tourism in urban africa

8/9/2019 Tourism in Urban Africa

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T our i sm in U rban Afr ica

T h e S o u t h A fr ic a n E x p e r ie n c e

C h r i s t i a n M . R o g e r s o n a n d G u s t a v V i ss er

U R B N T O U R I S M R E S E R C H N D F R I C

Although the ci ty and i t s ar tefacts have long been a source of at t ract ion to

touris t s , several w ri ters assert that the urb an dim ension has been given insuff i -

cient at tent ion within internat ional tourism scholarship (Law, 1992, 1993; Hall

and Pag e, 1999; Page an d Hal l , 2003; S uh and Gartner , 2004). Undoubtedly, over

the pas t 15 years this relat ive neglect o f tourism in ci ties and the phen om eno n o f

urban tourism h ave been addre ssed as a range o f i ssues relat ing to touris t s in

ci ties at t racted a progressive s t ream o f contr ibutions. Further , the f ie ld o f urba n

tour i sm has consol ida ted wi th the appearance of severa l books , which most ly

concent ra t e upon the W estern European and No r th Am er ican exper ience (Law,

1993; Van den Berg et aL 1995; Law, 1996; M urphy , 1997; Page and Ha ll , 200 3;

Tyler

et al.

1998; Wober, 2002). Ov eral l, the r i se in tem po o f urba n tourism

research has been l inked to two rea l-wor ld phenom ena: esca la t ing demand s by

touris t s for urban his toric s ights and heri tage ci t ies , and concerted efforts by

pol i cy mak ers to focus o n the ro le of tour i sm in rev i ta l iz ing urban areas and

econom ies (Chang and Hu ang, 2004: 223-2 24) .

The scope and range of urban research has thus widened qui te considerably,

inc luding the welcome appearance of s tud ies tha t examine the tour ism phen om -

enon in c i ti es ou t side o f the Eu ro-Am erican academ ic hear tl and . The f ronti e r o f

research on urban tour i sm w as ex tended geographica l ly to encompass s tud ies on

Aust ra l ia , New Zealand , H ong Kong, S ingapore and mo st recently , China and

Taiwan. The wav e of A sian w ri t ings s t resses the cr i tical imp ortance o f cul tural

and her i t age m anag em ent for urban tour i sm prom ot ion espec ia l ly in S ingapore

(Chang, 1999, 2000) an d Hong K ong (McK ercher et aL 2004, 2005). In Singapore

a cent ral planning focus i s the developm ent o f them at ic zones and the conserva -

t ion o f ethnic dis t ric ts in orde r to prom ote the ci ty 's ambi t ions o f beco m ing a

global tourism ca pi tal (Teo and H uang , 1995; Yeoh and Hua ng, 1996; Yeoh and

Teo, 1996; Ch ang et aL 1997; Cha ng, 1997, 1999; Ch ang andYeoh, 1999; Savage

Urban Forum Vol. 16 Nos. 2-3 Ap ri l-Septembe r 2005.

63


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6 4 U R B A N F O R U M

e t a L 2 0 0 4 ). O t h e r s i g n i fi c a n t t h e m e s a r e t h e p r o m o t i o n o f n ig h t m a r k e t s f o r

s h o p p i n g t o u r i s m ( H s i e h a n d C h a n g , 2 0 0 5 ) ; e n v i r o n m e n t a l is s u e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

m a s s u r b a n t o u r i sm ( J im , 2 0 0 0 ) ; a n d , t h e i m m e n s e p o t e n ti a l o f m a j o r A s i a n c i ti es

f o r c o n v e n t io n o r b u s i n e s s t o u r is m ( L e w a n d C h a n g , 1 9 99 ; G o a n d G o v e r s, 1 9 9 9;

H a i l i n e t aL 2 0 0 0 ) .

I n a d d i t i o n t o i n c r e a s e s i n t h e v o l u m e , g e o g r a p h i c a l g a z e a n d a n a l y t i c a l d e p t h

o f e m p i r i c a l m o n i t o r i n g s t u d ie s , t h e r e h a s a l s o o c c u r r e d a s e t o f p a r a l l e l t h e o r e ti -

c a l a n d c o n c e p t u a l a d v a n c e s ( T y l e r , 2 0 0 0 ) . I m p o r t a n t l y , P e a r c e ( 2 0 0 1 : 9 2 6 ) o f -

f e r s a n i n t e g ra t iv e f ra m e w o r k a s a m e a n s to p r o v i d e a m o r e s y s te m a t ic a n d

c o h e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e o n u r b a n t o u r i s m a n d a s a s te p t o w a r d s i n t e g r a t i n g a s t e a d i ly

g r o w i n g b u t a s y e t l a r g e ly fr a g m e n t e d b o d y o f r e s e a r c h a n d , i n a r e c e n t v o l -

u m e , r e g u l a t i o n t h e o r y i s a p p l i e d i n o r d e r t o b r i n g t h e o r e t i c a l f o c u s t o r e s e a r c h

o n u r b a n to u r is m ( H o f f m a n et a l . 2 0 0 3 ) . O f n o t e a l s o i s t h a t J u d d a n d F a i n s te i n

( 1 9 9 9 ) p r o p o s e a c o n c e p t u a l d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h r e e m a j o r c a t e g o r i e s o f t o u r -

i s t c i t y , n a m e l y ' t h e r e s o r t c i t y ' ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c a s i n o r e s o r t , s p a s a n d s e a s i d e

t o w n s ) ; t h e ' t o u r i s t - h i s t o r i c c i t y ' ; a n d , t h e ' c o n v e r t e d c i t y ' , w h i c h r e f e r s t o l o -

c a l it ie s w h e r e t r a d i t io n a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g o r c a p i ta l c i ti e s c h a n g e t h e i r f u n c t i o n t o

i n c o r p o r a t e t o u r i s m . O t h e r w r i te r s h a v e s o u g h t to b r o a d e n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t io n f o r

example , t o i nc lude t ou r i sm wor ld c i t i e s (Ty l e r , 2000) .

I n th e c o n t e x t o f t h is g r o w i n g i n t e r n a ti o n a l b o d y o f d e b a t e a n d s c h o l a r s h ip o n

t o u r i s m a n d c i ti e s, i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t th e m o s t u n d e v e l o p e d l i te r a t u r e r e l a t e s t o th a t

o f th e d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d a s a w h o l e a n d t o A f r i c a i n p a r t ic u l a r . I n t e r m s o f l e a g u e

t a b l e s o f t o u r i s m , u s i n g i n d i c e s o f t h e v o l u m e o f in t e r n a t i o n a l t o u r i s m a r r i v a l s o r

i n t e r n a t io n a l t o u r i s m r e c e i p t s , t h e l e a d i n g d e s t i n a t io n s f o r A f r i c a n t o u r i s m a r e

s h o w n t o b e E g y p t a n d S o u t h A f r i c a ( F i g u r e 1 ). D e s p i t e g r o w i n g r e c o g n i ti o n o f

t o u r i s m ' s d e v e l o p m e n t a l p o t e n t ia l f o r A f r i c a , m o s t i m p o r t a n t l y i n t e r m s o f t h e

N e w E c o n o m i c P a r tn e r s h ip f o r A f r i c a n D e v e l o p m e n t , t o u r i s m r e s e a r c h a s a w h o l e

r e m a i n s l i m i te d a n d m o s t l y c e n t re d u p o n i ss u e s o f n a t u r e - b a s e d t o u r i s m , c o n s e r -

v a t i o n a n d r u r a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( V i s s e r a n d R o g e r s o n , 2 0 0 4 ) . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e

p o t e n t i a l a g e n d a f o r r e s e a r c h o n t o u r i s m i n u r b a n A f r i c a , i s b o t h c o n s i d e r a b l e

a n d o f p o l i c y s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r i ts p o t e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l i m p a c t s .

T o a d o p t t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f J u d d a n d F a i n s t e in ( 1 9 9 9 ) , s e v e r a l c o a s t a l c e n t r e s i n

S o u t h A f r i c a ( v a n H u y s s t e e n a n d N e e t h t i n g , 1 9 9 6 ; V i s s er , 2 0 0 2 , 2 0 0 3 a ) a n d K e n y a

( D e B e e r et a l . 1 9 9 7 ; K a r e i t h i , 2 0 0 3 ) p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r e x a m i n i n g t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e s t r u c tu r i n g o f re s o r t to u r is m . I n a d d it io n , t h e Z a m b i a n c i ty o f

L i v i n g s t o n e , n e x t t o V i c t o r i a F a l ls , i s a n e w l y e m e r g e n t r e s o r t b a s e d u p o n l e is u r e

a t t ra c t i o n s a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y o n a d v e n t u r e t o u r i s m ( R o g e r s o n , 2 0 0 4 a ) . I n t e r m s o f

i s s u e s t h a t c o n f r o n t t h e t o u r i s t- h i s to r i c c it y, t h e r e e x i s t m a n y A f r i c a n e x a m p l e s

o f n o t e i n c l u d i n g C a p e T o w n o r S te l l e n b o s c h i n S o u t h A f r i c a ( W o r d e n , 1 9 9 7 ),


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Tourism in Urban Africa 6

Figure 1: Africa: International Tourism Receipts, 2003 Source WT O, 2004)

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M om basa or Lam u in K enya (Hoyle , 2001) an d S tone Town in Zanzibar , Tanza-

nia (Ma rks, 1996). Final ly , the quest ions surrou nding the prom ot ion and imp acts

of urban tour i sm deve lopment in ' conver t ed c i t ies ' a re as per tinent in contempo-

ra ry Johannesburg , N a i rob i o r Lusaka a s t hey a re i n Ba l t i m ore , Bos t on o r

Manchester (see e .g . , Rogerson, 2002, 2003, 2004b).

Overa l l, t h is co l l ec tion of papers responds to the recent cha l l enge posed by

King (2004) for the need to consolida te progress m ade on urban tour i sm dur ing

the last 15 years by g rasping new research o pportuni t ies in order to broad en the

exist ing rese arch age ndas. In part icular , King (2004: 29 1) highl ights the cr i tical

unresearched ques t ion of how c i ti es in l ess deve loped count r ies per form as ur -

ban tou rism dest inat ions relat ive to thei r equivalents in the develope d wo rld . I t

i s c lear f rom the sm al l bod y o f ex i st ing publ i shed research tha t aspec ts o f tour-

ism d evelop me nt in South A frica n ci ties can sp eak to, and i llustrate, several ma jor


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66 U R B A N F O R U M

p o l i cy th em es an d cu rren ts o f th e i n tema t i on a l l it era tu re on u rb an tou r ism esp e-

c i a l l y th ose re l a ted to con verted c i t ie s (Rog erson , 200 2 , 200 3 , 200 4b ) an d l e i -

su re tou r i sm (Vi sser , 2002 , 2003b , 20 04a , 2004b ) . B u t , i n th e con tex t o f tou r i sm

d eve l op m en ts tak i n g p l ace i n b l ack tow n sh i p s , su ch as S ow eto or In an da , a s we l l

as heri tage s i tes associated w i th the anti -apartheid s truggle , the Sou th A frican

exp er i en ce go es fur th er b y i n trod u c i n g to s ch o l ars f resh research asp ec t s o f u r -

b an tou r i sm var i ou s l y con cern i n g d ark tou r i sm , ju s t ice tou r i sm an d p ro -p oor

tourism through local sma l l enterprise dev elopm ent (Hu gh es and Vaughan, 2000;

S tran ge an d K emp a , 2003; Ramch an d er , 2004; Rogerson , 20 04c , 200 4d ) .

U R B A N T O U R I S M A N D R E S E A R C H I SS U E S IN S O U T H A F R I C A

T h e task i n th i s th eme co l l ec t i on o f p ap ers i s to ugment he so far l imi ted

w r i t in g s o n u r ba n t o u ri sm i n A f r i c a b y o p e n i n g u p a w i d e r w i n d o w o n r e s e a rc h

F i g u r e 2 : S o u t h A f r i c a : L o c a t i o n M a p o f T o u r i s m L o c a l i t i e s.

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5/25

Tourism in Urban Afr ica 7

and po l i cy i ss ues con ce r n i ng t ou r i s m i n u r ban A f r i ca u s i ng ca se s tud i e s f r om t he

S ou t h A f r i can expe r i ence . A n ana l y s i s o f t he t ou r i s m i s s ues and t ou r i s m r e s ea r ch

i n u r ban a r ea s o f S o u t h A f r i ca ( F igu r e 2 ) p r ov i des t he con t ex t f o r the co l l ec t i on

as a wh ole .

The D i scovery and G rowt h o f U rban Tour i sm

I n t he S ou t h A f r i can con t ex t , u r ban t ou r i s m, w h i l st va s t in i ts a c t ua l p r opo r -

t io n , h a s - - i n l ar g e p a r t - - r e m a i n e d i n v is ib l e t o t h e s c h o l a r ly g a ze . T h e l a c k o f

r e s ea r ch i n t o u r ban t ou r i s m i s s om ew ha t pe r p l ex i ng , f o r un l i ke ma ny dev e l op i ng

coun t r i e s, the co n t ou r s o f i t s deve l opm en t can be t r aced t h r ough an ex t ens i ve

u r ban geog r aphy . Indeed , t he dev e l opm en t o f m any n e i ghbo ur hoo ds in c i t ie s s uch

as C ape T ow n , D ur ban o r P o r t E l i zabe th , a s w e l l as a hos t o f s ma l l e r coast a l and

i nc r eas i ng l y in t e r i o r r u r a l t ow ns a r e i nex t r i cab l y l i nked t o u r ban t ou r i s m g r ow t h .

Rea sons for such ne glec t aboun d. F i r s tly , tour i sm as an indus t ry , wh i l s t es tab-

l i s hed s ome decades ago , w as no t t aken s e r i ous ly as a dev e l opm en t a l f ocus un t i l

qu i t e r ecen t l y (V i s s e r and R oge r s on , 2004 ) . B o t h p r i va t e and pub l i c s ec t o r p l an -

ne r s a l i ke w er e l a r ge l y b l ind t o t he e x t r ao r d i na r y r each o f tou r i s m ac r oss a r ange

o f econ om i c s ec to r s . S econd l y , t he i m pac t o f u r ban t ou r i s m w as r e l a ti ve l y s ma l l ,

m a i n l y becaus e i t w as co ns t r a i ned unde r a pa r t he i d by t he l i m i t a t ion o f f r ee move -

m en t o f peop l e i n an d t o c i t ie s . T h i r d ly , t ou r i s m a nd l e i s u r e s eek i ng i n S ou t h

A f r i ca had a d i s t i nc ti ve na t u r e - bas ed t ou r i s m b i a s ( V i s se r and R oge r s on , 2004 ) .

F ou r th l y , and r e la t ed , w h i l s t t ou r i s m as a veh i c l e f o r deve l op m en t has r ece i ved

cons i de r ab l e r ecogn i t i on si nce t he adven t o f mu l t i - r ac i a l democr acy , t he u r gen cy

w i t h w h i ch t he g r i nd i ng pove r t y i n ma ny r u r a l a rea s needs t o be add r es s ed , ha s

l ed t o a po l i cy f ocus a i mi n g t o ha r nes s t ou r i s m oppor t un i t i e s i n t hos e a r eas .

W hi l s t r e s ea r che rs and m os t po l i cy m ake r s a li ke , d i d no t s ee u r ban tou r i s m

deve l opm en t as i m por t an t un t i l compa r a t i ve l y r ecen tl y , u r ban t ou r i s m has be en

pursu ed s ince a t l eas t the ear ly 1930s. Indeed , dur ing the ear ly 20 th ce n tury ur -

b a n l e is u re t o u r i s m f o r m e d t h e b a s e f o r c o n s id e r a b le e m p l o y m e n t g ro w t h i n s ev -

era l coas ta l cen t res o f SouthAfr ica . By 1930 the Eas t Lond on Publ ic i tyA ssoc ia t ion

( 1 93 0 ) a l re a d y w a s p r o m o t i n g t h e t o w n a s t h e h o m e o f t h e s u r f b o a r d - - w h e r e

S e a a n d S u n s h i n e c a ll . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t o u r is m f o c u s w a s D u r b a n, w h i c h

es t ab l is hed i t s e l f a s a m a j o r t ou r i s t de s t i na t i on f r om as ea r l y a s t he 1920s ( G r an t

and B u t l e r -A dam , 1992). I n 1937 , loca l pub l i c i t y b r ochu r e s w axed e l oq uen t l y on

t he v i r tue s o f ho l i day m ak i n g i n t he c i t y :

T h e ma g i c o f D u r b a n s l u r e i s i n th e r i c h , w a r m k i s s o f t h e s u n w i t h h e a l t h i n e v e r y r a y , i n t h e

m e l l o w c l i ma t e , b r i s k a n d b r a c i n g i n th e w i n t e r , i n h e r v i v i d c o l o u r s , in t h e g l o r i o u s s w e e p o f


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8 URBAN FORU M

her sea front, in her variedness. She is, as Drydensays, A town so various that she seemed o

be. No one, but all the world s epitome . That is her charm (Durban PublicityAssociation,

1937: 3).

Although the domestic visitor was the early focus of tourism planning, adver-

tising for the city did not miss an opportunity to draw parallels for the potential

international visitor.

Durban s greatest asset, as is that of all the coastal communities, s, of course, her beach. The

city has followeda vigorouspolicyof developing ts sea front, where, n splendidlyspectacu-

lar line, dignifiedhotelshave risen whichblend well with the generalatmosphereof Durban.

There in the season, on the crowdedbeaches, may be seen fashionsas colourful and gay as on

the Lido or at Deauville(Durban PublicityAssociation, 1937: 15).

Whilst Durban developed its tourist appeal, other cities and indeed towns were

also aiming to harness their tourism potential. The first South African academic

studies into the deployment of tourism as an urban development strategy came in

the form of research degrees. Muller s (1971) pioneering study of tourism as an

alternative development strategy in George and Knysna, Steyn s (1972) doctoral

study on the impact of domestic tourism on the development of a number of

southern Cape coastal towns, as well as Taylor s (1974) investigation into the

tourism patterns of East London s tourism system, and likewise Urwin s (1980)

in the Cape Town context, all hinted at the significant linkages between tourism

and urban development, and more importantly that tourism could be built around

the attractions of an urban environment, albeit in these investigations closely tied

to beach recreation.

A new chapter in tourism planning in South Africa s cities began to open from

the mid-1980s. In common with the international experience of urban economic

restructuring, the promotion of tourism grew markedly in significance on the

South African urban policy agenda. This interest was reflected in an upsurge of

research into urban tourism. Indeed, in a series of studies the impacts of urban

tourism on business formation and development (Olivier, 1990), urban conser-

vation (Van As, 1990), and small town development and restructuring (Roos,

1991; Prinsloo, 1991; Gilfellan, 1992) were conducted. Recreation and tourism

became a key influence on metropolitan planning, with research focusing espe-

cially on Cape Town (Olivier, 1990; Van Huyssteen and Neethling, 1996), Durban

(Kohler, 1993) and Port Elizabeth (Grant and Kohler, 1996). In terms o f a more

pronounced research agenda for local economic development (LED) planning,

tourism has been a s ignificant item since at least 1995 (Rogerson, 1995: 58).

Currently, tourism promotion is an element o f economic development plan-


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Tourism in Urban Afric a 69

ning in al l South Africa 's major c i t ies (see Ci ty of Cape Town, 2001; Buffalo

Ci ty, 2005), including even the unl ikely case o f Ekurhu leni (Eku rhuleni M unici -

pa li ty , 2003) . The m ost dram at ic m ani fes ta t ions o f tour i sm prom ot ion a re per -

haps the water f ront redeve lopment s tha t have t ransformed areas of inner-c i ty

Cap e Town and Du rban (G rant and Scot t, 1996; Ki l ian et aL 1996). Ind eed, i t is

perh aps no t surpris ing that the t radi tional le isure dest inat ions o f Ca pe Town and

D urba n were pioneers in the use o f tourism in local development planning (Gretton,

1995; M acM enam in, 1995). Currently, the deployme nt of tourism in a broa der

dr ive for econom ic d eve lopment rem ains not iceable in t e rms of a w ave of explor-

atory pol icy reports and si tuat ion analyse s for these two ci t ies in part icular (Bob

and M oodley, 2001a; Ci ty of Cap e Town, 2001; Turco et aL 2003; W esgro, 2003).

None the l ess , t he most s ign i f i can t newcomer to the urban tour i sm scene i s

Johannesburg where s ign i f ican t amou nt s o f cap it a l have been inves ted in a range

of urban-based tour i sm product s , i nc luding cas inos , m useums, thea tres and en-

t e r ta inment com plexes (Rogerson , 2002; 2004b) . An ana lys is o f the dom est ic

and internat ional tourism v isi tor s ta ti s tics confi rm s the leading posi t ion o f Ca pe

Town, Durb an and Johannesburg in t e rms o f tour is t f lows (Rule

et aL

2001,

2004).

The Promot ion o f Tour ism in Urban Sou th A f r i ca

I t is c l ear f rom the above tha t South Afr i ca ' s u rban man agers an d pol i cy mak -

ers recogn ise tourism de velopm ent as a mean s by which to s t imulate thei r local

econom ies. C urrently, there are a num ber o f s tra tegies being deployed to further

enha nce a nd develop the tourism potent ia l o f South A frica n cit ies . The fol lowing

provides a broad review.

N ew le isure marke t s a re be ing sought, for examp le in Cape Town, where the

s igni f i cance of gay tour i sm has recent ly been pro f i l ed (Visser, 2002, 2003;

Bennet t, 2004a) . In t e rna t iona l ly one of the mo st urba n of tour ism product of -

fer ings relate to gay tourism. Ev en the mo st casual glance at the gay t ravel -

bible

Spartacus

or the popular g ay press in the form of

Boyz Pin k Paper

and

Exit

wi l l conf i rm tha t u rban tour ism form s a key com ponent of gay trave l, no t

only internat ional ly but in S outh Africa too. In this respect intem at ional ga y tour-

i sm to South Afric a clearly underl ines that t rend (Visser, 2 003a, 2003b). Since

the dem ise o f apar the id , Cape Town, in part icu la r, has becom e a very popu lar

dest inat ion for gay and lesb ian travel lers (Visser, 2002 ). Inde ed, i t is bi l led as the

second largest ga y capi ta l in the world, voted as being one of the Top 3 t ravel

des t ina t ions and num ber 1 i n t e rm s o f va l ue fo r m oney gay des ti nat ions

(capetown.tv, 2005, base d on Bri t i sh Airw ays research). This has led to the devel -


8/25

7 URBAN FOR UM

o p m e n t o f a g a y n e i g h b o u r h o o d - - D e W a t e r k a n t -- b o a s t in g t o ur is t a c co m m o d a -

t ion, bars , in ter ior shops , up-m arke t c lothin g out le ts , n ightclu bs , res taurants , saunas

and e s co r t agenc i e s ( V is se r, 2003a , 2003b) . C ape T ow n a l s o l ays c l a i m to ho s t i ng

one o f the i n t e r na t iona l l y ecogn i s ed gay f e s t i va l s - - t he M ot he r C i t y Q uee r P r o j ec t

(Visser , 2002) .

A s can be d i s ce r ned f r om t he above , t he s e ac t i v it i e s a r e p r i mar i l y focus ed o n

t he de ve l opm en t o f t he u r ban l e i s u r e in f r a s tr uc t u re o f C ape T ow n . T he i mp ac t o f

gay tou r i sm has on ly rece n t ly s t a r ted to a t t r ac t c r it i ca l ana lys i s . Explo ra tory re -

s ea r ch has dem ons t r a t ed tha t a r ange o f li nkages be t w een gay t ou r i s m an d l e i su r e

a c t iv i ty h a s p h y s i c a l l y t r a n s fo r m e d p a r t o f C a p e T o w n o w i n g t o g a y - b a se d u r b a n

t ou r i s m ( V is se r, 2003a ) . T he i mpa c t o f u r ban t ou r i s m l i nked t o gay i den t i t y i s,

how eve r , no t c on f i ned to m e t r opo l i t an a rea s s uch a s C ape T ow n , bu t ha s a l s o

bee n no t ed i n s m a l l t ow ns , pa r t i cu l a r l y i n t he W es t e r n C ape . I ndeed , i n pu r s u it o f

gay t ou r i st s pend i ng , a num ber o f s ma l l r u r a l t ow ns a l ong R o u t e 62 , now m ar -

ke t t hems e l ves a s t he P i nk R ou t e . W hi l s t t he deve l opmen t o f t he gay t ou r i s m

m ar ke t ha s been i mpr es s ive , ou r unde r s t and i ng o f gay t ou r i s m i n S o u t h A f r i ca i s

w e a k l y d e v e l o p e d w i t h a r a n g e o f i m p a c ts , b o t h p o s i t iv e a n d n e g a ti v e , r e m a i n i n g

unexp l o r ed .

W i t h the ch anges i n gam i ng l eg i s l a t i on s i nce 1994 , l ar ge ca s i no i nves t men t s i n

S ou t h A f r i ca ' s c i t i e s have made t hem ma j o r na t i ona l f oc i f o r ca s i no t ou r i s m

( R oge r s on , 2004a ) . T he t o t a l num ber o f ca s inos has r i s en f r om 17 du r i ng the

apa r t he i d e r a t o t he cu r r en t 33. W her eas ca s i no dev e l opm en t w as p r i o r to 1994

exc l us i ve l y bas ed i n r u r a l o r pe r i - u r ban a rea s o f apa r t he i d hom e l and s , i ts sub -

s equen t dev e l opm en t has s een t he u r ban i s a t i on o f ca s i no gam bl i ng . T hes e m ega -

d e v e l o p m e n t s r a n g i n g i n v e s tm e n t s o f h u n d r e d s o f m i ll io n s , a n d o f te n b i l l i o n s o f

R ands , ha s l ed t o t he s i gn i f i can t expans i on o f l e i su r e t ou r i s m p r oduc t o f f e r i ngs

i n 27 ca s i nos i n d i f f e r en t S ou t h A f r i ca n c i t ie s and t ow ns ( R o ge r s on , 2004a ;

R ous s eau , 2004 ; S t r ydom, 2004) . W hi l s t t he s e deve l opm en t s a r e s i gn i f i can t bo t h

i n te r ms o f t he i r si ze an d l oca t i on , in - dep t h acade mi c unde r s t and i ng o f t he s e new

en t e r t a i nm en t cen t re s has been l i mi ted . P e r haps one o f t he m os t i m por t an t ques -

t i ons t ha t m us t be a s ked r e l a t e s t o t he ' p r o - p oo r ' t ou r i s m deve l o pm en t c r eden -

t ia l s o f ca s i nos , a s w e l l a s t he i r con t r i bu t i on i n rew o r k i ng the u r ban f ab r i c i n t he

areas they a re loca ted .

T he deve l op m en t o f u r ban ca s i no - r e s o r ts ha s no t t aken p l ace i n i s o l a t i on bu t

has t yp i ca l l y f o r me d pa r t o f a l a rge r t ou r i s m exp ans i on s t r a tegy l i nked t o l oca l

eco nom i c deve l opm en t in i ti a ti ve s . A n c i l l a r y t o ca s i no dev e l opm en t , a r ange o f

new tour i sm in i ti a t ives i s occur r ing in a l l the c oas ta l c i ti es , as wel l as Joh annesbu rg

an d o th er c i t ies and tow ns in the in te r io r . N ot l ea s t th i s i s the case in Por t E l i za-

be t h w he r e a r e - b r and i ng and r ep os i t i on i ng o f t he c i t y has b een oc cu r r i ng ( H ea t h ,


9/25

Tour ism in Urban A fr ica 71

2004). Along side ne w them e par k developm ents , the mo st imaginat ive init ia tive

i s the p lanned cons t ruc tion o f Afr i ca ' s 'S t a tue o f L iber ty ' , a 65 -met re- ta l l s t a tue

of former Pres ident Nel son Mandela which i s to be e rec ted in Por t E l i zabe th

Ha rbour (Heath , 2004; van Zyl , 2004) . Overa l l, the growing s ign if i cance o f tour-

i sm as a vehic l e for loca l economic d eve lopment in urban S outhA fr i ca was h igh-

l igh ted by the f ind ings o f a na t iona l survey o f munic ipa l it ies which d i sc losed

that tourism w as current ly one o f the most pop ular LE D st rategies (Nel an d Binns,

2003).

Despi te i t s growth, the pol it ics o f integrat ing tourism in L ED planning in Sou th

A frican ci ties have bee n l it tle e xam ined. In D urban 's tourism developm ent record,

a range of f l agsh ip proper ty d eve lopment pro jec ts , i nc luding a new convent ion

cent re and tourism developm ents (H al l and Rob bins, 2002; Loo tvoet and Freund,

2004) have been in te rpre ted as the beginnings of c rea ting a new a l li ance be tween

old and ne w bu siness e l i tes in the ci ty (M offat t and Freund, 2004). For Lootvoet

and Freund (2004) the new commi tment to pro jec t s such as the Shaka Is l and

De velopm ent involves the creat ion o f substant ia l business opportuni t ies for the

c i ty ' s new e l i t es th rough t ender ing oppor tuni t i es of a f f i rmat ive procurement .

Never the less , it i s a rgued tha t the i r impact on the m ass o f poo r people i s a t bes t

am bigu ous (Lootvoet and Freund, 2004: 7) .

The unfo ld ing prom ot ion o f South Afr i can c i t ies as cen t res for consumpt ion

has t aken var ious fo rms and approaches tha t c l ear ly re f lec t i n te rna tiona l pa t t e rns

(Rogerson , 2002a) . Bus iness tour i sm has been prom oted through the bui ld ing o f

new internat ional convent ion cent res and l inked hotel developments in Durban,

Johannesburg and mo st recently in Cape Town (Nel and Binns , 2003; Nel

e t al .

2003; Ingra m , 2004). The c r i tical and lucrat ive act ivi ty of M IC E (m eet ings, in-

cent ives, conferences and exhibi t ions) tourism has been augmented by the at -

t rac t ion o f 'meg a-eve nt s ' to S outh Afr i ca such as the World A ID S C ongress an d

the W orld Sum mi t on S us tainable D evelopment (Rogerson , 2002b) . Al though a

large internat ional l i terature has mapped out the s igni f icant impact that MICE

tourism holds for the post - indust r ia l North (Cope, 2001; Alford, 2002; Ladkin,

2002) and the emerg ing South (D w yer and Mist il li s, 1997; Wei and Go, 1999),

invest igat ions in the S outh A frican context remain co nfined to general research

of the econo mic impac t of this indust ry (Black B usiness Quarter ly , 2000a; 200 0b)

and the repor t ed undes i rab le r i se in sex wo rk in the popular M ICE loca tions o f

Cape Town and Johannesburg (Lashinger and S labber , 2004) .

The t rad it iona l m arke t of l e isure tour ism has been boos ted through new water -

f ront redeve lopment prog ram m es (such as in Cape Town or Durban) o r f l agsh ip

pro jec ts such as the Shak a Is land deve lopment in Du rban (Lootvoe t and Freund,

2004). In Port El izabeth, the l inking o f the conferenc e m arket , throug h the devel -


10/25

72 URBAN FORUM

o p m e n t o f a c o n f e r e n c e c e n tr e a n d t h e r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p a rt s o f t he h a r b o u r a s a

w a t e r f r on t, is on l y t he l a t e s t i n a nu m ber o f s i mi l a r deve l op m en t s (T he B ay B u l -

l e ti n , 2003 ) . I ndeed , even the s ma l l c i t y o f B l oe m f on t e i n now boas t s s uch a w a-

te r f ron t to e n te r t a in i t s r eg ion a l v i s ito r s . M oreover , o ther dev e lop m ents l inked to

t he c r ea t i on o f s paces f o r l e is u r e and t ou r i s m con s um pt i on i nc l ude K i mber l ey ,

w he r e i ts u r ban r edev e l opm en t and r enew a l p r o j ec t s p l ace t ou r i s m a t t he cen t r e

o f these in i t i a t ives (Sol P laa t j e M unic ipa l i ty , 2004) . How ever , desp i t e the ex-

t r a o rd i n a r y r a n g e a n d s h e e r n u m b e r o f u rb a n r e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g r a m m e s u n d e r -

p i nn ed by u r ban t ou r i s m expans i on , t he r e i s ve r y l it tl e c ri t ic a l r e f l ec t i on on how

s ucces sf u l t he s e p r o j ec t s a r e i n p r ov i d i ng qu a l i t y emp l oy m en t oppor t un i ti e s , t he i r

s u s ta i nab il it y , o r w he t he r t hey w i l l le ad t o s oc i a l and ec ono m i c exc l u s i on and

m ar g i na l i za t i on , and a ho s t o f r e l a ted i s s ues h i gh l i gh t ed i n t he i n t e r na t i ona l l it -

e ra ture (Gotham , 2001; C lark , 2004) .

C r u i s e t ou r i s m i s a f u r t he r g r ow i ng e l em en t o f l e is u r e t ou r is m i n coas t a l c i ti e s ,

i n pa r t i cu la r f o r C ape T ow n an d D ur ban (V os, 2004 ) . I n S ou t h A f r i ca , th i s type o f

t o u r is m i s c u r re n t l y d ri v e n b y t h e i n t e r n a t io n a l m a r k e t - - w i t h B r i ta i n th e k e y

source m arke t (Kohler, 2003) . Cur ren t ly , Br i t i sh new spap ers such as

The Mail on

Sunday

( 2005 : 106 - 107 ) , f o r exam pl e , r un t r ave l fea t u re s adve r t i s i ng ho l i days

t ha t a r e exc l u s i ve l y f ocus ed o n S ou t h A f r i ca ' s m a i n co as t a l c it i e s inc l ud i ng C ape

T ow n , D ur ban , E as t L o ndo n and P o r t E l izabe t h . P e r haps mos t i n t e r e s t i ng i s the

f a c t th a t t h e n a t u r e a n d w i l d li f e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e S o u t h A f r ic a n t o u r is m s y s te m

ar e w h o l l y igno r ed i n t he s e p r omot i ons . I ndeed , S ou t h A f r i can c i ti e s ar e em er g i ng

as c ru i se tour i s t a t t r ac t ions in the i r own r igh t . Nev er the les s , l i t t le r esearch a t t en-

t i on has been g i ven to t he m ann e r i n w h i c h t he c r u i s e t ou r i s m s ec t o r is deve l op -

i ng and w ays i n w h i ch i t m i gh t be i m pr oved t o max i m i s e deve l opm en t a l po t en t i a l.

I n exp l o r a t o r y re s ea r ch by K o h l e r ( 2003 : 1 ), it i s a r gued t ha t the c r u i se t ou r i s m

s ec to r , i s a h i gh l y l uc r a ti ve o n e . . . [ how eve r] l a r ge l y i gno r ed and l e ft s i mp l y t o

c o n t in u e w i t h n o s u p p o r t o r e v e n u n d e r s ta n d i n g o n t h e p a r t o f t h e t o u r i sm r o l e

p l aye r s . T h i s neg l ec t i s reg r e t tab l e f o r c r u i se t ou r i s m ha s bee n i den t i f i ed a s one

o f t he f a s te s t g r ow i ng s ec t o rs i n t w o o f S ou t h A f r i ca 's l a r ges t mar ke t s ,

viz

N o r t h

A m er i ca and the U n i t ed K i n gdo m ( K oh l e r, 2003 ) . I n t he ca se o f D ur b an , K oh l e r 's

( 2003) i nves t i ga t i on f ound t ha t 12 000 c r u i se pas s enge r s w er e r eco r ded i n 2003 ,

s pend i ng R 11 m i l li on . I ncom e de r i ved f r om r e - p r ov i s i on i ng ( food , d r ink , f ue l ,

w a t e r an d t h i s li ke ) equa t ed t o R 4 4 m i l l ion . I t i s a r gued t ha t even i f a con s e r va -

t ive e s ti ma t e o f cr ew on s ho r e i s inc l uded , t he eco nom i c i mpac t o f one s ea s on o f

t he c r u i s e t ou r i s m s ec t o r b r i ngs ove r R 60 m i l l i on t o t he p r ov i nce o f K w aZ u l u -

N ata l (Ko hler , 2003) .

S h o p p i n g t o u r i sm h a s b e e n t h e t a rg e t o f d e v e l o p m e n t s s u c h a s C e n t u r y C i t y i n

C ape T ow n ( M ar ks and B ezzo l i , 2001 ) and o f J ohannes bu r g ' s e f fo r t s t o a t t rac t


11/25


12/25


I n o r de r t o ope r a t i ona l i s e t he ob j ec t i ve s o f S A S T and p r om ot e even t s t ou r i s m

mo r e gene r a l ly , c i ti e s such a s D ur ba n l aun ched t he D ur ban E ven t s C o r po r a t i on

(Turco et a l . 2 0 0 3 ). T h r o u g h t h is b o d y a n u m b e r o f m a i n l y c o n s u lt a n c y a n d l o c a l

gove r nm en t d r iven i nves t iga t i ons have bee n unde r t aken f o r t he coas t a l reg i ons o f

K w aZ u l u - N a t a l ( D ur ban M e t r o , 2000 ; D u r ban A f r i ca , 2001 ; B ob a nd M ood l ey ,

2000) . T he r e s ea r ch cond uc t ed by G r an t T h or n t on K es s e l F e i n s t e i n ( 2001), f o r

exam pl e , cons i de r ed the v a r i ous l i nkages t ha t cou l d be f o r ged be t w ee n D u r ban s

t r ad i ti ona l sun a nd b each t ou r i sm, w i t h o t he r ac t i v i ti e s s uch a s s po r t, na t u r e an d

cu l tu r e . M or eove r, s eve r a l inves t i ga t i ons have b een cond uc t ed i n t o t he s oc i o -

e c o n o m i c im p a c t s o f s p o r t to u r i s m e v e n t s h e ld i n D u r b a n ( B o b a n d M o o d l e y,

2000; 20 01a; 200 1b; 2 001c; 2001d ; 200 1e; 2001 f ). Th i s r esearch , fo r examp le ,

dem ons t r a ted t ha t t he C omr ades M ar a t hon , w h i ch i s annua l l y r un be t w een D ur ban

and P i e t e rmar i t zbu r g , gene r a t ed r evenue o f R 20 m i l l i on t h r ough 58 000 t ou ri st s,

w h i l st the V odacom B ea ch A f r i ca F es ti va l d r ew a n e s t i ma t ed 960 000 v i s it o r s

a l ong w i t h t ou r i st s pend i ng f o r D ur ban i n exces s o f R 76 m i l l ion .

I n t em a t i ona l l y num er ous t ypes o f f e s ti va ls ar e i nc r eas i ng l y be i ng u s ed a s i n -

s tr u m e n t s f o r p r o m o t i n g t o u r is m a n d b o o s t in g t h e r e g io n a l e c o n o m y ( C h a b ra , e t

aL

2003 ; F e l s en t e i n and F l e is che r , 2003 ). S i mi l a rl y , m any S ou t h A f r i can t ow ns

and c i ti e s have i n t r oduced f e s ti va ls a s a w ay by w h i ch t o gene r a t e i nco m e and

p r o m o t e t o u ri sm d e v e l o p m e n t . N e a r l y e v e r y c i t y a n d t o w n i n S o u t h A f r i c a h a s a n

ar t s / cu l tu ra l /her i tage fes t iva l spec i f i ca l ly des ign ed to draw tou r i s ts to th e i r a rea

( V i ss e r and K o t ze , 2004 ) . A l t ho ugh t he f e st iva l m ar ke t i s no t t ha t w e l l und e r -

s t ood i n the S ou t h A f r i can con tex t , a num ber o f r ecen t s t ud ie s have bee n com -

p l e t ed ( e .g ., S now ba l l and A n t r obus , 2001 ; S now ba l l and A n t r obus , 2002 ; V an

Z y l and B o t ha , 2003 ).

I n v e s ti g a ti o n i n to t h e i r m o n e t a r y s i g n i fi c a n c e h a s b e e n u n d e r ta k e n . A m o n g

m a n y i n t e r e s t i n g f i n d i n g s i t w a s , f o r e x a m p l e , s h o w n t h a t t h e K l e i n - K a r o o

N a s i ona l e K uns t e f ee s (K K N K ) , i n O u d t s hoo r n d rew 100 000 v i s it o r s, gene r a t -

i ng a t o t a l o f R 100 m i l l i on in l oca l expend i tu r e . I n add i t i on , t h i s re s ea r ch po i n t ed

ou t t ha t t he G r aham s t ow n , A ar d l dop and K K N K f e st iva l t oge t he r gene r a t ed mor e

t han R 2 00 m i l l i on annu a l l y ( see S now b a l l and A n t r obus , 2001 ). A f u r t he r f i nd -

i n g w a s t h a t e c o n o m i c le a k a g e s o u t o f t h e l o c a l e c o n o m i e s o f G r a h a m s t o w n a n d

O u d t s hoo r n w er e f a r la r ge r t han f o r P o t che f s t room ( A ar dk l op , 2004 ) . T he r ea s on

f o r t h is w as t ha t the l a t t e r l oca t i on w as a l a r ge r u r ban e con om y and t ha t man y o f

the se rv ices the f es t iva l uses w ere f rom loca l s e rv ices provider s . Th i s s i tua t ion

keeps t he i ncom e ge ne r a t ed by t he f e st iva l in t he l oca l economy . B y con t r a st , in

t h e s m a l le r c en t re s o f G r a h a m s t o w n a n d O u d t s h o o r n , m a n y o f th e s e rv i c es h a v e

to be cont rac ted in f rom serv ice provider s ou t s ide the r espec t ive r eg ions (Aard ldop ,

2004 .


13/25

Tourism in Urban Africa 7

Related to the fest ivals m arke t , heri tage and cul tural tourism has been sup-

por t ed through the build ing of new m useum complexes , such as Cons t itu tion

Hi ll, t he Apar the id M useum and the New town cul tura l p rec inc t in Johannesburg

(Rogerson , 2002b, 2003; Sam paio , 2004). A s has been docu mented e l sewhere ,

the C onst i tut ion Hi l l and New tow n cul tural precinct projects are joint init ia t ives

betwe en the Johannesbu rg counci l and Blue IQ, the Gauteng provincial econom ic

developm ent ag enc y (Roge rson, 2004b). The s igni f icance o f these projects i s

he ightened for the regen era t ion an d re - imaging o f Johannesburg ' s inner-c i ty and

for the prom ot ion of day v i s i to rs (M cKenzie , 2004) .

The m ark et a t tract ions o f pol i tical tourism or just ice tou rism l inked to the

st ruggle against apartheid are ref lected in developm ents a t Robb en Is land or the

prom ot ion o f township tour i sm in loca l it ies such as Soweto , Alexa ndra or Inan da

am ong o thers and present another s ite for urban tour i sm expans ion (Hugh es and

Vaughan, 2001; S t range and Kempa, 2003; Bennet t , 2004b; Kaplan , 2004;

Rogerson , 2004c) . In South Afr i ca the curren t body of research in to th is form of

urba n tourism is ra ther l imi ted. However, a recent invest igat ion into the po tent ia l

of jus t ice tourism , focusing on apartheid 's a t roci ty heri tage s i tes has revealed

som e di ff icul ties in developing this type o f urba n tourism. A shw orth 's (2004)

invest iga t ion , for example , ind ica ted tha t the mana gem ent of a t roc i ty her i t age

si tes i s r iddled wi th di ff icul t ies beca use o f the mul t iple use s o f the s i tes , o f wh ich

tour i sm i s on ly one , as wel l as of the problem o f the emot ions evo ked by such

sites, wh ich impo se constraints and responsibi li ties on their m an ag em en t for tour-

i sm. N evertheless , i t wo uld app ear that this type o f tourism ho lds potent ia l to

enrich the urban t ravel experience, as wel l as havin g potent ia l for broa der-b ased

com mu ni ty par ti c ipa t ion (Boqo, 2001) .

Second hom es tour i sm has em erged over the pas t decade as a key dr iver for

urba n (re)developm ent (Hal l and Mul ler, 2004). Interna t ional ly i t has been dem -

ons t ra ted tha t second ho me s a re an impo r tan t par t o f the tour ism and l e i sure

l i festyle of m an y people in the developed w orld (Hal l and M ul ler , 2004). In par-

t icular , second hom es are an integral com pon ent o f tourism expe riences in rural

and per iphera l a reas . Al though these com plex a nd var i ed re la t ionships rece ived

detai led research at tent ion internat ional ly (see Hal l and Mul ler , 2 004 for a com-

prehens ive rev iew) , t hese concems have only recent ly emerged as an a rea of

invest igat ion wi thin the South A frican context (Ho ogen doo rn an d Visser, 20 04).

Never the less , research in to th i s phenom enon has s t a r t ed to em erge as one tha t

requires aca dem ic attention, w ith some ex ploratory wo rk recently com ing to press.

In the f i rs t academic invest igat ion to address squarely the development of sec-

ond ho m es in S outh Africa , Visser (2003a), set out to provide a general geo gra-

phy o f t h is phen om eno n i n t he loca l con t ex t. A key conc l us i on w as t ha t


14/25

7 URBAN FORUM

s i gn i f i can t l y m or e em p i r i ca l i nves t iga t i on w as r equ i r ed t o e l uc i da t e the na t u r e

a n d i m p a c t o f s e c o n d h o m e s o n h o s t c o m m u n i ti e s , n o t o n l y i n t h e p re d i c ta b l e

s econd ho m e h o t - s po ts o f t he coas t a l p r ov i nces bu t a l s o t he coun t r y ' s in t e r i o r and

m e t r o p o l it a n a re a s w h e r e g r o w i n g n u m b e r s o f s e c o n d h o m e s a r e t o b e f o u n d

(Ho og end oo rn and Vis ser , 2004; V is ser, 2003 a; 2004 a; 2004b) .

A f u r the r avenue o f i nves t i ga t ion has be en t he i m pac t o f c r i me o n t he S o u t h

A f r i can t ou r i s m s ys tem. H ow eve r , g i ven t he p r op o r t i ons o f c r i me l oca ll y , pa r -

t i cu l a r ly i n S o u t h A f r i can c i ti e s , it i s i n f ac t s omew ha t s u r p r i s ing t ha t t ha t o n l y

F e r r e ir a ( 1999) and G eor ge ( 2003) have con s i de r ed c ri me a s an i m por t an t im-

ped i m en t t o t ou r i s m deve l opm en t in S ou t h A f r ica . I n bo t h i nves t i ga t ions em p i r i-

c a l f i e l d re s e a r c h w e re c o m p a r e d w i t h s e v e ra l s tu d i e s c o n d u c t e d a t o t h e r

in te rna t iona l tour i s t des t ina t ions , whi l s t incorpo ra t ing So uth Af r ican Tour i sm da ta

on f o r e i gn v i s i to r ' s pe r cep t i ons o f t ou r i s m f ac i li t ie s in t he coun t r y . T he f i nd i ngs

r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e t o u r is m i n d u s t ry a n d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n c ie s c o - o rd i -

na t e e f f o r t s t o i mp r ove c r i me p r even t i on meas u r e s i n S ou t h A f r i can c i t ie s , no t

l ea s t i ts key u r ban t ou r is t de s t i na t i on C ape T ow n . O n t he w ho l e , t he i nves ti ga -

t i ons s ugges t ed t ha t c r i me ha s no t a s ye t a f f ec t ed t ou r i s m l eve l s in S ou t h A f r i ca

in a sub s tan t i a l ma nner . How ever , as bo th the au thors po in t ou t , i t i s no t wh ether

t hos e t ou r is t s tha t v i s it S ou t h A f r i ca a r e ove r l y con ce r ned w i t h c r i me , bu t r a t he r

how m any i n t e r na t i ona l t ou r is t s have av o i ded S o u t h A f r i ca a s des t i na t i on ow i ng

t o i t s r epu t a t i on f o r c r i me t ha t s hou l d be t he f ocus o f po l i cy deve l opm en t and

research a t t en t ion .

F i na ll y , S ou t h A f r i ca ' s c it i e s a re t he m a j o r f oca l po i n t s f o r dom es t i c hea l t h

t ou r is m, a s w e l l a s key n odes i n t he l uc r a t i ve i n t e r na t i ona l i ndus t r y o f me d i ca l

t ou r i s m ( G eor ge , 2004 ; B as s , 2005 ) . I n v i ew o f t he expan ded i n t e r na t i ona l r e -

c r u i t men t o f S o u t h A f r i can hea l t h p r o f e s s i ona l s and o f g row i ng s ho r t ages o f s ev -

era l types o f m edica l per so nne l in the pub l ic hea l th sec tor , cons iderab le sens i tiv i ty

s u rr o u n d s t h e p r o m o t i o n o f h e a l t h t o u r i sm t o S o u t h A f r ic a i n c o m p e t i ti o n w i th

A us t r i a , H un ga r y o r S ou t heas t A s i an des t i na ti ons , s uch a s M a l ays i a , S i ngapo r e

a n d T h a i l a n d ( c f. H e n d e r s o n , 2 0 0 3 ). T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a n d p i o n e e r c o m p a n y i s

S u r geon & S a f a r i, w h i ch has been o r gan i s i ng med i ca l t ou r i s m packages s i nce

1999 w i t h a s pec i a l f ocus on cos me t i c s u r ge r y unde r t aken i n C ape T ow n o r

J ohannes b u r g and c om bi ned w i t h a l ux u r y v i s i t t o t he coun t r y ' s gam e r e s e r ves

(George , 2004) . Th e therapeut ic m enu cur re n t ly inc ludes den ta l p ros the t ics , e l ec-

t ive o r t hopae d i c s u rge ry , oph t ha l mo l ogy , and a hos t o f com pl em en t a r y and a l te r -

na t ive therap ies (Bass, 2005; 42). More s in i s t e r r ecen t addi t ions have appea red

t o t he o f f e r ings o f e l ec ti ve med i ca l t r ea t m en t t ha t i s ava i l ab l e i n S ou t h A f r i ca ,

inc lu d ing organ t r ansp lan t s (Bass , 2005) .


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Tour m in Urban Africa 77

The Fu ture Deve lop me n t o f Urban Touri sm in Sou th A f r i ca

I t i s ev iden t f rom the forego ing ana lys i s tha t, h i s to r ica lly , r e sea rch in to the

Sou t h A f r i c a n u r ba n t ou r i s m s ys t e m ha s be e n s par se . I n pa r t, t h i s ne g l e c t r e fl e c ts

t he l i m i t e d i mpor t a nc e t r a d i t i ona l l y a c c o r de d t o t he t ou r i s m s ys t e m w i t h i n t he

b r oa d e r Sou t h A f r i c a n u r ba n e c on om y h is t o ri c al ly , a nd mo r e ge ne r a l l y i t is t he

c ons e qu e nc e o f t he you t h f u l ne s s o f u r ba n t ou r i s m s tud i es , bo t h l oc a l l y a nd i n te r -

na t iona l ly .

I n l i gh t o f t he po l i t ic a l t r a ns i ti on s i nce 1994 Sou t h A f r i c a e xpe r i e nc e d a pha s e

o f d r a ma t i c t ou r i s m g r ow t h ( R oge r s on a n d V i ss er , 2004 ) . I t i s s i gn i f i c a n t t ha t t he

i n i ti a l t ou r i s m p r od uc t s o n o f f e r t o bo t h dom e s t ic a n d i n t e r na t iona l tou r i st s w e r e

m a i n l y c e n t re d o n Sou t h A f r ic a s w e l l - e s ta b l i she d ga m e pa r k a nd r e s e rve s ys te m.

T he s e na t u r e - ba s e d p r oduc t s w e r e t he ke y t ou r is t o f fe r i ngs in t he e ye s o f bo t h

i n t e r na t iona l a nd dom e s t ic t ou r i s ts i ma g i na t i on o f Sou t h A f r ic a . O ve r t he pa s t

de c a de , how e ve r, t he l oc a l t ou r i s m i ndu s t r y ha s m a t u r e d a nd o ne f a c e t o f th i s

dr ive towards grea te r ma tur i ty i s d ive r s i f i ca t ion o f the tou r i sm prod uc t s o n of fe r.

M oreove r , ech oin g expe r iences in the pos t - indu s t r i a l N or th (Law, 1996) , South

A f r i c a n c i t ie s ha ve a dde d t ou r i s m de ve l opm e n t a s pa r t o f the i r loc a l a nd r e g i ona l

e c ono m i c de ve l opm e n t st ra t eg i es . U r ba n t ou r i s m i n a l l So u t h A f r i c a n m e t r opo l i -

t a n a r e a s now f o r ms a s i gn i f i c a n t a s pe c t o f t ra ve l a ge nc i e s a dve r t i s e d o f f e ri ngs .

N e ve r t he l e s s, i t i s no t o n l y t he l a r ge u r ba n c e n t re s t ha t a r e be ne f i t i ng f r om t he

e x p a n s i o n i n u r b a n t o u r is m . T h e t o u r is m - l e d d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n u m b e r o f s m a l l

towns , such a s B onn ieva le , C la rens , Grey ton , Ro be r t son , in the f ace of a gene ra l

dec l ine in the agr icu l tu ra l s ec tor , s tands t e s tam ent to the r is e o f u rba n tou r i sm as

a c r i t i ca l c om pon e n t o f t he l oc a l t ou r i s m p r odu c t o f f e ri ng .

I t m us t be c onc l ude d t ha t u r ba n t ou r i s m i n Sou t h A f r i c a i s now a n e s t a b l is he d

a s pe c t o f t he l a r ge r na t i ona l t ou r i s m e c onomy . N on e t he l e ss , i t is ou r c on t e n t i on

t ha t t h is e m e r ge nc e i s o n l y t he s t a r t ing po i n t o f the s i gn i f i c a n t f u t u re po t e n t i a l o f

u r ba n t ou r i s m i n So u t h A f ri c a . Se ve r al r e c en t t re nds s ugge s t t ha t u r ba n t ou r i s m

w i l l be c o m e o f f a r g r e at e r sc ope , s i ze a nd i mp or t a nc e i n f u t u re S ou t h A f r ic a . Fo r

e xa mp l e , one o f the m os t i m por t a n t tr e nds i n w or l d t ou r i sm h a s be e n t he r is e i n

s ho r t - b r ea k t r ip s a s e v i de nc e d i n t he r e du c t i on i n t he a ve r age l e ng t h o f t ou r i s t

t ri p s i n m os t d e s t ina t i ons w or ldw i de . D ue t o t he c ha ng i ng na t u re o f l ei s u re t ime -

m a na ge m e n t , a l ong w i t h mor e a f f o rda b l e t r ave l op t ions , pe op l e a r e t a k i ng s e v -

e r a l s h o r te r b r e a k s t o s u p p l e m e n t a l o n g h o l i d a y . T h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e

be ne f i t e d s ho r t - ha u l , a cc e s s ib l e de s t i na ti ons a nd h a ve c on t r ibu t e d t o t he g r ow t h

i n s ho r t b r ea ks . W hi l s t the s e s ho r t b r e aks c e r t a i n l y p r ov i de o ppor t un i t i e s f o r na -

ture-based , sun a nd sea ho l id ays , and a r an ge o f o the r le i sure types , the re i s a

wid espread g loba l t r end towards c i ty -b reak s (Law, 1996).


16/25


O f pa r t i c u l a r i mpor t a nc e t o t he l oc a l t ou r i s m i ndus t r y i s t he e me r ge nc e o f

Sou t h A f r i c a n c it ie s - -- e s pe c ia l ly C a pe T ow n- - a s a ' s ho r t - b r e a k ' , c i t y - ba s e d tou r -

i sm des t ina tion . Over the pas t decade , whi l s t So uth Af r ican ho l idays have em erged

a s a f a vou r it e long ha u l de s t i na t i on a nd f e a t u r e d tr a ve l p r og r a m m e s i nc l ud i ng

m a i n l y na t u r e a nd c u l t u re - ba s e d p r oduc ts , i t i s s i gn i f i c a n t t o ob s e r ve t ha t C a pe

T ow n i s inc r e a s i ng l y m a r ke t e d i n E u r ope a s a n i de al f ive - da y c i t y - b r e a k . Fo r

exam ple , the Br i t i sh newspap e r , T h e M a i l o n S u n d a y (2005: 106--107) , recent ly

r a n a t w o pa ge t ra ve l f ea t u re , s how c a s i ng a h o l i da y s pe c i f i c a l ly f oc us e d on C a pe

T ow n a s d e s t i na ti on a nd t o t a l ly i gno r i ng Sou t h A f r ic a 's t r a d i ti ona l na t u r e - ba s e d

t o u r i s m p r o d u c t s s u c h a s t h e K r u g e r N a t i o n a l P a r k a n d K w a Z u l u - N a t a l

Drakensbe rg .

I n t e r ms o f t he mor e t r a d i t i ona l l ong - ha u l ( l onge r s t a y ) t ou r i s t de s t i na t i on

ma r ke t s , t he e m e r ge nc e o f So u t h A f r i c a n c i t ie s a s de s t i na t i ons i n t he ms e l ve s ,

r a t he r t ha n a dd - ons t o a p r i ma r i l y na t u r e - ba s e d tr a ve l p r og r a m m e , i s a l s o be i ng

ech oed in the in te rna t iona l t r ave l p re s s. I l lus t r a tive ly , the L on don -based Af r ic an

Sa f a r i C l ub c u r r e n t l y (2005) m a r ke t s ho l i da ys t ha t a re e xc l u s ive l y f oc us e d on

Sou t h A f r i c a 's ma i n c oa s t a l c it ie s , i nc l ud i ng C a pe T ow n , D ur ba n , E a s t L o ndo n

a nd Po r t E l i z abe t h . T he p a r t i c u l a r p r om i ne nc e o f C a pe T ow n a s a c i t y de s t i na t i on

shou ld pe rhap s no t com e a s a surpr i se , a s dur ing 2003--4 the c i ty was vo ted amo ng

t he t op t e n d e s t ina t i ons i n t he B B C ' s na t i ona l po l l o f ' p l a c e s t o s e e be f o r e I d i e ' .

W i t h the po t e n t i a l fu t u re boos t i n t he i m por t a nc e o f u r ba n p l a c e s i n t he Sou t h

A fr ican tour i sm econom y, a c r i t ica l age nda for tour i sm re sea rche r s re la te s to the

i mpa c t s o f tou r i s m on p ove r t y i n c i ti e s. O ve r t he l a s t f ive ye a r s, one o f t he m os t

v i b r a n t the m e s i n Sou t h A f r i c a n tou r i s m r e s e a r c h r e la t e s t o w h a t ha s be e n t e r m e d

' p r o - poo r t ou r i s m ' w h i c h i s a nc ho r e d on m a x i m i s i ng the po t e n t i a l a nd i nc r e a s -

i ng t he ne t be ne f i t s o f tou r i s m de ve l op m e n t fo r the po o r ( V i s se r a nd R oge r s on ,

2004) . Cur ren t ly , Sou th Af r ic a is bo th a l eade r and l abo ra tory for the deve lop -

m e n t o f p r o -p o o r t o u r is m i n t h e S o u t h ( A s h l e y a n d N t s h o n a , 2 0 0 2 ; A s h l e y a n d

R oe , 2002 ; M a ho ny a nd va n Z y l , 2002 ; Spe nc e l e y a nd Se i f , 2003 ; R oe et a l .

2004) . I t i s s ign i f i can t , however , tha t the pr im e foc us o f ex i s t ing pro -po or tour -

i s m s c ho l a r s h ip ha s be e n i n r u r a l a r e a s a nd upo n Sou t h A f r i c a' s tr a d i t iona l na-

ture -based a t t rac t ions . We a rgue tha t a sh i f t is needed n ow to em brace m ore w ide ly

t he c ha l l e nge s o f de ve l op i ng p r o - poo r t ou r i s m i n S ou t h A f r i c a 's u r ba n a r e a s.

I ndee d , l oc al r e se a r ch c onc e r n i ng t he u r ba n d i me ns i ons o f p r o - poo r t ou r i sm w ou l d

r e p r e s e n t a p o t e n t i a l ly i mpo r t a n t a nd i nnova t i ve c on t r i bu t ion , ou t o f A f ri c a , to -

w a r ds i n t e r na t i ona l s c ho l a r sh i p on u r ba n t ou r is m.


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Tour i sm in Urban A f r i ca 79

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

F or f i nanc i a l s uppor t i n t h i s r e s ea r ch p r o jec t , C h r i s R og e r s on acknow l edges

as s is t ance f r om t he N a t i ona l R es ea r ch F ounda t i on , P r e t o ri a G un 2054064 . T h anks

a r e due t o M r s W endy J ob , C a r t og r aph i c U n i t, U n i ve r s i t y o f the W i t w a t e r s rand

f o r p r epa r a t i on o f t he d i ag r ams .

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Ashley, C. and Roe, D., 2002: M akin g tourism work fo r the poor: strategies and chal-

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