Tourism and

Ecotourism

1

Ecotourism

A Tourism

TOURISM

FACTS

Tourism: is world largest single industry

Turnover: US$ 3.6 trillion

Receipts: US$ 478 billion

Magnitude: 1996, 11% of global GDP top export category for 83countries

Job creation: 255 million jobs worldwide 11% of world employment

Prospects: will double in ten years

Share of world travel: 60%

Growth in destination: 7.3% annual growth (arrivals) developingcountries destination

Ecotourism: 3 to 7% of global market

Revenue: 55% of each tourism dollar leaks out of the destinationRevenue: 55% of each tourism dollar leaks out of the destination

to developed countries (World Bank estimate)

Arrivals: 698 million international tourist arrivals recorded in2000

Nature tourism: 40 to 60% of all tourism

TOURISM MEGATRENDS

Globalization Localisation.

Electronic technology will become all-powerful in influencing destination choice and distribution.

Fast track travel emphasis will be placed on facilitation and speeding up of the travel process.

Customers will call the shots through technology such as CD-ROM atlases, Internet inspection of hotel and other facilities, brokers offering discounted rooms on Websites, last minute e-mail low fares, etc.

Polarisation of tourist tastes: for comfort-based and the adventure-oriented.

The tourists shrinking world more tourism to off the beaten track places and the advent of near space tourism.

Destination as fashion accessory.

Targeted product market development (especially theme based) oriented to one or a combination of the three Es entertainment, excitement and education.

More destination focus on image as a prerequisite to the diversification and expansion of drawing power, e.g. Spains move from being a cheap package destination to promotion on the basis of from being a cheap package destination to promotion on the basis of beauty and culture.

Everyone is chasing the Asian tourist.

Growing impact of consumer led campaigns for sustainable tourism development and fair trade in tourism.

Conflict between the increased consumer socio-environmental consciousness versus the urge for travel consumption

Arrivals and expenditures of tourists in selected countries

Source: UNCTAD Handbook of Statistics 2003

B Ecotourism

I. NATURE TOURISM FOR DEVELOPMENT

Developing countries are richly endowed with valuable and often unique

natural resources consisting of unspoiled environments, as well as exotic surroundings

and unique flora and fauna. Faced with pressing economic and social needs, they have to

identify an optimal use of these resources for the acceleration of their economic

development.

Travel and tourism have become the worlds largest and constantlyTravel and tourism have become the worlds largest and constantly

expanding industry, with a significant potential for generating economic growth and

employment.

However, the expectations set on nature tourism as a vehicle for a rapid

economic development without impacts on the country's natural resources may not

always be met. It is therefore important for developing countries: (a) to assess the

implications of the development of nature tourism against other options, (b) to ensure

that natural resources are exploited in a sustainable manner.

Box 1 - Types of tourism

Travel & tourism (T&T) refers to travelling to and staying in places

outside the travellers' usual environment for leisure, business and other purposes.

Tourism is essentially the part of T&T which is associated with travel for leisure

purposes. Tourism can imply visiting: (a) man-made attractions or (b) natural

attractions.

Examples of the former category are: (a) city-based tourism where tourists

enjoy sight-seeing, shopping and entertainment amenities available in cities; or (b)enjoy sight-seeing, shopping and entertainment amenities available in cities; or (b)

historic tourism where tourists can appreciate unique art and the history of the places

they visit.

The latter category consists of different types of nature tourism which can

be broadly defined as travelling to relatively uncontaminated natural areas with the

specific object of admiring and enjoying the scenery, wild plants and animals, as well

as existing cultures. According to the main tourists interest with regard to nature, this

wide category can further be subdivided into:

Box I - Types of tourism (continued)

Mountain-based tourism where tourists enjoy cool climate, forests, scenic beauty and

pleasant surroundings;

Seaside or coastal tourism based on sandy beaches, sea, sun and water sports (also

called SSS, I.e. sea-sun-and tourism;

Rural tourism (agrotourism) where tourists spend their holiday on a functioning farm

which supplements its income by providing accommodation, meals and the opportunity

for learning about farm activities;

water transport-based tourism referring to boat travel on rivers, canals and lakes as

well as larger sea-going cruise ship travel;

adventure tourism encompassing tourist activities which involve a certain element of

physical challenge and sometimes danger (for example rafting, trekking);

wildlife tourism consisting in watching animals (big mammals, birds, etc.) in their

natural habitats, mainly in protected areas.

Box 1 - Types of tourism (continued)

Nature tourism, which is often conducted on a large scale (mass or conventional

tourism) frequently brings about negative impacts on natural and cultural

environments. In order to prevent these effects, ecotourism has been suggested as an

alternative to mass tourism. Main features of ecotourism are: (a) small scale, (b)

lower requirements for infrastructure development; (c) responsible attitude towards the

environment in host areas (low impact, conservation);(d) involvement of and benefits

for local populations; (e) promotion of mutual understanding between tourists and

their hosts. However, given the limited number of visitors that ecotourism can

accommodate (estimated at about 3 to 7 per cent of the global tourism market,

according to WTTC, WTO - World Tourism Organization, Earth Council, undated), it

cannot really substitute for mass tourism. Moreover, since ecotourists often visit placescannot really substitute for mass tourism. Moreover, since ecotourists often visit places

of unique value whose fragile ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to outside

influence, ecotourism, if not properly managed, is essentially confronted with the same

problems of sustainability as its large-scale counterpart.

Source: WTO 1993, WTO 1995, ESCAP 1995, Lindberg and Hawkins 1993, Smith and

Eadington 1995, Caballos-Lascurin 1988, Cater and Lowman 1994, New Frontiers

1993

Note: The above classification and definitions of different forms of tourism should be

considered as tentative since there is still a divergence of views, especially with regard

to the terms of nature tourism and ecotourism.

II. IMPACTS OF NATURE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT

ON HOST DESTINATIONS

A. Potential benefits from nature tourism

1. Economic benefits

Tourism has become: (a) an important source of increased national income (for

example, with a share in GDP of 32 and 25 per cent in Barbados and Belize,

respectively), (b) a major contributor to the countries' foreign exchange earnings.respectively), (b) a major contributor to the countries' foreign exchange earnings.

It can also play an important role as a provider of employment opportunities.

2. Environmental conservation

Tourism has the potential of becoming a tool for environmental improvement and

the conservation of nature.

3. Cultural revival and social preservation

The demand created by nature tourism can stimulate the revival of old local

traditions and arts, thereby strengthening indigenous people's identity and pride in their

cultural heritage.

Box 2 - Revival of local culture in Belize

The creation of a museum with exhibits on local Creole culture as a part of

the Community Baboon Sanctuary in Belize has marked the beginning of a yearly

festival and revived the community interest in its cultural tradition. Creole folk singing,festival and revived the community interest in its cultural tradition. Creole folk singing,

story telling, and bushcrafts have seen a renaissance along with traditional uses of

tropical forests. These uses include boiling chicle sap for chewing gum, carving wood

dishes, making fly brushes, tongs and fish traps and processing cohune palm cooking

oil. Even more importantly, the project has awakened a sense of pride and achievement

among the population.

Source: Horwich, Murray, Saqui, Lyon and Godfrey 1993

B. Potential pitfalls of nature tourism

1. Economic drawbacks

People in emerging tourist destinations often abandon their traditional

activities in farming or fishing for jobs in the tourism sector.

Moreover, the contribution of nature tourism to the country's economic

development can be impaired as a result of foreign exchange leakages1/ attributable todevelopment can be impaired as a result of foreign exchange leakages attributable to

imports of goods from mostly developed countries, as well as to foreign ownership of

tourist facilities which may be associated with the repatriation of profits.

_________________

1/ The World Bank estimates that 55 per cent of each tourism dollar leaks out of the destination back to

the developed countries (Epler Wood 1992).

2. Environmental problems

The relationship between tourism and the environment is very complex. On

the one hand, tourism has the potential to contribute to the enhancement of conservation

efforts. On the other hand, many tourism-related activities can have adverse

environmental effects in terms of pollution (water and air pollution, solid waste, visual

pollution from inappropriate building activities)

Box 3 - Adverse implications of golf tourism in South-East Asia

The process of tourism development in South-East Asia has been

accompanied by a massive promotion of golf tourism. In view of the increasing

popularity of this sport, as well as the high costs of practicing it in developed countries,

South-East Asia has been promoted as a cheap golfing destination. In 1992, there were

120 golf courses in operation in Thailand, 75 in Malaysia, 11 in Singapore, with many

more planned in these countries, as well as in Indonesia, the Philippines and elsewhere

in the region.in the region.

The zeal to build golf courses has resulted in significant adverse impacts on

the local environment, as well as the well-being and culture of the local population.

Among the major negative effects are:

Box 3 - Adverse implications of golf tourism in South-East Asia

Destruction of natural landscapes and biodiversity - large quantities of soil are

removed, forests destroyed, mountains blown up and swampland drained in the process

of laying a golf course; diverse indigenous vegetation is replaced by a limited number

of exotic plant varieties.

Excessive water consumption - golf resorts often worsen existing water shortages due

to the daily requirements of at least 3,000 cubic metres of water for the fairways,

greens, clubhouses, hotels and swimming pools. For example, in the Hua Hin and Cha-

am areas in Thailand, the excessive consumption of water by golf courses hasam areas in Thailand, the excessive consumption of water by golf courses has

contributed to the drying up of the Kaeng Krachan reservoir. This has caused severe

hardship to local residents who have even had to buy water from the provincial

waterworks authorities.

Contamination and poisoning from chemicals - massive amounts of fertilizers,

pesticides, herbicides, fungicides and other chemicals are used to treat golf courses.

These chemicals contaminate the water, soil and air. The quantity used on golf courses

in Japan, for example, is 8.5 times more than that in the rice paddies. An estimated one

third of this quantity is dispersed into the air, one half absorbed by the soil and the rest

lingers on trees and plants. As a result, many caddies, greenkeepers and nearby

residents suffer from eye irritations and skin diseases.

Box 3 - Adverse implications of golf tourism in South-East Asia

Foreign exchange leakages - many golf projects are more or less owned by foreigners

because local investors do not usually have enough capital to meet the high costs of

construction and maintenance. Currency then leaks out of the country when profits are

repatriated or loans paid back. Moreover, most of the equipment and materials used to

construct, maintain and use a golf course have to be imported. In Thailand, for example,

the total import of golfing materials has resulted in a currency leakage of US$ 480

million in 1989.

Land dispossession - the golf course business is cited among the main causes of Land dispossession - the golf course business is cited among the main causes of

growing landlessness in rural areas. Local residents, who often do not possess official

land ownership documents, are manipulated into selling their land well below the real

market value. Investors often work through village heads who receive commissions for

their efforts in transacting land deals with villagers.

Low number and quality of jobs - the jobs associated with the golf boom are mostly

temporary. During the construction phase, some 200 to 300 labourers are needed for

about two years, but when the course is already operating, only 30 to 40 people are

employed. Moreover, the jobs are reported not to be very well paid.

Source: Pleumarom 1992, Sexton 1992, ESCAP 1995a, ESCAP 1995b, WWF 1992

3. Adverse socio-cultural impact

Contact with relatively well-off tourists and their Western consumer culture

provides a different perspective on life to the local population.

C. Assessment of nature tourism as a development option

(a) Areas seeking diversification of their economic activities

In some cases, developing countries may wish to diversify the range of sectors

which constitute the basis for their economic development. Nature tourism could be

integrated into this strategy.

(b) Areas without strong preconditions for the development of other activities

Tourism may represent one of the few viable routes towards economic growth for

some developing countries with a rich endowment in natural beauty.

- Foreign exchange leakages

(c) Areas with a declining major economic activity

Developing countries may envisage nature tourism as an option for economically

depressed areas, either to replace the declining activity or to use (agro-) tourism as a

complementary source of revenue.

III. BASIC FEATURES OF THE NATURE TOURISMMARKET

A. Main trends in demand. Diverse interest and growing demand

The rapid growth of tourism during the post-war period has been triggered by

increased disposable income and leisure time, earlier retirement age and extended life

expectancy in the developed countries. Two major trends of relevance to the developing

country nature tourism can be identified in the context of this general expansion of travel,

reflecting the shift in consumer preferences, namely:reflecting the shift in consumer preferences, namely:

- move upmarket in terms of quality travel towards more diverse and specialized

travel.

- upsurge in environmental consciousness among tourists resulting in

heightened interest in nature-related travel and protection of nature.

B. The resource base of nature tourism

The product offered by nature tourism operators consists essentially of well preserved

natural environments (clean seas, pristine mountain slopes, unpolluted water, exotic

wildlife) and diverse cultural traditions.

The concept of carrying capacity is of particular importance in the identification of

the limits not to be exceeded. The term refers to the maximum number of tourists whichthe limits not to be exceeded. The term refers to the maximum number of tourists which

can be accommodated by a destination at a given time:

C environmental carrying capacity, which is the level of visitation beyond which

unacceptable ecologic impacts will occur, either from tourists or the amenities they

require.

C tourist social carrying capacity, which represents the level beyond which visitor

satisfaction drops unacceptably as a result of environmental degradation and

overcrowding. It is generally expressed as a number of people who can stay in an area

at a time without feeling uncomfortable.

C Thailand Institute of Science and Technology estimated the tourist social carrying

capacity in the area of the Na Muang Waterfall in Ko Samui at 60 people at a time, orcapacity in the area of the Na Muang Waterfall in Ko Samui at 60 people at a time, or

533 tourists per day.

C host social carrying capacity which is the level beyond which unacceptable change

will be caused to local cultural stability and attitudes towards tourists. The limits of this

element of the carrying capacity are reached at the moment when the impact of tourism

causes such a resentment among the local population towards visitors that it triggers a

negative interaction between the two groups.

C In Mauritius, a tourist/host ratio of 1:3 has proved satisfactory, with no sign of rejection

or feeling of invasion noted. With 10,000 tourists a day on average, the local feeling

towards visitors is rather one of acceptance and friendly inaction.

C. Concept of the tourism cycle

The demand-supply relationship in tourism in general and in nature tourism in particular is very

dynamic and depends on the quality of each destination in terms of the state of its natural attractions, as

well as on fashion-related factors. As a result, most destinations pass through various stages of what is

called the tourism cycle.

Figure 1 - Tourism cycle

Source: based on Butler 1980

Concept of sustainable tourism

Table 1 - Major changes in tourist destinations during the tourism cycle

Box 5 - Concept of sustainable tourism

Sustainable tourism aims, in the long run, to attain the following goals:

to preserve the environment/landscapes and to ensure that the development of tourism iscompatible with the long-term maintenance of essential biological processes andresources (environmental sustainability);

to safeguard social and cultural traditions of local people, to maintain and strengthen the to safeguard social and cultural traditions of local people, to maintain and strengthen thecommunity identity (socio-cultural sustainability);

to provide optimal relaxation and a pleasant experience for tourists (touristssatisfaction);

to be economically profitable, i.e. to ensure economic benefits for all the actorsinvolved in the tourism sector, with particular emphasis on an equitable share inbenefits going to the host communities (economic sustainability).

Planning for nature tourism

Table 3 - Zones in the Great Barrier Marine Reef Park

Stage 1 - Assessment of the tourism potential

Stage 2 - Determining the desirable situation (goal-setting).

C no-nature-tourism, or conservation zone has the strictest regulations, is usually

reserved for scientific purposes and not open to tourists.

C regulated nature tourism zone is generally rather varied and may be further subdivided

according to the strictness of environmental protection and the range of activities whichaccording to the strictness of environmental protection and the range of activities which

are still considered acceptable.

C all-(sustainable)-nature tourism zone includes areas of lesser biological importance and

lower vulnerability able to tolerate higher visitor frequency; it is open to all types of

sustainable nature tourism as well as to other economic activities.

Stage 3 - Selection of instruments to achieve the goals

Stage 4 - Implementation, monitoring, and adaptation of approaches and instruments

Box 6 - Increasing the carrying capacity of a natural site

(Milford Sound, New Zealand)

Milford Sound, one of New Zealand's most visited attractions and a part of

the World Heritage Site of Fiorland National Park, is famous for its towering peaks, the

deep fiord and cascading waterfalls. Visitors tend to come in a short peak period and

most of them take a launch trip on the sound. The small fishing village situated at the

head of the sound was able to handle around 2,000 people per day.

In the 1970s, Milford began to experience first serious congestion problems

in terms of cars and buses jammed in the small parking area, little public shelter and

inadequate access for pedestrians to tourist facilities, especially boarding areas for tour

boats. The park was faced with two management options: either to limit the number of

people, or to redevelop tourist facilities. By 1988, after much public consultation and

negotiation, a development plan was agreed upon aiming at increasing the capacity of

the site to 4,000 visitors per day.

Box 6 - Increasing the carrying capacity of a natural site (continued)

(Milford Sound, New Zealand)

The redevelopment of facilities included a new visitor centre and toilets,

improvements to the airport, a new ticketing facility, a new launching berth area and

extra parking, with all facilities linked by covered walkways. To accommodate the

redevelopment, 2.3 hectares of land were reclaimed. Overnight accommodation in

Milford is still restricted. Power is supplied by a small, low-impact hydro scheme, all

rubbish is compacted and removed regularly from a storage site to the township of Te

Anau.Anau.

The project is an example of a fruitful cooperation between the public and

private sectors - it was undertaken by a consortium of public agencies and the Milford

tour operators themselves. The funding came from a levy on passenger tickets

collected by launch operators, a government grant, a waiver of concession fees by the

Department of Conservation and government guarantees for loans.

Source: Green 1992

2. Limiting access to existing attractions

Box 7 - Limiting access to natural and cultural resources in Bhutan

The Kingdom of Bhutan, situated in the eastern Himalaya, offers tourists a spectacular

mountain scenery and strongly traditional Buddhist cultural patterns, including the distinctive

Bhutanese architecture. A subsistence lifestyle prevails over the modern cash economy.

The government, aware that the unrestricted flow of tourists could lead to socio-cultural

and environmental problems, decided to apply a strict policy of controlling tourism development.

Among others, target numbers of arrivals are set up in tourism development plans. According to the

seventh five-year plan (1992-1996), for example, 6,000 tourists are projected to visit the country inseventh five-year plan (1992-1996), for example, 6,000 tourists are projected to visit the country in

1996.

All non-Indian holiday visitors must come on prearranged, all-inclusive package tours.

No individual tourists are allowed entry into the country. Minimum daily expenditures per tourist

have been established (US $ 200 a day in 1990). Controls are exercised through entry visa

procedures and arrangements with overseas tour operators.

From 1988, tourists are denied access to some places of particular religious value,

such as certain monasteries and temples. Also the types of tourism are regulated. Most tourists

come on cultural tours (80 per cent) and for trekking, including cultural treks to monasteries. A

very limited number of mountain climbing expeditions are allowed.

The government intends to continue the policy of controlled tourism development

and to open up new areas only gradually as the supporting infrastructure is put in place. The

main objective is to ensure that the type and rate of growth of tourism do not damage, but rather

help to preserve the country's natural environment and cultural heritage.

Source: Inskeep 1991

3. Dispersing the pressure through developing new attractions

4. Preventing excessive consumption of natural resources

Box 8 - Combating deforestation in Nepal

(Annapurna Conservation Area Project)

The Annapurna mountain range in Western Nepal is recognized to have one of

the world's most spectacular landscapes, moreover presenting an outstanding array of

biological and cultural diversity. Over the last two decades, the explosion in trekking

tourism has upset the delicate ecological and social balance in the region. Annapurna

Conservation Area Project (ACAP), set up in 1986, aims at remedying this situation byConservation Area Project (ACAP), set up in 1986, aims at remedying this situation by

taking an integrated approach to rural development ranging from nature conservation

through community health and sanitation to the generation of employment.

One of the major environmental threats in the area is continuing deforestation.

Forests are depleted, to a large extent, to fulfill the fuel and construction requirements by

tourists and tourist installations. Four solutions have been suggested by ACAP to reverse

this unfavourable trend:

Box 8 - Combating deforestation in Nepal

(Annapurna Conservation Area Project)

Alternative energy programmes: In areas with the most acute fuelwood shortage,

trekkers are requested to use kerosene for cooking, supplied from tanks built by

ACAP.This initiative saves some 1,600 kilograms of firewood a day. However, since

kerosene has to be imported from abroad, the country might become excessively

dependent on external factors. Another solution is to resort to renewable sources of

energy. A micro-hydroelectricity project has been implemented in the village of

Ghandruk with financial and technical assistance from abroad, as well as from local

sources. New technologies have been developed in Nepal to store the energy from thissources. New technologies have been developed in Nepal to store the energy from this

project. Finally, solar water heaters have been installed in some lodges.

Energy-saving technologies: Fuel-saving devices have been installed in the region,

namely back-boiler water heaters, heat storage cookers, improved stoves, etc. The

introduction of 200 back-boiler water heaters by itself is reported to have saved 40 per

cent of fuelwood consumption.

Reforestation programmes: More than ten tree nurseries have been established in

various places of the region. Seedlings produced (50,000 a year) are distributed free of

charge to the local people for both community and individual plantations.

Box 8 - Combating deforestation in Nepal (continued)

(Annapurna Conservation Area Project)

Community forest management: Local committees were created to protect the existing

forest. These committees composed of members elected by local people are responsible

for the management of the forest, allow the members of the community to collect

firewood and fodder in a sustainable manner and keep the fines collected from those

who have broken the rules.

Source: Gurung and De Coursey 1994, Panos 1995, Ecodecision 1995

C. Instruments for sustainable management of natural resources in tourism

C regulatory instruments inducing changes in the behaviour of main stakeholders by

regulating the development of nature tourism through the stipulation of rules and

standards aimed at ensuring the protection of natural and cultural environments;

Table 4 - Regulation of tourism activities in the Pulau Redang Marine Park, Malaysia

Economic instruments that motivate individual nature tourism actors to change their

behaviour by means of pricing mechanism, and that help ensure the necessary funding for the

conservation of natural resources;

Box 9 Methods of setting fees in nature tourism

1. Comparison with similar sites

Since the most important demand factors are the uniqueness of the natural attractionSince the most important demand factors are the uniqueness of the natural attraction

and the overall quality of general trip experience, this method suggests to identify sites of a

similar ranking, or to adjust the fees charged elsewhere taking into account the competitive

position of the attraction concerned. For example, an estimate has recently been made of an

appropriate user fee for a typical park in Central America. As Central American parks would

rank lower in terms of quality of attraction (ease of viewing wildlife, e.g.) than, for example,

parks in Africa, the optimal fee would be situated between US$ 5 and US$ 10.

Box 9 Methods of setting fees in nature tourism (continued)

2. Survey of tourist demand

The basic concept behind this method is that tourists express their own willingness to pay

for the access to an attraction through a market survey questionnaire. The results of the survey may

however vary according to the formulation of the basic question. If the tourists are asked how much

they think the fee should be, the sum may be lower that in the case when they are asked whether they

would cancel their trip if the fee exceeded a certain amount.

3. Auctioning permits

Auctioning permits or other tourism fees aligns fees with demand since tour operators will

bid as much as they are willing to pay for the permit. However, auctions are generally suitable only in

cases when there is a limited number of permits and when the price of such permits is relatively high.

An example may be hunting or high-value tourism opportunities as viewing mountain gorillas. Local

safari hunting concessions are auctioned in Zambia's South Luangwa National Park, for example. A

similar system has been proposed by environmentalists in Belize to auction visitor slots at highly

popular skin/scuba diving site in a coral reef park.

In practice, however, the methods of setting fees are usually combined. Moreover, a

reactive management may be used to gradually increase fees until the optimal level (remunerative for

the site and still acceptable for the tourists) is reached. The fee-setting should also remain sufficiently

flexible in order to enable introducing changes as a reaction to the changing demand.

Source: based on Lindberg and Huber 1993; Convention on Biological Diversity 1995

Box 10 - Use of economic instruments for (co-)financing conservation of nature tourism sites

1. Bonaire Marine Park, Dutch Antilles (see box 4)

After the failure in the mid-1980s, grant money was obtained in 1992 from the government

of the Netherlands for a three-year period subject to certain conditions, one of which was that the park

would be made self-financing. A new management committee consisted of the government, a park

foundation and the private sector. A user fee of US$ 10 was introduced in 1992, which was to cover

salaries and operational expenses to run the park.

2. Annapurna ConservationArea Project (see box 8)

ACAP is essentially being funded by foreign donors and through entrance fees on foreign

trekkers. For example, the Canadian Cooperation Office, the WWF, King Mahendra UK Trust and the

Agricultural Development Bank in Nepal provided financial assistance to a micro-hydroelectricity

project in the park. Since the objective of the project, however, is to make it self-reliant in the near

future, in the Upper Mustang Area, for instance, the 1,000 trekkers allowed to trek each year are charged

a fee of US$ 700 for a 10-day trek. 60 per cent of this amount is channelled back into conservation and

the local economy. Moreover, the 30,000 visitors Annapurna receives every year have been asked for a

contribution of US$8 to help finance this large-scale project.

Source: Post 1994, Gurung and De Coursey 1994, Ecodecision 1995, Panos 1995

Persuasive instruments persuasive instruments which aim at influencing the

behaviour of actors involved in tourism through persuasion to ensure that voluntary steps

are taken by these actors towards environmental protection.

Box 14 - Environmental certification schemes in tourism

1. GREEN GLOBE

Green Globe is a programme supported by 23 major T&T industry associations

which declared their commitment to sustainable development of tourism. It confers twowhich declared their commitment to sustainable development of tourism. It confers two

types of awards: (a) Green Globe Achievement Award (for member companies which have

demonstrated outstanding achievement in improving their environmental performance in the

key areas) and (b) Green Globe Destination Award attributed after two years of

implementation of a mutually agreed environmental improvement programme. The awards

are conferred on the basis of a judgement by an international committee, composed of

members from both the environmental and business communities. Moreover, each member

of Green Globe is entitled to display the Green Globe logo on their brochures and

promotional material.

Box 14 - Environmental certification schemes in tourism (continued)

2. CERT (Campaign for Environmentally Responsible Tourism)

CERT assesses the environmental performance of member companies by means

of a questionnaire on environmental issues, which is distributed by the company for

completion by its clients. On return of the questionnaires, the company may be presented

one of the three levels of award: bronze, silver, or gold.

3. Green Leaf

Green Leaf has been developed by the Pacific Asia Travel Association. It

assesses the environmental performance of organizations by means of a general and a

sector-specific questionnaire. The Green Leaf award is given to the companies that score an

average of 60 per cent in the two questionnaires.

Box 14 - Environmental certification schemes in tourism (continued)

4. Green Suitcase

The programme was developed by Okologischer Tourismus in Europe and aims

to assess environmental records of resorts, tourist accommodation, and travel agents in

Europe. Participants are inspected by an independent expert examining issues like waste

prevention and recycling, noise, water consumption and treatment, and energy use. Gold,

silver and bronze awards are given to companies that meet the required standards,

however, to encourage improvements, gold awards are difficult to achieve.

5. Blue Flag

Blue Flag was developed by the World Tourism Organization and the

Federation for Environmental Education in Europe to assess the cleanliness of beaches.

The programme measures concentrations of a range of pollutants on beaches and marinas.

Sampling of waters is carried out by local authorities. Although Blue Flag was originally

designed for Europe, efforts are currently

made to extend it worldwide.

Source: WTTC, WTO, Earth Council undated; Environment and Development, July 1995; Green Globe Annual Review

1995/96

Table 7

Use of policy instruments to implement different management approaches

towards limiting the adverse impact of tourism on natural resources

waste minimization; energy conservation and management; management of fresh water

resources; waste water management; hazardous substances; transport; land-use planning and

management; involving staff, customers and communities in environmental issues; design for

sustainability, and partnerships for sustainable development (WTTC, WTO, Earth Council

undated).

D. Implementation constraints

Developing country governments may encounter constraints in their efforts to implement

various instruments for the protection of their natural resources exploited for tourism purposes.

In general, they may: (a) face pressure from abroad, (b) be confronted with internal constraints.In general, they may: (a) face pressure from abroad, (b) be confronted with internal constraints.

Countries that have attempted to adopt more stringent measures to protect their natural

resources have sometimes been forced to step down by the threat that foreign companies would

divert their interests elsewhere. For example, a proposal that a US$ 50 per head passenger

cruise tax should be levied in the Caribbean has met with such threats from US cruise lines.

Box 15 Economics of internalization

(Pattaya, Thailand)

Pattaya is an example of a beach resort where the rapid growth of tourism has brought about

pollution and environmental degradation. Sea water has become unsuitable for swimming since 1986, coral

reefs have been seriously damaged and the coast has suffered from erosion and beach losses. Essentially as a

result of environmental problems, the number of tourists began to decline from 1988, with subsequent losses in

the tourism-generated revenue.

The amount of revenue lost from 1988 to 1990 was estimated at 455.7 million baht a year, which

was due both to decreasing visitations, and an increase in the proportion of low income tourists. Apart from lost

revenues, environmental degradation may have resulted in irreversible ecological damages which are difficult to

express in numbers.express in numbers.

Estimates of environmental protection costs have been made ex-post which included sewage

treatment and solid waste disposal, the major environmental problems of the resort. With a reservation of a

margin of error of plus or minus 30 per cent, the author of the estimate situated the annual cost of maintaining

Pattayas environment at a satisfactory level at 66.7 million baht in 1990, which represented 0.4 per cent of the

total revenue generated by the tourism sector, or 1.9 per cent of tourism profits.

Even though the above estimates may not fully reflect all aspects of the very complex reality, the

resulting comparison of internalization costs (66.7 million baht a year) and forgone revenues, or costs of non-

internalization, (455 million baht a year) indicates that environmental protection may be a cost-effective

approach even in a short to medium run.

Source: Manopimoke 1992

2. Internal constraints to the protection of natural resources in tourism

(a) Overriding policy priorities

(b) Competitiveness concerns

(c) Lack of local participation

V. CONCLUSIONSV. CONCLUSIONS

Many developing countries with a rich natural resources endowment are confronted

with the question of how best use these resources in the interest of economic and social

development for their populations. For this reason, tourism oriented towards visiting unspoiled

natural attractions in developing countries has gained a prominent place in development

strategies of a number of these countries, and received a considerable support from the

international tourism industry.

However, nature tourism, if not properly managed, will not fulfill these

expectations. Available experience has shown that economic benefits for the country can

be impaired by foreign exchange leakages, disadvantages of an excessive dependency on

one sector, or the fact that nature tourism development does not sufficiently benefit local

populations.

Systematic cooperation and partnerships among governments, tourism industry,

researchers, NGOs, local communities and tourists towards conceiving and implementing

appropriate combinations of policy instruments for sustainable management of natural

resources in tourism are crucial prerequisites of success in this area.resources in tourism are crucial prerequisites of success in this area.

The implementation of sustainable management of natural resources in

developing country tourism is a challenging, but complicated task with long-term

repercussions.

Despite all the implementation problems, however, developing countries should

strive to take active steps, within their possibilities, towards the preservation of their

natural resources.

C What can go wrong

Figure 7.1. Environmental damage resulting from the 1992 Winter Olympics.

Albertville, France

The rivers Taff and Ely flow into Cardiff

Bay (Figure 3). They form a wide

estuary which experiences the second

highest tide in the world, with a range

of over 12 meters at spring tides).

THE EXAMPLE OF CARDIFF BAY

of over 12 meters at spring tides).

As the tide ebbs it exposes areas of salt marsh, wetlands, and mudflats. This tidal

regime is accompanied by the arrival and departure of wading birds and wild fowl

which feed on the rich marine life of the estuary muds. The birds are both resident and

migratory species. The government has designated the estuary as a site of special scientific

interest (SSSI), covering an area of 240 ha (594 acres).

The area around the port became one of the world's great sailor towns and was

internationally known as Tiger Bay. Tiger Bay became multiracial and culturally diverse and

was especially characterized by sailors' boarding houses, brothels and bars.

The coal trade started to decline after the First World War and the vast areas ofThe coal trade started to decline after the First World War and the vast areas of

docks were gradually rendered redundant. What Goodwin has described as a zone of

discard. Increasingly, it was divorced from the central business district and the more

prosperous parts of the city.

_______________________1. David Hilling, ASocio-Economic Change in the Maritime Quarter: The Demise of Sailortown@, in B.S.

Hoyle, D.A. Pinder, and M.S. Hussain, eds., Revitalising the Waterfront (Belhaven Press, 1988) and Stan Hugill, Sailor

Town (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967)

2. Robert F. Goodwin, AWaterfront Revitalization@, in M.J. Hersham, Urban Ports and Harbor Management

(London: Taylor & Francis, 1988), p.287.

In 1985, as a basis for regeneration, the regional government supported a proposal

to construct a massive concrete barrage impounding the two rivers and creating an artificial

freshwater lake. In 1987, Cardiff Bay Development Corporation (CBDC -- a quango) was

established by an Act of Parliament.

The arguments of the promoters of the barrage project were that water side

locations and views adjacent to an artificial lake would attract to the Bay area business,

offices, restaurants, shops, and high-quality residential housing. Land values would rise and

the investment of 584 million pounds (US$880 million) of public money would result in

private investment at a leverage ratio of 1 to 7. They considered the visual scene would beprivate investment at a leverage ratio of 1 to 7. They considered the visual scene would be

greatly improved in the coastal area by the covering of mudflats and the removal of the tidal

range.

The government in power was Conservative and had a strong commitment to

speculative investment, but the project was also supported by local government, which was

Labour controlled.

The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was particularly horrified at the loss

of these vital feeding grounds for residential bird life and for the migratory birds that rested

and refuelled on the mudflats during their passages from and to northern latitudes and the

Mediterranean and Africa.

The residents of a wide area around and beyond the Bay were extremely worried

when they realized that the fixed level of an artificial lake would impede drainage from

below the complex surface geology of the city.

The case so far outlined should indicate that here was an instance of a clear

conflict between economic development and environmental conservation which was local in

spatial terms but national and international in effects. It challenged the very concept of

sustainable development to which the national government was committed. The

government had full control over the situation as it eventually became the promoters of the

bill which would enable the barrage to be built and the estuary destroyed.

Attitudes to Development and Environment

Preeminent in this was the creation of the maritime environment by

impounding the waters of the Bay behind a barrage to create a lake which would give

Cardiff its special character, marketing opportunities, and image as compared with

other towns and cities competing for investment in Britain and Europe.

Views of citizens

Citizens formed action groups, or used their existing community organizations in

order to petition against the project.

Views of Environmental and Planning Organizations

The Bay is rich in invertebrates and the feeding of wildfowl and wader birds. The

main concerns of the environmental groups were: the loss of feeding grounds, destruction of an

SSSI, deterioration in water quality of the proposed lake because of the highly polluted rivers

which would flow into it; the long retention time of water spreads green and blue algae; smells;

insects; and leptospirosis. As it was, the heavily polluted rivers entering the bay were flushed

each day by the great tides. The environmentalists called for the retention of the tidal regime and

the diversion of funds to clean up the rivers at the sources of pollution.

Cardiff Bay is one of Wales' most prestigious natural assets holding 5000-8000 birds

each winter including dunlin, redshank, shelduck, teal, and knot. Many of these birds travel

thousands of miles from as far away as Iceland, Greenland, and Siberia to winter on Cardiffs ice-

free bay. The birds depend on this bay for their survival. We have an international responsibility to

protect it.

________________________3. HANSARD, Cardiff Bay Barrage Bill (Lords) House of Commons, 19 December 1989, p.304.

AnAlternative Scheme

The alternative scheme, termed The Living Waterfront, was based on the counter

assumption that commercial and other enterprises would in fact wish, these days, to be

associated with an ecodevelopment project rather than one which was enormously capital

intensive, purely cosmetic, and would result in environmental destruction.

The alternative project was that of incremental planning and implementation in

which economic and social development, the cleaning up of the Bay, and further facilities to

preserve and enhance the environment and wild life.

In effect, the alternative scheme presented a unique opportunity to clean, retain, and

refurbish the natural features of a living estuary. It provided a unique opportunity to

incorporate a marine wilderness into urban developments. It was a chance to put sustainable

development into practice and make the area the first in a British ecodevelopment for the

twenty-first century.

The petitioners failed to convince the promoters and most of the members of the

Select Committee of these arguments and of the likely merits of the natural environment as an

attraction for potential developers.

The Perceptual Differences

Part of the reason for the persistence of the promoters and their political supporters to

remove the natural estuary was local egocentrism. The loss of a natural estuary and its wildlife

was not considered significant simply because other estuaries still existed and because there

were many SSSIs of various forms throughout the country. Similarly, the loss of the bird

population was a minor concern for the promoters because birds existed elsewhere. The

promotors continued to perceive only mudflats, which they regarded as ugly, offensive, and of

no value.

The final Bill was accepted by a Parliamentary majority. This was after over nineThe final Bill was accepted by a Parliamentary majority. This was after over nine

years of planning and debate, high costs, massive quantities of paper, and the investment of

incalculable amounts of time and energy by thousands of people on all sides of the issues.

Conclusion

Over the period from 1985 to 1994, there was progressive adoption by the UK and

other governments of basic principles related to sustainable development. The government

in public statements often declared the right things. For example, the UK Environment

Minister addressing the Third North Sea Conference referred to "a subject which is

particularly precious to the British tradition. That is the proposal for action on the

protection of marine wildlife and their habitats.@ Action normally means

implementation and management of policies. Action, however, does not necessarily follow

on policies, it is a matter of priorities, and these can allow departures from actualon policies, it is a matter of priorities, and these can allow departures from actual

implementation for long periods. This is particularly so when choices are reduced to their

lowest terms, as in the phrase "birds or jobs."

____________________

4. Chris Patten, ADraft Opening Statement@ Third North Sea Conference (DOE, 1990), p.5.

While we cannot generalize too much from this single example, it is fair to say that although

mitigation and compensation were wrung from the promotors over time, a wide gap remained between

declared government policy on sustainable development as expressed by the Department of Environment

and the proposed methods of implementation of economic development plans by the government backed

Development Corporation. This not only involved national and international ecological consequences, it

also had adverse political dimensions for the wider application of sustainable development. In devising the

strategy for the implementation of Agenda 21, for example, the Department of Environment cautioned: "The

UK has international responsibilities and a strategy must take account of the potential of the UK's

own behaviour to influence sustainable development in other countries and globally."

Clearly, if a country like Britain does not have the capacity to manage urban regeneration

around an estuary without totally destroying the natural environment of the estuary, it does not augur

well for success at more complex multinational levels, and it indicates to others that it is enough to adoptwell for success at more complex multinational levels, and it indicates to others that it is enough to adopt

principles that are required for sustainable development, but not necessarily to implement them.

The Cardiff Bay example shows that these principles were well understood by citizens and other

groups in putting forward the living waterfront alternative, but they were, and still are, beyond the

perception, comprehension, or political will of decision-makers within the formal structure of local and

national government.

____________________5. Department of Environment, UK Strategy for Sustainable Development (DOE, 1993), p. 47.