wilderness

o Shaped Canadian ideas of the north, like a rolling frontier that

needed to be mapped and understood in esthetic terms,

captured and exploited in resources terms, traveled to and

understood from Innis’s perspective to inform a wider debate

about expansion into the north.

←← New Ontario, frontier discourses and the idea of wilderness

“We are on the fringe of the great North and its living whiteness, its

loneliness and replenishment, its resignations and release, its call

and answer, its cleansing rhythms. It seems that the top of the

continent is a source of spiritual flow that will ever shed clarity into

the growing race of America.”

(Lawren S. Harris, 1926)

new Canadian esthetic, critical race theory etc.

←← The heroic arctic: Vilhjalmur Stefansson (1879-1962)

Heroic tales of arctic exploration, mysterious arctic region, visited

by few, given much media and literature coverage re exploration

and imagination

Key shaper of discourses and stories about arctic exploration

Launched range of independent expeditions before ww1

Flamboyant character, gave lectures, generated lots of backing to

his expeditions, explain promise of arctic to southern Canadians

One lecture: promise of the arctic after end of WW1

o Massy hall Toronto

o Why was it packed to overflowing? What was going on at the

end of WW1 that generated SO MUCH interest in northern

Canada?

Shift towards interest of Canada in and of itself

← A literary and cinematic North

Jack London: the call of the wild

o Impact on generation of readers, influenced conceptualization

of north, influenced Innis when he was in hospital in England

during the war

Nanook of the North

o Staged tale of Inuit life, key in developing ethnographic

understanding and cultural representation of Inuit in southern

popular culture

Informing contexts for people like Innis when they were doing

research

← Innis on the Peace River, 1924

Voyage north in 1924

Research problems: space, economy and polity

←← Research investigations/inscriptions

← Where, when and how did Innis conduct his northern research?

o Structured research in very systematic manner

o Corresepondence with HBC fur traders and police who told

him how to organize trip, where to go, where to buy things

etc.

o Shaped by established authorities, unlike anthropologist going

to enmesh in local life and society

Planning

Fieldnotes: Presences, Absences

o Always thinking through was he was seeing, observations,

thoughts

o When compare fieldnotes to later works – some direct

connections

o Deeply informative trips for his conceptualization and

understanding of the fur trade

o Footnotes: marked by presences and absences

Presences

Who he talked to, what he saw and chose to

record as noteworthy

Most informants were the same people in position

of authority who he had corresponded with in

advance

Trader authorities, police, missionaries

Almost all white men, a very few white women

outside the field notes, didn’t record women’s

views, only men’s perspectives of economic

activity

A few métis, but never the view of first nations,

sometimes described them from a distance, but

definite sense of a strong social boundary that he

did not cross

Perspective of first nations did not impact his

scholarly understandings of the fur trade

Book has still be celebrated for re-imagining

Canadian economic development with first

nations as central

Means he saw some things and not others, concerned

with certain social factors in the development of the fur

trade and not others.

←← Innis Represents North

← after trips, formulated field notes into more digested thoughts with

aim to inform about Canadian north and fur trade, spoke to

audiences about a wide range of issues of Canadian northern

development

A “Metropolitan Seeing Man”? (Pratt)

o Term for figures like Innis who construct their own authority

based on their ability to inform groups about foreign/far away

lands

Public meetings/ popular publications

o Looking for new sources of income, looking for lectures that

would pay for speakers, visit a whole range of groups

o Would write up short papers on these talks about the

Canadian north with canoe photograph, published in very

accessible manner

Didn’t actually spend very much time in his canoe, though that was

part of the image he projected and developed as the metropolitan

seeing man

Recurring themes:

o North as frontier

Speculator audiences, interested in resources

development and investment, commercial pull

Invoked military metaphors

o North as site of national self-realization

Broader implications for Canadian nationhood

Where the real Canada lay, to understand country, to

understand the north, myth of the Canadian north

o North as site of preserved past

Contradiction to the north as frontier

Shown by going north to understand the 17th century fur

trade, lack of consolidated industrial frontier charming

and romantic

Heroic figure of individual miner or trapper, masculine

men

o North as anti-modern enclave

Preserved past, resistance to modernity and modern life

Romantic due to distance and rejection and inability to

grasp modern life

o Range spoke to how audiences were beginning to understand

north and important part in Canadian identity

Assumed past, national yearning etc.

Contradictions?

← William Morrison Discussion: Quiet Years the Canadian North 1900-

1940

Gov’t presence more real: extension of police force in post Klondike

era, distance, limited access, difficulty asserting authority. Eg. of

whalers on Hershel Island. Surveys and mapping, to understand

cartographic nature. Development of basic institutions like the post

office, lines of connection to the outside world. Range of ways, but

generally quite limited.

Demographic shift in the Yukon. International mineral prices.

Sovereignty: rule of law, post offices, mapping, claims of terriotory

on the international level, if they were unmapped, then fictional

idea that the Canadian government of authority. Many activities

used to defend idea of Canadian authority.

Transportation: shipping can’t go on year round due to ice. Very

expensive, energy intensive, costs limited when minning could go

on. Not much could be shipped out. High value of goods at low bulk

levels (high end furs v. wood). International mineral values again

important. How settlements could be connected with the outside

world. Economic terms. Communication terms.

Bush pilots – radical change. Small planes that can access remote

settlements. Radical change in terms of access. Shocking

transformation, collapsing of distances. More routine and rapid

communication.

The floor drops out: the geography of economic crisis1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To answer three related questions:

o How did the international economic crisis in the 1930s affect

Canada?

o What were the national and regional effects?

o What measures were introduced at the federal level to

confront these problems?

← Canada and the international economic crisis: dimensions and effects

← Currency instabilities affect international trade

Stock Market collapse: effects on confidence, investment and re-

investment

Overproduction of primary resource commodities

International responses: protectionism

o US Hawley-Smoot tariff, 1930

← Capacity and production

←← Problems of an open export economy

Dependence on exports

The narrow range of export products

o Small shifts in a single sector would have large, far reach

repercussions across the manufacturing sector in Canada,

where when plants closed, nothing was going to replace them

The centrality of the US market

o Canadian market bound up with the USA, so enough links that

when something happened in the USA, it affected Canada,

basic problem of economic recovery for Canada.

The weak bonds of empire and commonwealth

o Hope that post WW1 or the commonwealth would provide a

useful institutional frame to cut through protectionism, an

increasingly central problem in international trade with trade

protectionism, and that didn’t happen until at least the 1930s

o DIdn’t even/actually materialize in any way that was helpful to

the Canadian economy during the production

←

← Facing Unemployment

National and regional patterns

o National: 1 in 4 unemployed across the country, higher/lower

in regions

Occupational groups

o All potentially affected, especially unskilled labourers and

constructions workers

o Workers whose jobs tied up in the expansion of the economy

in the 1920s, hit first and hardest

Self-employed farmers and the cost-price squeeze

o Self-employed: depended on capacity to sell goods that they

produced

o Farmers – payments still needed to be made to keep farming,

and they didn’t really go down, but the price for wheat (their

earnings) were going way down. Followed by a series of

drought years

Unemployment and the crisis of capitalism

o Larger fault line developing, thought it would force the way

businesses and governments operated economically to

establish a more fair society

In 1932, 1 in 4 Canadians was unemployed

o Limited consumer spending to help with economic recovery

← Regional employment numbers – graphs

Similar shapes across the Canada, but differences in the rates of

unemployment

Prairies have a slower recovery out of the 1930s, increase in

demand through late 30s helps the manufacturing areas (Ont, Qc)

and demand for wood products (BC) rebuild, but not as much for the

prairies

o Price of wheat doesn’t climb radically during WWII like it did in

WWI

←← The limits of state response: constraints

What should the federal government have done, has since been

harshly criticized for lack of programs to help the unemployed etc.

o Federal government spending DECLINED during the

depression, did not act to balance private sector decline,

rather worried about debt in wider international crisis

o Liberals and Conservatives both believed the proper role for

the state in economic activity was relatively limited and that

the government could do very little to reorient broader

economic affairs

The prevailing wisdom

o It was only after the depression and during the depression

that Keynesian economic became fully developed, but these

theories and economic models didn’t exist at the time in the

depressions.

o Futuristic thought not embraced nor encountered by Canadian

government

o Keynesian economic policy ASSUMED that governments had

some way to impact the economy, not till lated in Canada

The Constitution

o BNA divided federal responsibilities in certain ways that

dictated how the government could act, and many of the

areas of rising costs were under provincial responsibilities,

including employment relief

o Very difficult to intervene under the framework of the BNA,

didn’t have the capacity to act or spend in areas without

overstepping provincial jurisdiction, couldn’t act without

agreement of provinces

A weak state

o Limited application of personal income taxes, undeveloped

system

o Conditions required for strong federal response undeveloped

in the Canadian context

o No central bank for federal monetary policy independent from

federal government intervention – more to come next class

←← The range and limits of federal activity – what the government did

Spending programs:

o Bennett conservative government in mid 1930s, felt unlikely

government could do much

Background context of USA New Deal, announced mirror

programs in run-up to 1935 election

o Relief and work camps

Not really to drive economic recovery, rather a holding

pattern for men who would otherwise be homeless,

living under bridges etc.

o Responses to the drought: the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Act,

1935

In the context of the dramatic response in the USA with

dam development and water project and family

relocations

Canadian institution set up to respond for 5 years,

staffed from agri experiment stations,

Tried to advise farmers on practices that could limit

effects of drought conditions

Contour ploughing

Water development projects

Diggng out holes to provide stock watering holes

to help keep cattle alive

Dam development projects to set up irrigation projects

and peopling these projects with farmers whose land

had been blown out in dust bowl conditions

Relocated from land that was unusable to new

irrigated land

Land left behind was fenced and attempts made

to re-grass the areas to turn them into community

pastures for farmers in the region

Reshuffling of homesteading model in favours of

new practices and terms of state support

Intervened into provincial jurisdiction, but provinces

(Alt, Sask, Mtb) accepted willingly because they were so

desperate for support

Doesn’t mean there were no jurisdictional

conflicts

Provinces only created in 1905 and only got right

to govern natural resources in 1930

o Towards an unemployment program?

Not introduced until 1941 when the Canadian

employment levels were back to healthy levels, missed

problems of depressions (perhaps the only time it could

have been implemented)

Beginning of Canadian welfare state

Trade and Manufacturing policy

o Protectionism and export promotion

o Trade Agreements

Monetary policy

o Creating a Central Bank (1934)

o Limited role in addressing international trade protectionism

←← Provincial responses to the depression

Provinces tried to respond in sometimes flamboyant measures

including both the more innovative and sometime least productive

BC

o Pettulo tried to do a new deal style program (claimed credit

for US idea), through road building etc.

Douglas’ Social Credit and Aberhart’s Social Credit

o Economic crisis not overcome until consumers had purchasing

powers, could be addressed by government distributing

purchasing power

Distribute certificates that could stand in for money and

could be used to kickstart purchasing

Also included lots of anti-Semitic diatribe

Major Albertan take away: intervening in economy and

distributing income

o Aberhart

Principle with weekend radio show, talked about social

credit on his show with huge following, key in

disseminating the idea

Lead to new political party contested provincial

elections based on Douglas’ ideas

o When Social Credit tried to implement, wanted to make

money, totally outside provincial jurisdiction, but issue not

raised during election

Address debt, but rolling it back, also outside

jurisdiction

When tried to do so, simply disallowed by the federal

government

Press coverage was very critical and unflattering, and

Aberhart tried to intervene in press and limit what they

could say about his government

o not all parts of social credit idea ridiculous (like increasing

spending) but provincial level didn’t have ability to implement

Experimental reform measures: credit, debt, and press regulation

o All provinces trying desperately to do something within the

constraints of spending power and jurisdiction to do so

Constitutional barriers to provincial activism

How unusual was the Alberta case?

On to… somewhere: How to eke out an existence in the Great Depression1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To consider the response of municipal governments

o Much of the relief systems as it was established from

confederation centred at the local, municipal level

o What were the limits of municipal response re. this HUGE new

pressure? How did ordinary people try to negotiate the

municipal role?

To analyze the strategies used by individuals, families and groups to

cope with unemployment

← Canada was an increasingly urban country at the time

Relative increase from 1911 to 1931 (shows shift) and 1941 (shows

urbanization continues over depression and the role of

municipalities in managing and responding to the depressions

o 1931: Ontario 63.1, BC 62.3, Quebec 59

← The social experience of unemployment

Unemployment, stigma and changing meanings

o Social notions of meaning of unemployment were under real

pressure given sharp increase in unemployment

New high levels that didn’t follow traditional (seasonal)

patterns

From seasonal to structural unemployment

The fading of Victorian sensibilities

o Fading of idea that the unemployed were either deserving

(disabled) or undeserving (lazy etc)

o Harsh ideas up for redefinition due to shift in circumstances

undermining opportunity for employement even for those who

were very willing to work

o New Term: no fault of their own

Idea of unemployment insurance in 1941 a response to depression

AND anticipatory policy with a view to the return of soliders after

the war, whenever the war would end, to avoid the same problems

that occurred after the first world war

← JS Woodsworth on unemployment (address to Parliament, 1931)

“Do not lose sight of the men and women who are suffering. A few

weeks ago, I stood in my own city of Winnipeg watching a long line

of men register so that they might obtain food…This was not a long

line of manufacturers approaching the finance minister for favours,

but a queue of men four deep stretching for half a block around the

corner to the next lane… They were not ‘bums,’ they were not

tramps down and out; most of them were self-respecting men

anxious only for work.”

Methodist minister, social gospeller

o Religious movement that believed in helping others, arose in

many locations dominated by protestant churches, invokes a

collective response to the new emergin problems of industrial

society v. the indidual pulling themselves up by their

bootstraps

Becomes key figure in development of CCF

Strong anti-immigrant views

←← Finding help: the contours of relief

Direct relief less than work projects at the beginning, shift to more

direct relief, amount of federal input increasese over time

No overall system articulation or how municipalities would set upper

and lower limits etc.

Diff terms in differ cities to prove

o Montreal: 3 years consecutive residence, if away for some

time, prove 6 years in past 10 years, employable, declare

underoat that you were destitute, that family was unable to

help and verify that all info was true. THEN, an investigator

was sent to your home to see if you had nanything that oculd

be sold, report from previous employer, and if improved, then

given ration cheques for food, clothing fuel and rent paid

directly by city to landlord. Casual work not more than

$3.00/week. Fairly high bar.

o These rules would vary between cities.

← The occupational profile of relief camps: regional comparisons

Who was seeking relief?

Most labourers – few jobs, many people, in all regions. Professionals

least affected across the board

←← Relief and the local burden

Limited ability to raise funds – property taxes, which often can’t be

paid when there is high unemployment. Costs are going through the

roof at the same time that their tax base is limited, or even

shrinking.

Many cities bankrupted, being propped up by provinces to maintain

basic function

Crisis of government and intergovernmental relations

← Beyond relief: Finding help in the city

Different ways that prefernce might be shown in helping/dealing

with people and relief etc. Only skeletal framework of social

assitance in 1930s, so range of other agencies attached to religious

and ethnic communities were placed in a position of central

importance

Eg. Toronto 1930s

o Neighborhood Worker’s Association

Protestants

o Catholic Welfare Bureau

Catholic

o Jewish Family Welfare Bureau

Jews

o Home Service Organization

Blacks

o Poppy Fund

Indigent veterans

o Samaritan Club

TB patients in distress

o City’s divisions of Social welfare

Chronically indigents

o House of Industry

Refuge of last resort

←← Diet for a poor family: Toronto House of Industry Grocery Bag contents,

1930 – what families got when they were destitute.

← 2 versions:

1) For families of five or under

2) For families of five or more

←← Food stuffs in a 2) order: Oatmeal, Onion, Rice, Flour, Turnips, Cocoa,

Cornstarch, Butter, Cream of Wheat, Dripping, Sugar, Cheese, Syrup, Bean,

Potatoes, Carrots, and small amounts of tea, salt and baking powder +4 lbs

of meat delivered to homes

Limited veggies, few fruits, high carbs low protein

←← (See Struthers, Limits of Affluence, p 81)

Grocery Bag calories

o Caloric value of 2) groceries?

o Based on estimates conducted by nutritionists at the

University of Toronto in 1931: 7389 calories/day.

←

Adult male required 3300 calories/day

Would not meet needs of a family, essentially a starvation diet. Only

a portion of what an average family might need to survive

←

← The ‘On to Ottawa’ Trek, 1935

A mobile protest against the relief system

o Felt that work they were doing was essentially useless,

without purpose, make work to keep young men busy and not

homeless in the cities

o Men got organized and descended on Vancouver from relief

camps in BC, organized by communist organizations, looking

to link them with worker’s movements.

o Sit on street banging cups, long snake processions, mass

gatherings in Stanley park, colourful organization

Local community responses

o Vancouver mayor – rising for potential communist revolution,

cause for serious concern, city already had organized worker’s

movements and hobo jungles.

State response

← Significance?

←← Getting by: Migration

Drought limited ability of farmers to raise crops.

Big #s leaving sask, abt and man to BC and Ontario

Suggest some return migrations to family hearth regions, after

earlier migrations west.

← Getting by: Social Strategies

Subsistence living

o Shift back to subsistence farming for survival, à la early

settler style

Non-cash forms of economic exchange

o Collective institutions to get by – own produce, but share

livestock etc. on schedule. Close to a barter

Informal labour markets

o Response of shifting out of the market cash economy to keep

food and goods moving through the local community

← Discussion of content of letters and difficulty of using them as historical

evidence

Very personal despite a lack of personal relationships

o Thinking of the state in very personal tersm

Not just working class, wide range of locations

All very polite, very sorry

Canada and the Second World War: Mobilization1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture notes:

← To consider how the Canadian state sought to mobilize natural

resources for war.

To analyze how the changing technologies of war, and the problems

of continental defense, resituated Canadian peripheries as strategic

locations.

←← Controlling resources:

From depression to war: reconstructing the state

Gathering materials: Munitions and Supply, CD Howe

Regulation (Wartime Prices and Trade Board) and Controls

An unprecedented centralization of authority

←← Coordination: a continental program

The Ogdensburg Agreement (1940):

o The Permanent Joint Board of Defense

The Hyde Park Declaration (1941):

o Core principle: “…each country will provide the other with the

defense articles which it is best able to produce and above all,

produce quickly, and that production programmes should be

coordinated to this end.”

The shifting bias of the north Atlantic triangle

←← Making aluminum in eastern Quebec

The significance of aluminum for modern warfare

The Aluminum commodity chain

←← Mobilizing rivers

Electricity system interconnection

Conservation

Dam development (Shipshaw, 1943)

Defense: U-boats and Air attack

←← Hydro/Gender/Conservation

←← Militarizing the north

The Canadian north as a strategic periphery

The Alaska Highway/ Canol pipeline

o Purpose, construction, consequences

←← Surveying the new Northwest

The ‘Arctic Survey’ and American interests

Towards the cold war: a militarized north

←← Concluding thoughts

The Canadian state: centralized and continentalized?

Canadian regions: war as a catalyst of geographical change

Canada and the Second World War:Domestic Dislocations 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

To explore three complex domestic issues during the war:

o The conscription debate

o The enrollment of women into new areas of the workforce

o The treatment of Japanese-Canadians as enemy aliens

← Conscription (again)

How to face the military demands for fighting forces?

National Resources Mobilization Act (1940)

The legacies of the First World War

The Liberal government of Mackenzie-King

Conscription and Quebec politics

←← The conscription plebiscite

Towards conscription or a holding pattern?

←← Conscription: the plebiscite’s outcome

The risks of conscription

The risks of no conscription

← Towards conscription (1944)

Packaging the policy politically

Differences with the WWI experience

←← Women in the workforce: Two steps forward and one step back?

R. Pierson: They’re Still Women After All (1986):

o Wartime did not erase gender-based barriers to female

employment

o Wartime gains were short-lived

Initial adoption of a system of voluntary women’s work: draws on

domestic labour skills

← Women in the workforce

Engaging women in war work:

o Re-training

o Re-framing gender categories

o Overcoming practical constraints: daycare

But did it last?

←← Enemy Aliens

State responds to perception of subversive activities

Regional variations

o Targeting religious groups (PQ)

o Fascist organizations (Ont)

British Columbia: Wartime tensions and racial anxieties converge

Ken Adachi: The Enemy that Never Was

←← Why were Japanese-Canadians removed?

Pat Roy: federal response to unstable local situation?

US example?

A security threat?

←← The process of removal (1942)

Moving and containing “enemy aliens”

Dispersal and the liquidation of property

Reconstructions 1/10/12 9:36 AM

← Lecture objectives:

←← To consider some of the legacies of the warfare state in Canada

← To analyze the scope and limits of Canadian nationhood in the late

1940s

← To account for the inclusion of Newfoundland as a Canadian province

in 1949

←← Legacies of the warfare state

← Expanding the civil service

← Civil service (1939-45): 46 000 > 116 000

← Financing war

← Tax rental agreements; corporate tax; bonds

← Managing the economy

← Warfare and welfare

← Unemployment Insurance, 1941

←← Signs of an emerging nationhood?

← Disengaging Empire/ Institutionalizing Nationhood

← Citizenship Act, 1947

← The Supreme Court, 1949

← A Canadian Governor General, 1952

← Warfare state to welfare state

← Family Allowance (1944)

← Veterans Charter (1945)

Expanding university system

o Example: UBC

← Old Age Security (1951)

← In the late 1940s regional tensions did not unsettle national parties or

policies.

Significant that there WAS no fracturing of the federal parties like

seen after the first world war and the diecisions made, conscription

etc, economic instability, regional fracturing etc.

This did NOT occur after WWII

←← And yet…

← Consider Donald Creighton’s description of Canada after the war:

← “An unidentified, nondescript, almost anonymous country, [Canada]

had ostentatiously started off on a new career, with no very definite purpose

in mind and not much idea of where it was going.” (The Forked Road, p.

131)

weak in the context of the emerging continental power to the south

(USA)

←← Continental Integration Again: Military

Much closer military relationship with the USA

Negotiantion for mutual defense agreement in the context of

potential British defeat, and perhaps draw USA closer into the fold

of an allied cause (Ogdensburg Agreement 1940)

o NO timeframe for agreement, permanent

o Canadian foreign policy would need to be negotiated in

context with the USA (including position/membership in NATO)

← A continental ‘arsenal for democracy?’

← The Permanent Joint Board of Defense

comes out of Ogdensburg Agreement

← NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization, 1949

← NORAD: North American Air Defence Command, 1957

air defence

danger of exposure to air attack from the USSR

quick response air force reactions became basic aspects of national

and continental defence policy

now tracks Santa

USA didn’t want a weakly defended Canadian airspace as potential

weak spot in cold war

← Continental radar defence systems, 1950 to 1957:

← Distant Early Warning System (DEW line): 63 radar stations

to monitor airspace, to wait for invasion from USSR to warn

southern airforces

high arctic, now challenges in decommissioning costs and toxic

materials

← Pinetree network

← Mid-Canada line

← practical monitoring of Canadian airspace tied up in the continental

relationship with the USA

←← Economic Integration

← Hyde Park agreement 1941 – coordinate wartime production

← Free trade, opened and closed (1948)

Killed b4 entered into a wider discussion, hopes of better

management and belief not totally needed

Concern re what happened after 1911 free trade election and

concequences of removing aspects of Canadian sovereignty in the

trade sphere and economic policy

← Deepening trade linkages

Canada’s imports from the US reached about 70% of total imports

during WWII: this level would be maintained in the post-war period.

Canada’s exports to the US, however, increased in volume and

value.

←← Expanding trade linkages

←← 1946 US: 38% UK: 26%

← 1951 US: 59% UK: 16%

← percentage of export trade goes down re. UK, and US goes up

SIGNIFICANTLY.

HUGE shift towards relationship with the USA in favour of the UK

after the war

o Britain becomes less important to Canada’s economic

prospects

←← The post-war resource boom

Notable export growth in minerals:

o Uranium (one hundred fold increase, 1948-1959)

o Aluminium, copper, lead, zinc and iron ore: Surpass WWII

peaks by 1950, production doubles by 1955, increases again

by half, by 1960.

Interesting in face of wartime concerns that there would

be MASSIVE over supply of aluminium after wartime

demand disappeared, and Alcan included clauses in

their contract to be compensated for their

overproduction

Never had to use this clause, because demand went up

and up and up, particularly in the face of expanding

military production in the USA during the cold war

o Range of demands driving minieral/resource productions

Batteries, weapons, looking to incorporate new metals

into products now that they were more readily available

thanks to wartime infrastructure and production

expansion.

←← US direct investment

US State Department Estimates (1957):

o 1950: $ 3.58 billion

o 1957: $ 8.33

o Flow of US investment capital INTO Canada

Investment fields in 1957?

o Manufacturing $ 3.51 billion

o Oil $ 2.15

o Mining and Smelting $ 1

Canadian govt estimates (1960)

o US accounts for 75% of all foreign investment. UK, by

contrast, accounts for 15%.

o Issue of American investment was becoming more

controversial (threat to sovereignty v. source of employment

etc)

Political v. economic consequences.

Estimates began to be produced to asses this, levels of

US investment really quite high

←

← A different kind of continental integration: Newfoundland joins Canada,

1949

←← The legacies of the depression

Bankruptcy

o Depression hit nfld particularly hard

o Severe difficulties in meeting financial challenges

Independent dominion standing within commonwealth

Amassed considerable debts during WW1 troubled to

payoff

o National policies

Railroad construction across island, very expensive

Commission government, 1935

o Concern that nfld declared bankruptcy, it would create a

credit crisis across the commonwealth

o Canadian banks bailed out nfld government, but insisted they

would oversee all major financil decisions of the government

(the banks)

o Didn’t look like there was any solution to solve problem

o Commission established by commonwealth, and the elected

nfld government was put on ice,

Appointed commission by the UK government put in

place

Not HUGE reaction from nfld, accepted as reasonable

outcome given dire situation

o Pre war, no voting, because no elections

o WAR TIME

Huge changes going on, in context of north atlantic

alliance and convoys etc, nfld became VERY

strategically important

Military investment (lend-lease program)

Wartime participation as soldiers

← The legacies of war

Increased prosperity

o Surplus, government imagine new role in prospect of

economic management, post-war future

o Prosperity built on rather unusual circumstances in history

where geographic location key, could not be depended upon

in the future.

Closer Can-Nfld ties

o Important in post-war period in sorting out nfld’s future in

circumstances with a weakend UK government unable to

support/maintain its commonwealth obligations/commitments

abroad

Closer Nfld-US ties

←← Facing the future after 1945

← Within Newfoundland, three options for the future had support:

1) Continued commission government.

o Status quo

It worked fairly well at stabalizing economiy etc.

o Let British rule continue

2) Responsible government

o Nfld regains political independence as a dominion within the

commonwealth

o End to commission, free and fair elections etc.

o Reversion to pre-1935 reality

3) Confederation with Canada

o some popular support, but very controversial, unclear

consequences

← British support, Canada considers its options

Liked Canadian federation

o Release uK from financial commitments and potentially

difficult political considerations of overseeing a country with

no elected representatives

Canada tentative

o What would be the costs of expanding all new welfare policies

to nfld etc? employment insurance in context of seasonal

fishing communities?

←← The promise of Canada?

What were the arguments in favour of joining?

o Means to modernize society, inequalities between city and

outport communities

Federal investment and the infrastructure of a welfare state.

Joey Smallwood promises welfare measures and material prosperity:

family allowances unemployment insurance, social safety net.

← In 1948 referendum, support as follows:

← Commission govt: 14.3%

← Responsible govt: 44.6%

← Confederation: 41.1%

←← After run-off vote

← Confederation: 52.4%

←← Way more popular in smaller, outport community

← Catholic church in favour of responsible government, protestants pro-

confederation

←← Joined March 31, 1949

← Big dog and little beaver

←←