Is there such a thing as a typical tropical storm?Tropical storms are amongst the most powerful and destructive meteorological systems on earth. Globally, 80 to 100 develop over tropical oceans each year. Many of these can cause considerable damage to property and loss of life.

A tropical storm is a large depression that forms over tropical oceans and moves away from the equator. Ocean temperatures must exceed 27°C for a tropical storm to form and the water needs to be at least 60m deep. The wind speeds are usually in excess of 74mph. Tropical storms happen during the hottest times of the year – between May and November in the northern hemisphere and between November and April in the southern hemisphere.

Areas that are susceptible to tropical storms are the Caribbean and Central America, South East Asia and the Indian subcontinent.

A tropical storm is typically 700km in diameter and can exceed 13km in height. In the northern hemisphere the winds rotate in an anti-clockwise direction. Fast-rising warm air creates an area of very low pressure – the eye of the storm – which sucks in air. The rotating winds cause low pressure close to the equator and absorb the moisture from the oceans creating hurricanes and cyclones.

tropical storms: where and how?

Hurricane: a type of tropical storm with a violent wind

Cyclone: a system of winds rotating inwards to an area of low pressure

key WorDs

where and when tropical storms take place

How do tropical cyclones get their name? Go to the supporting website www.heinemanngcsegeogocrB.co.uk for some links where you can fi nd out the answer.

research link

2 OCR GCSE Geography B

How tropical storms effect people and placesTropical storms can cause great damage when they reach land. They can damage buildings, power cables and crops. Flooding can be caused by the heavy rainfall brought by a tropical storm and also through storm surges.

An MEDC is better placed to deal with the effects of tropical storms. They have technology, such as weather satellites, to enable them to monitor and predict storms and have well-equipped infrastructure to deal with them when they do strike. This infrastructure includes things such as emergency procedures, resources, robust transport and food supplies,. Often in LEDCs people don’t have the means to move inland away from the storm and therefore the impact is usually greater.

Fact fi le!• The deadliest hurricane on

record was the Martinique Hurricane of 1780 that killed 20,000 people.

• Hurricanes Camille (1969) and Allen (1980) share the record for the maximum sustained windspeed for an Atlantic hurricane of 16� knots (306 kph).

A section through a typical cyclone or hurricane

Why do MEDCs suffer billions of pounds worth of property damage but LEDCs lose hundreds of lives in tropical storms?

Plenary activity

Is climate change affecting tropical cyclones?

think about it

Storm surge: When low pressure and high winds cause the sea to rise, sometimes by over fi ve metres, which leads to coastal fl ooding

key WorDs

Tropical storms: where and how? 3

Are the deaths from tropical storms caused by being in the wrong place at the wrong time?

Any country not used to being struck by winds of over 100 miles per hour and torrential rain is going to suffer but when that country is already poor the effects are much worse. Factor in a government suspicious of help and long term destruction of natural defences and a disaster now appears to have been waiting to happen.

In late April 2008 an area of very low pressure formed in the Bay of Bengal. The American Typhoon Warning Centre in Hawaii monitored the storm as it got worse and moved north towards land. Satellite images on 29th April showed that a tropical storm had formed. Forecasters predicted that the storm would hit Bangladesh but as its strength ebbed and flowed due to changes to the sea water temperature its course changed towards the coast of Myanmar.

MyanmarMyanmar is a Less Economically Developed Country (LEDC) with a population of about 55 million. It is one of the poorest countries in South East Asia with restricted development, mainly due to issues with the ruling military government and a desire to be isolated from the world.

Myanmar relied heavily on primary exports like oil and expensive timber but a lack of roads and railways mean that the government has been unable

Case study Cyclone Nargis, 2008.

to fully exploit their natural wealth. However, Myanmar is still the world’s largest producer of rubies, although the average Burmese citizen doesn’t benefit much from this trade, with a GDP per capita of £1900 and a Human Development Index (HDi) of 0.578. In a country with the same size population as the UK there is only 1 person in a thousand with access to the Internet. Myanmar ranks 32nd in a list of the world’s 50 poorest countries and the last thing it needed was a disaster the size of Cyclone Nargis.

Environmental damage in MyanmarAs is often the case with the world’s poorest countries, the environment suffers in order for money to be earned. In Myanmar’s case this has meant the destruction of mangrove swamps. In a 75 year period Myanmar has destroyed 83% of its mangroves in the area affected by Cyclone Nargis. These mangroves should have served as natural barriers to stop storm surges. Their root systems slow water flow, catch material and absorb wave energy. In the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami, villages with intact mangrove swamps had suffered significantly less death and destruction than those that had lost theirs.

However mangrove swamps get converted into money-making areas such as shrimp farms, tourist resorts, land for agriculture and re-housing.

Myanmar area

� OCR GCSE Geography B

The effect of the stormBy 2 May the storm’s winds had reached speeds of over 135 mph and it hit the vast delta of the Irrawaddy River in Myanmar bringing torrential rain and storm surges to the very low-lying and agricultural delta.

The United Nations estimated that 1.5 million people were severely affected by Cyclone Nargis, with official figures estimating the death toll at over 125,000 people. Some reports suggest 95% of buildings were destroyed, and all suffered significant damage including roofs being ripped off. Millions of people were made homeless as a result of the storm. The local infrastructure was unable to withstand the storm with reports that sewage systems were overwhelmed, causing leakage which contaminated rice fields and caused disease. Electricity lines were also destroyed, roads were swept away and stagnant, dirty water encouraged vast numbers of mosquitoes to breed.

The biggest impact was not from the high winds but from the flooding. Low pressure meant that the sea was no longer depressed by the atmosphere and so the sea level rose. As a result the low-lying coastal areas of the Irrawaddy River were flooded. The short-term effects were that people drowned and many were made homeless. In the longer term fields were destroyed, families were devastated and development was put back by years.

The response to Cyclone NargisAs the scale of the disaster became clear it also became apparent that the military government of Myanmar was not doing as much as the rest of world thought it could. Stories leaked out of aid being kept in the major cities and not spreading out to rural areas. Foreign aid workers were either not allowed in to help or were restricted in where they could go.

More than a week after the cyclone first hit only one in ten of those affected had received some sort of aid. MEDC governments loudly accused the Burmese government of making the situation even worse. The army harassed volunteers, check points on rivers stopped journalists from covering the disaster for television, leaflets were distributed to inform people that aid deliveries are only attracting children and others who do not need help. What lies behind these tactics is hard to say, but experts suggest that it is an attempt to preserve the prestige of Myanmar within its own boundaries and across the world preserve the prestige of Myanmar within its own boundaries and across the world.

The Irrawaddy Delta before and immediately after Cyclone Nargis. Notice how much is now under water.

Remote sensing image of Cyclone Nargis as it reaches the Irrawaddy Delta.

If you were in charge of defending Myanmar against future cyclones what would be your priorities? How would you go about putting them into action?

Plenary activity

1. What were the physical factors that made Cyclone Nargis so destructive in Myanmar?

2. Why did some many people choose to live in such a potentially dangerous area as the Irrawaddy delta?

�. What things would Myanmar need after a disaster like Nargis? How would they change as time went by?

activities

Much of the anger of the Western governments has been used to highlight previous human rights abuses in Myanmar and the lack of democracy in the country. This has meant that the Burmese rulers have been even slower to let foreigners in.

Should the UK government have done anything other than send in supplies to help?

think about it

Tropical storms: where and how? �

v

a decision Making exercise – a sustainable Future for town CentresIn this exercise you will be asked to refl ect on Government policy for creating sustainable retail development town centre locations, at the expense of “out-of-town” locations. Read the Fact File below and then make your decision. More contextual information is available on the CD-ROM to help you develop your ideas further.

In May 2006 the Department for Communities and Local Government re-emphasised their policy to promote town centres, ahead of out-of-town locations, for new retail development. Whilst the policy remains unpopular with large retail giants like Tesco, Sainsburys, IKEA and Comet, the Government are determined to create vibrant, sustainable retail communities in the heart of our towns and cities.

The policy was developed following years of decay in town centres as the large retail giants looked for new, often Greenfi eld sites, out of town. Government ministers were also increasingly concerned about the negative impact on small retailers such as butchers and grocers in adjacent suburbs. Legislation was passed to ensure that councils consider town centres fi rst. Councils were instructed to refuse planning permission for out-of-town locations if land was available in the town centre. From 2006, all planning authorities were required to sequence their planning permission in favour of town centre sites.

The policy has had an impact. In February 2007, Friends of the Earth reported a number of cases where permission to build “out of town” had been refused. In 2004 attempts by Asda and Tesco to build large stores in deprived areas outside Middlesbrough were refused on the grounds of a negative effect on town and district centres. There were sequentially preferable sites in the town centre. In 2006 the Planning Inspector ruled that Asda’s plan for developing the site at Worthing College should be denied, as it was not in the town centre.

However, thousands of planning applications for out-of-town sites are still being made. This puts pressure on planning departments. Not only do the large retail giants want to move out of town, it seems that shoppers prefer to shop there. The Federation of Small Businesses recently carried out an extensive survey of public opinion. Members of their organisation should be worried, as 75% of all shoppers who were asked said they preferred shopping in large stores out of town.

PEARSON NEWS January 2008

Town Centre First – The case against new out-of-town shopping centres

The sites are adjacent to the suburbs where our customers live.

Pedestrianisation schemes along with narrow streets create real diffi culties for our large delivery vehicles

High land values, high rents and high rates are not ideal for large stores

The sites are often adjacent to junctions giving access to major trunk roads. This keeps down distribution costs.

Roads leading to the site tend to be less congested and wider. This is perfect for our customers and our deliveries.

High car parking charges tend to put off shoppers

Roads leading to the centre tend to be congested, particularly in the rush-hour

Land and the cost of rates tends to be cheaper than in the town centre

Large vacant sites can accommodate the Superstore large car parks, petrol stations, and effi cient delivery depots.

Car parks are not always close to the shop. This is diffi cult when you have large items

There is a “tipping point”. Once several shopping units become vacant, there is a spiral of decline and even more shops leave.

Why large retail stores prefer “out-of-town

locations”

Why town centres have faced decline in

recent years.

6 OCR GCSE Geography B

When the former Civic Centre site became available (above), it was always going to be selected for development ahead of the redundant Crane Works on the SE edge of Ipswich (right).

The vacant Civic Centre in Ipswich

The vacant Crane site on the SE edge of Ipswich

In February 2008 Ipswich Borough Council (IBC) produced a fi nal version of their Local Development Framework (LDF). The aim was to promote sustainable growth in the town. Developed over a number of years, the LDF outlines the need to utilise town centre sites ahead of other locations. This would ensure a vibrant town centre for future generations and bring a halt to the decline of the CBD. Retailers have closed or moved out to other favoured locations.

As early as 2005, IBC carried out a Retail Study to ensure that their Framework would refl ect Government policy. DTZ, experts in retail development, reported that the Council should develop town centre sites, such as the Westgate Quarter, ahead of vacant plots

on the edge of town, such as the former Cranes industrial site. This would comply with National Policies.

When the former council offi ces at the Civic Centre were vacated in 2007, it was no surprise that Council granted permission for Turnstone Property Developments to promote the site for retail development. This would be at the expense of developing retail outlets at sites such as the former Cranes works. The decision might fi t the sustainable credentials of IBC but it would not prove popular in the eyes of retail giants who seek to develop their businesses out of town.

PEARSON NEWS August 2008

New Retail Plans for redundant site in Ipswich Town Centre

In class, debate which of the two views you think is the strongest. Try to relate the Ipswich case study to a dispute about retail developments in your own area.

think about it

your task:Consider the evidence on these pages and the information on the supporting CD. Write two letters to the editor of the Ipswich Evening Star regarding the plans to develop the town centre of Ipswich ahead of sites such as the Crane site.

• Your fi rst letter should state the views of a person who fully supports IBC’s policy to regenerate the town centre.

• Your second letter should state the views of someone who is opposed to the policy of prioritising town centre development.

Tropical storms: where and how? 7

Mark scheme for question 3

Level One The student understands that LEDCs do fi nd it harder because they have less money. One or two examples are given of when this has happened. [1–2]

Level TwoThe student is able to describe some of the problems caused by hurricanes and explains how money is a factor in the degree of impact a storm has. [3–4]

Level ThreeThe student is able to explain with a high degree of clarity and detail how this is the case citing examples they have studied. The arguments are logical and extended. [5–6]

Part of the Student answer for question 33. Suggest reasons why Less Economically Developed Countries fi nd it

harder than MEDCs to recover from the effects of a tropical storm. [6 marks]

Mark scheme for question 3

GradeStudio

LEDCS fi nd it harder to recover because they do not have as much money and so are less developed. This means that they are less able to help their people when disaster strikes.

For instance, in some cyclones the government does not have many helicoptors so they were unable to help as many people as they could have done. Being poor often means that a lot of people work in farming and cyclones with their high winds and fl ooding destroy crops. This means that people lose their livelihoods and fi nd it hard to survive. It also means that they live in rural areas which don’t receive as much help as towns and cities. This is because of a variety of reasons.

A higher achieving candidate would have used an

example that they had studied.

A candidate aiming at B or higher would have made

this sentence clearer.

Uses an extended reason to make grade C more likely

but doesn’t use all the terms they might have.

An A or A* candidate would have mentioned more

than one way that money is an issue. They would have

mentioned detection and prevention methods too.

Examiner says

Examiner says

8 OCR GCSE Geography B