u2 - compendium review oxygen/microbes/immunity part 3

8/14/2019 U2 - Compendium Review Oxygen/Microbes/Immunity Part 3

1/22

Compendium ReviewCompendium Review

Major Topic One: Oxygen, Microbes, ImmunityMajor Topic One: Oxygen, Microbes, Immunity

Table of Contents

Part 1

The Cardiovascular System and Blood Vessels

The Heart

Cardiovascular Pathways and Features

Cardiovascular Disorders

Part 2

Blood, Red Blood Cells, Oxygen Transportation, and RBC Disorders

White Blood Cell Types and Disorders

Platelets, Their Functions, and Disorders

Blood Types and Transfusions

Part 3

Lymphatic System

Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)

Immunity and its Defenses

Immunization and Antibodies

Immune System Complications and Disorders


2/22

Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and

Humans (Oh My!) Immunity and its Defenses Immunization andAntibodies Immune SystemComplications and Disorders

Picture from http://www.womentowomen.com/detoxification/default.aspx


3/22

Lymphatic SystemThe lymphatic system has 4 functions which play a part in homeostasis: lymphatic vessels,organs, lymphocytes, and defense. The red bone marrow, located in the center of certainbones, creates all blood cells. Located in the thoracic cavity is the thymus gland whichproduces thymic hormones and aids in maturation of T-cells. The largest organ of thelymphatic system is known as the spleen and its job is to filter blood of pathogens and waste.A collection of lymphatic tissue (no capsule) is known as a lymphatic nodule, such as thetonsils. They perform the same duties as the lymph nodes and are usually the first to comeacross a pathogen. Any pathogens which enter through the intestinal tract are encounteredby Peyers Patches, a cluster of lymph tissue.

Lymphatic vessels transport excess

lymph (fluid) from tissues tocardiovascular system. The fluid isfiltered in lymph nodes bylymphocytes and macrophages. Theyhelp fight infections.

Lymphatic organs: Consist of primary

(thymus gland and red bone marrow)and secondary (spleen and lymphnodes). WBCs and lymphocytes (B-cells and T-cells) are made in redbone marrow, but T-cells have anadditional screening process in thethymus gland before maturation.

Picture from http://www.siteman.wustl.edu/xmlfiles/Media_big/CDR0000533339.jpg


4/22

Part 3 Lymphatic SystemMicrobes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)

Immunity and its Defenses Immunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders

Picture from http://neuroscience.ucdavis.edu/healthandsafety/OccupationalHealthandSafety.html


5/22

Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)Microbes, short for microorganisms, are a class or organisms that are too small to see

with the naked eye; they must be viewed by a microscope. Microbes include thefollowing organisms: bacteria's, fungi, archaea (prokaryotic, single-celled organisms),and protists (eukaryotes not classified in plant, fungi, or animal kingdoms). Microbes

are found all over the world. They are on the Earths surface, airs and waters; on and inhumans, animals, and plants. Pathogens are infectious agents, such as bacteria or

viruses, which cause disease and illness.Bacteria

Prokaryotes

Three shapes: Bacillus (rod), Coccus(spherical), and Spirillum (curved).

Some have sticky capsule which allowsthem to bind to things; makesphagocytosis difficult.

Some have stiff hair-like fibers calledfimbriae which allow them to bind andhold to surfaces such as a host cell.

A larger hair-like structure on thesurface of bacteria, known as a pilus,acts like a bridge and transfersplasmids.

Many have plasmids, DNA rings, whichcarry antibiotic resistant genes. Picture from http://www.arabslab.com/

vb/showthread.php?t=577


6/22


Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria &http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Proteobact

eria & http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella

Salmonella is a rod-shaped bacteria

C. Jejuni is a

spiral-shapedbacteria
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/SalmonellaNIAID.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/ARS_Campylobacter_jejuni.jpghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Bacterial_morphology_diagram.svg


7/22


Virus is Latin for poison or toxin. Viruses are not composed of cells and do notreproduce or grow outside of a host cell. However, they do contain genes and canreproduce once they are in a cellular life form. A virus is an infectious agent which

causes disease and illness and cannot be treated by antibiotics. Some diseases causedby viruses are the common cold and flu, polio, chicken pox, measles, cold sores, genitalwarts and herpes, rabies, Ebola, SARS, certain influenzas like bird flu, Hepatitis B and C,

and AIDS. Viruses can be spread by a vector, such as an animal (mosquito). Anotherinfectious agent known as Prions (proteinaceous infectious particle) cause Creutzfeldt-

Jakob disease in humans and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (mad cow disease) incattle. The disease effects the brain and nervous tissue of individuals.

Ebola Virus

Pictures and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola &http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Viruses_and_disease

The range of sizes shown by

viruses, relative to those of otherorganisms and biomolecules.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9c/Ebola_virus.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Relative_scale.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9c/Ebola_virus.jpg


8/22

A virus attaches to the host cell andenters endocytosis. The capsid protein

dissociates and the viral RNA is

transported to the nucleus. In the nucleus,the viral polymerase complexes transcribe

and replicate the RNA. Viral mRNAsmigrate to cytoplasm where they are

translated into protein. Then the newlysynthesized virions bud from infected cell.

Microbes, Pathogens, andHumans (Oh My!)Description fromScheme of Influenza A virus replication

(NCBI): "A virion attaches to the host cell membrane via

HA and enters the cytoplasm by receptor-mediated

endocytosis (Step 1), thereby forming an endosome. A

cellular trypsin-like enzyme cleaves HA into products HA1

and HA2 (not shown). HA2 promotes fusion of the virusenvelope and the endosome membranes. A minor virus

envelope protein M2 acts as a ion channel thereby making

the inside of the virion more acidic. As a result, the major

envelope protein M1 dissociates from the nucleocapsid and

vRNPs are translocated into the nucleus (Step 2) via

interaction between NP and cellular transport machinery. In

the nucleus, the viral polymerase complexes transcribe(Step 3a) and replicate (Step 3b) the vRNAs. Newly

synthesized mRNAs migrate to cytoplasm (Step 4) where

they are translated. Posttranslational processing of HA, NA,

and M2 includes transportation via Golgi apparatus to the

cell membrane (Step 5b). NP, M1, NS1 (nonstructural

regulatory protein - not shown) and NEP (nuclear export

protein, a minor virion component - not shown) move to thenucleus (Step 5a) where bind freshly synthesized copies of

vRNAs. The newly formed nucleocapsids migrate into the

cytoplasm in a NEP-dependent process and eventually

interact via M1 with a region of the cell membrane where

HA, NA and M2 have been inserted (Step 6). Then the

newly synthesized virions bud from infected cell (Step 7).

NA destroys the sialic acid moiety of cellular receptors,thereby releasing the progeny virions."Pictures and verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebola &

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus#Viruses_and_disease
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Virus_Replication.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Virus_Replication.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Virus_Replication.svghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Virus_Replication.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Virus_Replication.svg


9/22

Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!) Immunity and its Defenses Immunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders

Picture & verbiage from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_%28medical%29

Specific, or adaptive immunity is often sub-divided into two major types depending on how theimmunity was introduced. Natural immunity occurs through contact with a disease causing agent,when the contact was not deliberate, whereas artificial immunity develops only through deliberateactions. Both natural and artificial immunity can be further subdivided, depending on the amount of

time the protection lasts. Passive immunity is short lived, and usually lasts only a few months,whereas protection via active immunity lasts much longer, and is sometimes life-long. The diagram

below summarizes these divisions of immunity... The innate system is present from birth andprotects an individual from pathogens regardless of experiences, whereas adaptive immunity

arises only after an infection or immunization and hence is "acquired" during life.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Immunity.png


10/22


Immunity is the defense that a body takes to fight disease, infection, and unwanted pathogeninvasion. The immune system does this two ways: the body builds barriers and produces aninflammatory response.

Barriers

2. Skin and mucousmembranes are a barrier

3. Chemical secretions onthe skin, along with salivaand tears containantibacterial enzymes

4. Microbes which presentlylive in the body aid inpathogen occupancy

Inflammatory Response

Histamine (chemical) released which promotes capillarydilation

Skin turns red and hot due to increase in blood flow.WBCs also come to area due to blood flow increase

Blood clotting takes place

Neutrophils and monocytes phagocytize pathogens

Pus is created if neutrophils die in large numbers. If theyare overwhelmed they will secrete a chemical calledcytokines which attract more phagocytic cells, such asmacrophages (large phagocytic cell) and WBCs, to thedamaged area.

Skin

Capillary

Tissue

Picture from Human Biology bySylvia S. Mader page 129


11/22

Immunity and its DefensesPart of the Immune system, known as the compliment system, aids in fighting pathogens byway of compliment proteins (blood plasma proteins). Some proteins aid in the inflammatoryresponse by attaching to mast cells and activate chemical release. Other complimentproteins attract phagocytic cells to certain areas. Some proteins stick to the surface of

pathogens to ensure phagocytosing will take place, while others form a membrane attackcomplex by making holes in the surface of the pathogen, allowing salts and fluids to enterwhich ultimately burst it. Once a cell is infected by a virus, it sends interferons, or proteinsignals, to noninfected cells to warn them of the foreign agent.

The classical pathway of activation of the complement

system is a group of blood proteins that mediate the specificantibody response. The alternative pathway of thecomplement system is a humoral component of the immunesystem's natural defense against infections which canoperate without antibody participation. The alternativepathway is one of three complement pathways thatopsonizes and kills pathogens. The alternative pathway doesnot require a specific antibody to commence.

Complement proteins circulate in the blood in an inactiveform. When the first protein in the complement series isactivated typically by antibody that has locked onto anantigenit sets in motion a domino effect. Each componenttakes its turn in a precise chain of steps known as thecomplement cascade. The end product is a cylinder insertedintoand puncturing a hole inthe cells wall. With fluidsand molecules flowing in and out, the cell swells and bursts.

Picture & verbiage fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=19

2341349 &http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alternative_complement_pathway&oldid=1
http://www.answers.com/main/Record2?a=NR&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcommons.wikimedia.org%2Fwiki%2FImage%3AComplement%2520pathway.png


12/22


If barriers, inflammatory response, or thecomplementary system do not prevent infection,

then the body has specific defenses which itutilizes. Protein or polysaccharide substancesknown as antigens alert the system to createantibodies. B-cells and T-cells pick up on the

alerts and bind their receptors to the antigens,go through clonal expansion, and produce

antibodies to the antigen. B-cells are stimulatedto clone by T-cells cytokines. Some cloned B-cells become memory cells (ready to make

specific antibody in future) and others becomeplasma cells (make specific antibody). When the

infection clears, the plasma cells undergoapoptosis (cell death). This whole process is

known as antibody-mediated immunity.

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 131


13/22


Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page134-135

T-cells pick up on the alerts from antigen-presenting cells (APC).Without APCs, a T-cell cannot recognize an antigen. The APC willphagocytize the pathogen and then move to a place where T-cells gather, such as the spleen or lymph nodes. The APC breaksthe pathogen apart and moves a piece to a major

histocompatibility complex (MHC) protein in the plasmamembrane (the protein in humans is called human leukocyteantigens). The T-cells receptor bind with the antigen whichactivates clonal expansion, and produce either cytotoxic T-cellsor helper T-cells depending on what HLA protein the antigen ispresented in (HLAI or HLAII).

The helper T-cells releasecytokines (chemical) whichincreases all immune cellsefforts. The remaining memoryT-cells stay in the body as aback-up to the immune systemincase that antigen everybecomes present again.

The cytotoxic T-cells bind to the

infected cells, release periforinand granzymes, and cause theinfected cells to undergoapoptosis. Periforin moleculesmake holes in the infected cellsmembrane while granzymesenter the holes and cause thecells to die. This whole process

is known as cell-mediatedimmunity.


14/22

Immunity and its Defenses: Antibody Structures

There are 5 groups of AntibodiesPicture from HumanBiology by Sylvia S.Mader Page 132

The structure of an antibody is Y-shaped made out of polypeptidechains. Some antibodies cover

antigens by means ofneutralization, causing an immune

complex by the bundling ofantigens.


15/22

Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)Nonspecific and Specific DefensesImmunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders

This child is receiving aPolio vaccination

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunization
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Poliodrops.jpg


16/22


Active immunity is when antibodies areproduced by the body. A person can

naturally develop antibodies if theyhave been immunized. Immunization isthe process of injecting, by means ofvaccination, antigen substances toinduce immune system responses.Once vaccinated, ones plasma can be

observed for antibodies. This is knownas the antibody titer.

Passive immunity is when the body isgiven antibodies because the individualdoes not make them. For example,

babies receive certain antibodies whenthey cross the placenta or throughbreast feeding. Gamma globulininjections are given to people to helpboost their immune systems. Gammaglobulin is a substance which contains

antibodies to particular infectiousdiseases.

Picture from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 137


17/22


The plasma cells which are cloned from B-cellssecrete monoclonal antibodies, or antibodies whichare of the same type as the antibodies from the

cloned cell. Monoclonal antibodies are used beingused for certain cancers, by binding to infected cellsantigens and promoting an immunological response.Monoclonal antibody therapy (MAb) is also being usedto deliver radioisotopes to certain tumors.

This picture shows how a plasma cell fused with a cancer cellproduces hybridoma cells which manufacture the monoclonal

antibodies

Macrophages haveidentified a cancer

cell (the large,spiky mass). Upon

fusing with thecancer cell, the

macrophages(smaller whitecells) will inject

toxins that kill thetumor cell.

Immunotherapy forthe treatment of

cancer is an active

area of medicalresearch.

Pictures from Human Biology by Sylvia S. Mader Page 137 &http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system#Disorders_of_human_imunity

P 3
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg


18/22

Part 3 Lymphatic System Microbes, Pathogens, and Humans (Oh My!)Nonspecific and Specific Defenses Immunization and Antibodies Immune System Complications and Disorders

[this is a] picture of a human cell amplified bya powerful microscope; the cell on the left is whata normal healthy cell should look like covered inglycoforms and complement proteins. The cell on

the right has altered glycoforms and missing

complement proteins due to specific glycoproteindeficiencies. (Lupus)

Pictures fromhttp://www.diseaseeducation.com/diseases/Lupus.php


19/22


Disorders of the immune system fall into three categories:immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.

Immunodeficiencies

When part(s) of the immune systemis inactive it is known asimmunodeficiency. One may lack theability of the phagocyte function, thecomplement activity, or cytokine

production. Immunodeficiencies canbe brought on by poor health andlack of nutrients, or it can beinherited (Chronic granulomatousdisease) or acquired (AIDS).

Autoimmunity

Autoimmunity is when the immunesystem attacks part(s) of the body, suchas cells and tissues, because it fails torecognize between self and non-self.Some autoimmune diseases are multiplesclerosis, myasthenia gravis, systemic

lupus erythematosus, and rheumatoidarthritis.

Hypersensitivities

Hypersensitivities is a bad reaction from anormal immune systems to a substance such as

allergies. Coming in contact with a foreignsubstance, known as a allergen, can evoke an

immediate allergic response. Some people

undergo an instantaneous reaction to allergensknown as anaphylactic shock, where their blood

pressure drops and they have difficultybreathing. Some people experience delayed

allergic responses due to the regulation ofcytokines.

Pollen is a largecause of allergies

Picture fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay_fever
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Misc_pollen.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Misc_pollen.jpg


20/22


Some organs can be implanted fromone human to another; however there

can be complications. Due to tissuerejection, because the immune systemdoes not recognize the new organs asself, transplantees have to takeimmunosuppressive drugs.Immunosuppressive drugs are used to

suppress the immune system toprevent rejection of transplantedorgans. In addition to human organtransplants, genetically engineeredanimal organs are being used in hopesof less rejection. The use of animal

organs is known asxenotransplantation. Also, with theadvances in technology, tissueregeneration is helping to make organsthat will be rejection free because theyare grown from the patients own stem

cells.

A series of steps thatmay be undertaken to

generatehistocompatible lungs

and kidneys for patientswith diseases of these

organs. ES = embryonicstem.

Picture & Verbiage from http://www.mayoclinicproceedings.com/inside.asp?AID=866&UID=


21/22

This diagram shows theprocess of making atransgenic animal forxenotransplantation

purposes.

Picture from

http://cseserv.engr.scu.edu/StudentAccounts/ENGR019Winter2002/MSaeed/ResearchPape

r.htm

Works CitedWorks Cited


22/22

Works CitedWorks Cited

"Alternative complement pathway." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 3 Mar 2008, 17:49 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 5 Mar2008

.

"Bacteria." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Mar 2008, 16:19 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .

"Campylobacter." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 02:31 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008

.

"Classical complement pathway." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 18 Feb 2008, 17:34 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 5 Mar 2008

.

Disease Education.Alternative to Traditional Lupus Treatment. Accessed 6 Mar 2008.

.

"Ebola." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 18:42 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .

"Hay fever." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 2 Mar 2008, 03:23 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .

"Immunity (medical)." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 6 Mar 2008, 02:38 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .

"Immunization." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 17:29 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008

.

Mader, Sylvia S. Human Biology. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, 2008. Pages 121-141.

Marilia Cascalho, Jeffrey L. Platt. New Technologies for Organ Replacement and Augmentation. MAYO CLIN PROC. 2005;80:370-378.Accessed 6 Mar 2008.

.

"Salmonella." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 5 Mar 2008, 17:36 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 6 Mar 2008 .

Woman to Woman. Detoxification: The Lymph System and your Health. 11 Jan 2008. Accessed 5 Mar 2008

.

Xenotransplantation: Is it Ethical? Accessed 6 Mar 2008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alternative_complement_pathway&oldid=195592598http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacteria&oldid=196307437http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campylobacter&oldid=195951225http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ebola&oldid=196089513http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunity_%28medical%29&oldid=196197729http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunity_%28medical%29&oldid=196197729http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunity_%28medical%29&oldid=196197729http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunization&oldid=196810111http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salmonella&oldid=196075037http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Salmonella&oldid=196075037http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunization&oldid=196810111http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunity_%28medical%29&oldid=196197729http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunity_%28medical%29&oldid=196197729http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Immunity_%28medical%29&oldid=196197729http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hay_fever&oldid=196924870http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ebola&oldid=196089513http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_complement_pathway&oldid=192341349http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campylobacter&oldid=195951225http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacteria&oldid=196307437http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alternative_complement_pathway&oldid=195592598

u2 - compendium review oxygen/microbes/immunity part 3

Documents