Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Introduction Australia has one of the most idyllic climates and conditions for bushfires. History validates this claim, with many deadly bushfires occurring previously in the past. Black Saturday was Australia’s worst bushfires in its history, claiming 173 lives and over 2000 homes. Many more people were injured. Bushfires also have long term effects, not only on the environment, but also on the mental health of bushfire survivors. However, innovative measures and regulations are being put into action to help prevent bushfires as well as help preserve human life in the event of one that has reached a catastrophic level. The pattern of occurrence of bushfires in Australia Spatial Distribution There are many different variables that impact the intensity and duration of bushfires. The time of year tends to dictate in what areas of Australia are bushfires more likely to occur. As seen in Figure 1.1, different locations are under threat at different times and seasons of the year. The Northern part of Australia has their fire season during winter and spring because they have their wet season during summer. North Australia witness torrential rainstorms and high humidity levels. The wet landscape combined with the high amounts of moisture in the air mean that it is hard for a bushfire to sustain itself in those conditions. Australia’s fire seasons are inversely related. This means that when it is fire season in the south of Australia, there is less likely hood of a bushfire occurring on the other end of Australia. The reason for the south part of Australia to have their fire seasons in summer and autumn is due to the high temperatures and dry climate during that time of year. After a cool winter and spring, vegetation flourishes, adding more potential fuel for a bushfire. That means that in summer, the dry conditions mixed with the heavy fuel load make ideal conditions for bushfires to spark; this is especially the case with dry winters, where there is still vegetation but little moisture within them. Figure 1.2 shows the different levels of fire intensity across Australia. The ‘red zones’ indicate extreme levels of fire intensity. The locations that fall within these ‘red zones’ are usually areas that experience hot and dry summer, yet cold and wet winter. During the winter, flora increases in density, increasing the total fuel available in the case of a fire during the summer. The ‘red zones’ not only have the ideal conditions for a bushfire, but are also usually densely populated areas or communities.

Figure 1.3

Temporal Distribution Figure 1.3 shows 10 of Australia’s major bushfires. Australia’s history is tarnished by bushfires that have ravaged the country since English settlement. You can also see that half of the major bushfires occur in Victoria. This is mainly attributed to the atmospheric phenomenon known as ‘El Nino’. Although El Nino affects the whole world, its impact is more notable in the pacific, mainly Australia and Indonesia. During an El Nino event, East Australia experiences less than normal rainfall. Figure 1.4 illustrates the differences between a neutral period and an El Nino period. It was during an extended ‘Super El Nino’ period in 1983 that influenced the catastrophic impact of the Ash Wednesday fires in Victoria and South Australia. Due to the decrease in rainfall, areas of East Australia become more volatile to ignition, further increasing the threat of a major bushfire. There is no doubt that a correlation between an El Nino event and bushfires exists. Figure 1.5 further emphasises this point, showing the average reoccurrence of bushfires in certain areas.

The magnitude and intensity of bushfires only increase during this atmospheric period. Along the coast of Victoria a very high return average is evident, with fires nearly occurring every five years. It is evident that this high bushfire return average is due to the atmospheric phenomena known only as ‘El Nino’.

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.4

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.3

Natural and human causes of bushfires Natural There are not many natural processes that directly ignite bushfires. The most common cause of bushfires is from lightning; a factor that is completely out of the control of man. 26% of bushfires occur due to lightning strikes (Figure 2.1). These strikes have the potential to cause bushfires. The fires are not necessarily ignited as soon as the lightning hits and it may take a few days for it to ignite. This because the roots of trees and fallen logs can smoulder for long amounts of time and all it takes is one ember to spark a bushfire. Indirect natural causes of bushfire present nearly as much as a threat as natural ignition sources. Vegetation type plays a crucial role in the volatility of areas to bushfires. As a rule of thumb, plants that lost a lot of moisture during extended periods of hot weather are most combustible than those that retain their moisture. Figure 2.2 illustrates why Eucalyptus trees are the idyllic fuel source for bushfires. The native vegetation of Australia also has a leading role in increasing the sustainability of bushfires. Eucalyptus trees tend to be very dry and hold flammable oil. These aspects make them the ideal fuel for bushfires, especially given that the taller the tree the older it is. Fuel age is also a determining factor in the risk that a fire can cause. As the fuel age increases, so does the potential for a high duration and intensity bushfire. The most intense fires are usually located in semi-arid regions. This is because the climate

can reach high temperatures, drying vegetation, while still maintaining biodiverse flora and fauna. On average the global temperature has increased by nearly 1 degree Celsius since 1860, Figure 2.3. Though it may not seem like much, even the slightest increase in temperature can have catastrophic impacts on the land and risk of wildfires. Wind direction and speed is also a factor when determining the level of risk a wildfire has. For example, if the wind has been blowing south

Figure 3.1

Figure 2.4

during the first days of a bushfire, there is a very long fire front. The wind however, can suddenly blow west or eastwards, bringing a long fire front across a wide area; leaving firefighters to battle the blaze in catastrophic conditions. Figure 2.4 depicts a synoptic chart of weather conditions during the Ash Wednesday fires. Notice the incoming westerly winds and the current northerly winds. Human There are many different human induced causes of bushfires. Arson alone accounts to 25% of the fires caused in Australia. Arson is the act of deliberately lighting a fire. Due to the high number of arson related fires, fines for arson are high and rewards are given to those who help find the arsons that cause fires that have or had the potential to threaten lives. It is not only arsons that cause human influenced fires. There is a plethora of other ways in which fires can be ignited. These other ways, however, are all usually unintentional or accidents. Sparks from power tools have the potential to ignite fires as well as fallen down power lines from car crashes. Ironically controlled burns, a method used to prevent bushfires, can also be the cause of a wildfire if it suddenly gets out of control. Social, Economic, Political and Physical Impacts of Bushfires Social The effect of bushfires on the populace can be immense and devastating. Some of the more clear influences are death toll, damage and costs. The loss of life is a major social impact that bushfires have the potential to cause. Bushfires can not only take away your home, but also your friends and family. The death of those close to you not only has the immediate effect of losing their life but can also have long-term

repercussions, with the possibility of losing the source of income for the family and long-lasting emotional trauma.

Those injured by bushfires also suffer social problems, possibly losing the ability to continue working to provide income for themselves or their family, or even losing functionality in their basic motor skills. The injuries they sustain can impede also their future prospects if the person injured is still young or developing their career. In the Black Saturday bushfires, 414 people were injured and 173 killed. Figure 3.1 shows the location of all the causalities associated with the Black Saturday bushfires.

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.2

As well as directly affecting people, a bushfire can also indirectly affect citizens with long

term psychological issues, including post-traumatic stress and depression. The long term effects of such psychological damage are that of panic attacks when close to fire in some severe cases. Depression can stem from the results of bushfires, especially if some have lost loved ones, their home, income and maybe even business.

Economic The immediate economic impact that bushfires have is the damage costs affiliated with the fire. This figure rises rapidly the more deadly the bushfire becomes, especially in residential areas where homes are at risk. Along with damage costs is also the cost of emergency workers and organisations. In the event of a national disaster, resources have to be transported by air, further increasing the total cost of Bushfires. These resources can vary from extra firefighters to water-bombers and fire trucks. For the Black Saturday fires, total net costs were estimated to be around $942 million. This not only includes the costs of damage but also the costs of rebuilding infrastructure to limit the economic, social and environmental costs. Figure 3.2 shows just a small portion of the total damage done along with the costs. Political Political issues are also prevalent within the impacts of Bushfires. The general population expect the government to very quickly respond to bushfires and try to contain the blaze before it gets out of control. However, the government may need to give a response in the case of public outcry, as was the case of the 2011 Margaret River bushfire. This particular bushfire was caused by a prescribed burning that became uncontrollable. A Political response was given by Colin Barnett due to the backlash by the community. Though not likely in Australia, political unrest may occur if the government fails to respond adequately to the threat. This is a probable reason as to why large bushfires that are not contained are quickly deemed national disasters. The Margaret River fires also raised the question whether or not to do prescribed burning. Though no lives were lost during the fire, large areas of land were affected by the blaze. This severely affected tourism in the area, a main source of income for the local community. Figure 3.3 shows the land affected (Red Zone) by the blaze. The ‘green zones’ show areas that were left relatively unscathed.

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.4 Physical/Environmental Fire also has adverse impacts on the environment. As depicted in figure 3.4 (next page), large bushfires produce large amounts of smoke. This smoke can affect the life of avian creatures as well as plants. Fire also devastates land-scapes; entire forests being set ablaze, leaving lifeless husks behind. With the torching of forests, biodiversity is also threatened.

Many animals and wildlife die due to bushfires and those that survive, migrate to other areas, possibly unbalancing the local food chain, causing one species to either flourish, or another to become endangered due to an increase in their natural predators. The carbon dioxide that is stored in trees is also released in the event of a bushfire. As trees burn, the carbon dioxide that they store is released into the atmosphere. This adds to the total amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. With the increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it could potentially block incoming solar radiation. This could, in some ways, effect earth’s energy budget, seen in figure 3.5.

Mitigation and Prevention of Bushfires What is being done Prescribed burns are often done in areas where bushfire risk is high. By burning off the vegetation, the risk is reduced two-fold. This is because along with burning the fuel that a bushfire would use, they also create a firebreak. Controlled burns also have the effect of creating biodiversity, as some plants thrive in burned areas along with the animals that take shelter in such plants. Figure 4.1 shows how to negate the risk of fire destroying your home and the safety measures that you should put in place to ensure that your property is at least risk of a fire. This image was taken out of the Sunday Times and was authorised by the Australian Government and FESA. However controlled burning, as aforementioned, can also be the cause of bushfires. There is also debate about whether the carbon dioxide released in controlled burn offs is a serious threat. To authorise a controlled burn also requires lots of paperwork that needs to go through many different government institutions before being accepted. The conditions also have to be just right so that in the case that it does get out of control, firefighters can quickly regain control of the blaze. What can be done Provide more awareness to the threat of bushfires in certain areas where the potential for a bushfire is high. The government could show advertisements on TV or before YouTube clips on what do to in the event of a bushfire or the government response. More studies into bushfires and the factors that cause it can also be done, so that more mitigation plans can be devised so that those at risk of wildfires can remain relatively safe. This research, however, can take quite a while and it may be a long time before we see any new developments in the prevention of bushfires.

Figure 4.1

References

Atkinson, A. (2009). Planet Earth: Hazards and Resources 2A/2B 2nd Edition. Nelson, Melbourne.

Causes of Bushfires | Bush Fire Front. 2015. Causes of Bushfires | Bush Fire Front. [ONLINE] Available

at: http://bushfirefront.com.au/bushfire-problems/basics/causes-of-bushfires. [Accessed 25 March

2015].

Controlled burn. 2015. Controlled burn. [ONLINE] Available

at:http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/c/controlled_burn.htm. [Accessed 25 March 2015].

Dolan, C. (1989) Hazard Geography. Longman Cheshire, Melbourne

Earth’s Energy Budget « EDRO. 2015. Earth’s Energy Budget « EDRO. [ONLINE] Available at:

https://edro.wordpress.com/energy/earths-energy-budget/. [Accessed 01 April 2015]

Estimating the net cost of the 2009 Victorian Black Saturday Fires to the affected regions | BFCRC

Legacy. 2015. Estimating the net cost of the 2009 Victorian Black Saturday Fires to the affected

regions | BFCRC Legacy. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.bushfirecrc.com/news/news-

item/estimating-net-cost-2009-victorian-black-saturday-fires-affected-regions. [Accessed 01 April

2015].

File:Feb 7 09 vic bushfires map.PNG - Wikimedia Commons. 2015. File:Feb 7 09 vic bushfires

map.PNG - Wikimedia Commons. [ONLINE] Available at:

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Feb_7_09_vic_bushfires_map.PNG. [Accessed 01 April

2015].

Gallery: Black Saturday bushfires: the aftermath - Australian Geographic. 2015. Gallery: Black

Saturday bushfires: the aftermath - Australian Geographic. [ONLINE] Available

at:http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2011/02/gallery-black-

saturday-bushfires-the-aftermath/. [Accessed 25 March 2015].

How Global Warming Affects Humans | globalwarmingmakesworldhot. 2015. How Global Warming

Affects Humans | globalwarmingmakesworldhot. [ONLINE] Available at:

https://globalwarmingmakesworldhot.wordpress.com/2012/04/16/how-global-warming-affects-

humans/. [Accessed 01 April 2015].

Impacts | Bush Fire Front. 2015. Impacts | Bush Fire Front. [ONLINE] Available at:

http://bushfirefront.com.au/impacts-of-bushfires. [Accessed 30 March 2015].

In the line of fire: one year after the Australian bushfires | Will Storr | Australia news | The

Guardian. 2015. In the line of fire: one year after the Australian bushfires | Will Storr | Australia

news | The Guardian. [ONLINE] Available at:

http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jan/17/australia-bushfires-marysville-will-storr.

[Accessed 01 April 2015].

Live coverage: WA's bushfire emergency. 2015. Live coverage: WA's bushfire emergency. [ONLINE]

Available at: http://www.watoday.com.au/wa-news/live-coverage-was-bushfire-emergency-

20111123-1nvog.html. [Accessed 01 April 2015].

Parts of Australia facing worst bushfire threat in 40 years; residents told to evacuate - Australia - The

Straits Times. 2015. Parts of Australia facing worst bushfire threat in 40 years; residents told to

evacuate - Australia - The Straits Times. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.straitstimes.com/the-big-

story/asia-report/australia/story/parts-australia-facing-worst-bushfire-threat-40-years-resi.

[Accessed 25 March 2015].

PowerPoint presentation: Fire Introduction. Mr Phil Houweling, available at

http://jccconline.frsa.asn.au/course/view.php?id=62 [Accessed 25 March/03/2015]

The worst bushfires in Australia's history - Australian Geographic. 2015. The worst bushfires in

Australia's history - Australian Geographic. [ONLINE] Available at:

http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/science-environment/2011/11/the-worst-

bushfires-in-australias-history/. [Accessed 23 March 2015].

What Causes Bushfires? - Geoscience Australia. 2015. What Causes Bushfires? - Geoscience

Australia. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-

topics/hazards/bushfire/basics/causes. [Accessed 25 March 2015].

What is El Nino and why does it matter? › Ask an Expert (ABC Science). 2015. What is El Nino and

why does it matter? › Ask an Expert (ABC Science). [ONLINE] Available at:

http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2014/07/07/4032725.htm. [Accessed 01 April 2015].

Where do Bushfires occur? - Geoscience Australia. 2015. Where do Bushfires occur? - Geoscience

Australia. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.ga.gov.au/scientific-

topics/hazards/bushfire/basics/where. [Accessed 24 March 2015].