toeard an understanding of mental toughness in elite english cricketers

JOURNAL OF APPLIED SPORT PSYCHOLOGY, 17: 209–227, 2005Copyright © Association for Advancement of Applied Sport PsychologyISSN: 1041-3200 print / 1533-1571 onlineDOI: 10.1080/10413200591010085

Towards an Understanding of Mental Toughnessin Elite English Cricketers

STEPHEN J. BULL, CHRISTOPHER J. SHAMBROOK, WIL JAMES, AND JOCELYNE E. BROOKS

England and Wales Cricket Board, Sport Psychology Support Team

Mental toughness is a critical element in contemporary international cricket. However, lit-tle is known beyond the obvious basics of what constitutes mental toughness in an Englishcricketer. This study addressed two main objectives: 1) develop a greater understanding ofwhat mental toughness is within cricket, and 2) identify how existing mentally tough Englishcricketers developed their mental toughness. Twelve English cricketers identified as beingamong the mentally toughest during the previous 20 years were interviewed. Analysis of thefocused interview transcripts identified the critical role of the player’s environment in influ-encing ‘Tough Character,’ ‘Tough Attitudes,’ and ‘Tough Thinking.’ The global themes arepresented in a mental toughness framework that has been used to disseminate the findings tothe cricket coaching and playing population in England. The contrasting and complementarynature of the global themes are used to help provide a structural appreciation of the need forconsistent interaction between environment, character, attitudes, and thinking in order that aperformer can consistently be considered as mentally tough in cricket. Implications of thefindings in relation to the delivery of sport psychology support within English cricket are alsohighlighted.

Within the history of sport psychology research, there have been many references to theconcept of mental toughness and the associated benefits to the possession of it, or its develop-ment. Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton (2002) recently provided an eloquent review of mentaltoughness and highlighted many of the difficulties associated with research in this area. Withinthe game of cricket, there has also been much discussion of mental toughness, and the com-parison between different teams and players who possess more or less mental toughness, andhow important mental toughness is in determining success, specifically within the internationalcompetitions. More specifically, much has been written in the popular press about the supposedlimitations of the England Cricket Team in recent years in relation to mental toughness, but thisdilettante view is unhelpful in furthering our understanding of exactly what mental toughnessis, and how it can be developed. Constant advances are being made to ensure that technicaland physical limitations are not responsible for holding back English cricketers at the highestlevel, and the present paper reports the initial stages of a mental toughness research projectdesigned to ensure that efforts are being made to systematically develop winning minds, andmental toughness, in English cricketers in future generations.

Received 25 March 2003; accepted 10 August 2004.Address correspondence to Dr. Steve Bull, 20 Greenway Lane, Cheltenham, GL52 6LB, United

Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected]

209

210 S. J. BULL ET AL.

Recently, Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett (2002) identified mental toughness within theirevaluation of psychological characteristics of Olympic Champions; “The Mental Toughnesshigher-order theme was comprised of raw data responses such as mentally tough, perseverance,resilient, and persistent” (p.186). In this case, mental toughness has simply been groupedalongside other psychological characteristics. However, with large bodies of extant researchand definitional considerations for other positive psychological characteristics identified, suchas confidence, focus, motivation, and coping, the placing of mental toughness alongside theseconcepts, is frustrating without similar levels of understanding. Within the same journal edition,Jones et al. (2002) provided useful clarity to the definition of mental toughness. A group ofinternationally experienced athletes were questioned to elicit their beliefs about the meaningof mental toughness, and provided the following definition:

Mental toughness is having the natural or developed psychological edge that enables you to:

� Generally, cope better than your opponents with the many demands (competition, training,lifestyle) that sport places on a performer

� Specifically, be more consistent and better than your opponents in remaining determined,focused, confident, and in control under pressure. (p. 209)

This approach marks a positive development in that there has been recognition that mentaltoughness as a concept needs greater individual research attention. A set of attributes haveresulted that can allow greater clarification of whether mental toughness is a state of mind,personality trait, or set of psychological characteristics. Equally, the resulting 12 attributesidentified would appear to be able to be used effectively to help to discriminate between thedifferent levels of a mentally tough performer, regardless of their performance achievements,or level of performance.

The two studies promote further interest in key questions that need considering when ex-amining mental toughness. In the case of Gould et al. (2002), it is not surprising that withina sample of Olympic Champions, mental toughness emerges as a psychological characteristicperceived to be possessed by some of the sample. However, this approach does not eradicatethe halo-effect being the potential reason for mental toughness being ordained upon theseindividuals. It is also important to consider whether the sample is being considered for theirmental toughness across their whole career, or simply for achieving Olympic success. In theGould et al. sample, longevity is implied, but not specifically stated. It is wholly conceivablethat many Olympic Champions have experienced the peak of their career at a specific OlympicGames, winning a gold medal, but that they would not be considered to be mentally tough asan enduring characteristic of their performances. Indeed, Kreiner-Phillips and Orlick (1993) intheir analysis of the psychology of ongoing excellence identified that there were three differentgroups of performer worthy of study, the Continued-Success Group, the Decline-and-Come-Back Group, and the Unable-to-Repeat Group. Each of the athletes within these three groupshad achieved success in their careers, but there would undoubtedly be differing views on theirmental toughness attributes.

Developing from the idea of the psychology of ongoing excellence, a further mental tough-ness variable revolves around the specific mental attributes required to achieve in a givensporting context. The need for an Olympic athlete to perhaps peak for a specific point in afour-year cycle contrasts markedly to athletes such as professional cricketers, basketball, orbaseball players who have to repeatedly compete several times a week, for many weeks of theyear, season after season, raising their game for key performances as the season dictates. Thispoint is of particular interest to the present study with mental toughness being focused uponcricket, a sport that requires “chronic” mental toughness for a performer to get to the top and

staff

Highlight

MENTAL TOUGHNESS IN ELITE ENGLISH CRICKETERS 211

stay at the top, especially in the international game. Interestingly, within Jones et al.’s sample(2002), there were arguably only two participants who would fall into the types of sports wherethe “chronic” mental toughness for competing would be highlighted (e.g., golf and rugbyunion). For the other sports, much of the toughness would be directed towards preparationrather than frequency of competition. Although this does not appear to have restricted the finaldefinition offered by Jones at al.’s sample, when considering sport-specific samples being usedto comment upon mental toughness, such factors obviously need taking into consideration.

Jones et al. (2002) intentionally selected a diverse sport group sample to help with thedevelopment of their mental toughness definition. However, it is clear from the followingcontrasting “types” of mental toughness, that within different sports, mental toughness can beexhibited in very different behaviors. For example, within golf, there is the “final putt” mentaltoughness, highlighted by the mind-set required by the golfer to maintain his/her self-control atthe critical moment in order to sink the short putt required to win the Ryder Cup. This contrastswith the mental toughness required by the likes of Michael Schumacher (six time WorldFormula 1 Champion) to be mentally strong enough to take the calculated risks required to winin high-speed, high-risk motor sport. In turn, this is quite different from the mental toughnessneeded in endurance sports to be able to handle the incredibly high volumes of training,regularly pushing the body to its limits. Finally, from a cricket-specific perspective, there isa mental toughness required to willingly enter into the high intensity confrontation betweenbatter and bowler, and actually revel in the situation. The contrasting examples, which are by nomeans a definitive list, further reinforce the conceptual ambiguities that are bound to exist whentrying to establish all encompassing definitions of mental toughness in sport. These examplesfrom the authors’ observations of elite sport, also pose the question whether there are alwaysequivalent expressions of mental toughness in every sport, and whether the truly mentallytough performer is equally skilled at being able to perform with each of the different mindsets.

NEED FOR AND PURPOSE OF PRESENT STUDY

In response to the questions surrounding mental toughness, and the specific importanceof mental toughness to English cricket, the present paper describes the process engaged inby the England and Wales Cricket Board’s (ECB) Sport Psychology Support Team to gain agreater insight into mental toughness in cricket, and how mental toughness might be moresystematically developed within young England players. The current paper reports the processand findings of a commissioned research project. Two critical outcomes were identified forthe researchers carrying out the program of research; 1) to develop a greater understanding ofwhat mental toughness is within cricket, and 2) to identify how existing mentally tough Englishcricketers developed their mental toughness. These outcomes obviously delimited the focusof the study to a specific sport, within a specific country. In addition, the primary purpose ofthe research was to provide practical recommendations for coaches, which could be translatedinto concrete strategies, focused upon making a difference to coaching practice and ultimatelythe performance of English cricketers at the international level.

METHOD

Research Team

The researchers who conducted this project possess specific skills and experiences thatform an important element of the conceptualization, and execution, of the study. In addition to


the specific expertise in cricket outlined below, they have also consulted with a wide range ofOlympic and World Class athletes in other sports.

Principal ResearcherThe lead researcher is the Consultant Psychologist for the ECB and Chair of the Science

and Medicine Advisory Group. He has delivered sport psychology support for the EnglandTest and One-Day International Teams in both England and on international tours. Over thepast 15 years he has also consulted with the England National Academy Squad, England age-group sides and the senior England Women’s Team. He is a qualified cricket coach. As thelead researcher in the project, this member of the team kept a research journal throughoutthe conceptualization and data collection phases in which to record and develop thoughts andreflections upon the project.

Research AssistantsThe other three members of the research team are all self-employed sport psychology

consultants, all with higher degrees and previous experience of conducting and supervisingqualitative research projects. The team has worked in professional cricket with First ClassCounty teams, with all of the England age-group sides and the England Women’s Team.Comprehensive support has also been provided to county cricket academy programs, throughboth game-related psychology support, and the development of the ECB’s Athlete CareerEducation Program.

Sampling and Participants

For a topic of this importance, it was deemed essential to gather data from those playersrecognized within their national game for being the mentally toughest performers over the pre-vious two decades (1980s and 1990s). Selection of the sample was therefore a critical elementof the study, and represents one of the unique strengths of the data gathered. In conceptualizingthe study, it was felt by the research team that within high performance research, interviewsare too often conducted on the basis of “random expedience” whereby participants are selectedsimply because they are “known” to the researcher, either directly or indirectly.

During the ECB’s Cricket Live 2000 Conference, a top-ten list of the mentally toughestEngland Cricketers from the 1980s and 1990s was gathered from 101 cricket coaches. Thesecoaches had simply been asked to provide the research team with the names of those playerswho they considered to be the mentally toughest in the game during this period. By using thisselection procedure the following was achieved; 1) players perceived by the sporting cultureto be mentally tough were identified, and 2) culturally held knowledge of mental toughnessfor cricket was drawn upon to produce a sample (rather than relying upon pre-defined sportpsychology definitions to influence sampling). The latter point employs the same philosophicalassumptions that form the basis for cultural consensus analysis, in that a sample will hold acommon “truth” that is derived from shared knowledge within their culture (Romney, Weller,& Batchelder, 1986). Therefore, shared frames of reference and understanding are used toidentify mentally tough performers. Indeed, future research should consider the use of culturalconsensus analysis to help further working definitions of mental toughness. From the resultingvotes, it was possible to produce a rank-order of the players, based solely upon frequency countof votes for each player. The top 15 players resulting from this process are shown in Table 1.

12 of the 15 players were able to provide time for interviews within the time restrictions ofthe study. The final sample of 12 boasts some impressive international representation statisticsbetween them, with supporting data presented in Table 1. At various points in their careers,


Table 1The Top 15 Mentally Tough England Cricketers of the 1980s and 1990s, as Voted by

101 English Cricket Coaches

Vote countRanking Participant credentials (out of 101)

1. 115 International test matches between 1989–2001, 54 as captain, Over 7000 runsscored, 54 one-day internationals, 43 as captain, over 1700 runs scored.

96

2. 118 International test matches between 1975–1995, 34 as captain. Almost 9000runs scored, 125 one-day matches, 50 as captain, over 4200 runs scored.

76

4. 133 International test matches between 1989–2003, 15 as captain. Almost 8500runs scored and over 270 dismissals. 170 one-day matches, 41 as captain, over4500 runs scored and 170 dismissals.

74

6. 54 international test matches between 1988–1998, over 1800 runs and 160dismissals. 40 one-day internationals.

50

7. 79 international test matches between 1977–1995, 23 as captain, over 4400 runs.92 one-day internationals, 37 as captain, over 2000 runs scored.

42

8. 58 international test matches between 1994–2003, over 200 wickets taken. 121one-day internationals, 188 wickets taken.

41

9. 91 international test matches to date, 45 as captain, over 5000 runs scored. 88one-day internationals, 56 as captain, over 2000 runs scored.

38

11. 90 international test matches between 1973–1984, 18 as captain, over 300 wicketstaken. 64 one-day international matches, 29 as captain

32

12. 39 international test matches, 31 as captain, between 1976–1981, over 1000 runs.25 one-day internationals, all as captain.

31

13. 46 international test matches between 1989–1999, 177 wickets taken. 42 one-dayinternationals.

22

14. 62 international test matches between 1988–1996, over 4000 runs scored. 71one-day internationals, almost 2500 runs scored.

18

15. 26 international test matches between 1976–1986, over 1000 runs scored. 26one-day internationals.

16

Note: Players ranked joint second, fifth, and joint ninth were not interviewed.

the batters interviewed had held world rankings of first (three players), second, third, eighth,eighteenth, and twentieth. The bowlers interviewed had achieved career highs of first, fifth,and seventh.

Procedure

Each member of the sample was contacted by telephone by the principal researcher, andagreed to be interviewed at a time and location convenient to them. The principal researcherhad previously worked with 9 out of the final 12 participants as players or coaches, and thisexisting relationship was seen as a strength to the present study. Interviews lasted between 40and 80 minutes, with each participant being guided through the same interview protocol. Eachinterview was recorded using a Dictaphone and then passed on to a member of the researchteam for verbatim transcription.

Interview GuideA self-managed focus group lasting several hours was held in which the research team as

a whole discussed the development of the interview protocol, with the principal researcherchairing the meeting. In keeping with evidence-based practice approaches that promote theconsideration of alternative sources of knowledge when solving a problem (see Hamer &


Collinson, 1999), the focus group approach allowed a synthesis of the different knowledgesources held by the research team. Therefore, existing background mental toughness researchby the lead researcher was combined with overall applied and research knowledge of theteam. Within the meeting it was also recognized that, through sport psychology support work,the interviewer would be known to the majority of the sample being interviewed, and thiswas perceived as a particular strength of the study. Accordingly, within the meeting, it wasagreed that a focused interview style (Robson, 1993) would be appropriate, which would allowfor flexibility between and within interviews, whilst maintaining a consistent backgroundframework, and also allowing the interviewer to exploit his existing relationship with theinterviewees by adopting an “informal” approach. The meeting produced an initial protocolthat was then sent out to each member of the research team after the meeting for independentscrutiny and comment. This fine-tuning then allowed the final protocol to be produced.

The interview was preceded by the following: (a) a statement of appreciation for giving up thetime necessary to be part of the research process; (b) an initial explanation of the backgroundto the research project and its links with the ECB’s World Class Performance Plan; (c) anexplanation of how the results would inform the ECB’s sport psychology support program—particularly within the new National Academy program; and (d) a request for permission touse specific “named quotes” in the final report, in workshops with players and coaches, andany materials produced as part of coach/player development programs. The interview wascompleted following the guide, and participants were thanked for taking part in the researchprocess.

The interview guide addressed the broad categories of: (a) personal views about the “winningmind” and mental toughness; (b) personal theories relating to how each player acquired hiswinning mind; (c) the role of the winning mind as it relates to pressure in developing throughthe ranks of cricket; (d) reflections on specific personal demonstrations of the winning mindin action; the role of nets/training in influencing winning-mind development; and (e) advice toyoung English players on how to develop mental toughness. Detailed points of probing wereincluded within each category to ensure that general cricket and specific individual informationwas elicited.

Analysis

In keeping with general procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994), allof the interviews were transcribed verbatim. Members of the research team completed thetranscribing and recorded the transcripts in the N-Vivo qualitative data analysis package. N-Vivo was used solely to aid with the coding and organization of the data. Subsequent analysiswas carried out in line with the approach taken by Jones et al. (2002) whereby analysis wasguided primarily through the presentation and discussion of direct quotations from transcripts.Further to transcription, two members of the research team worked independently to code theinterview transcripts. This coding involved the identification of specific quotes as raw datathemes, and the subsequent grouping of these raw data themes into groupings with similarmeanings (emerging themes; e.g., “able to coach self,” “the foreign culture factor,” “wants tobe in the battle, takes responsibility”). The two members of the team then met to compare rawdata themes and emerging themes. This process was carried out over the course of a day andproduced a working list of 10 categories, with a total of 45 emerging themes spread acrossthe 10 areas. Alongside the initial 10 categories, an initial diagrammatic representation ofhow these emerging themes might be related was produced to aid discussion. This diagramattempted to show the initial relationships between the nature of the themes emerging.


The next stage involved interrogation of the 10 categories and the emerging themes withina focus group comprising the research team and a moderator. The moderator was an interna-tionally recognized qualitative researcher, who was also a former professional cricketer, andco-author of a cricket sport science text. Through interviewing, transcribing, coding and thenreading of all transcripts, each member of the research team had a high degree of familiaritywith the raw data at the point of entering into the discussion. Importantly, the focus group alsoserved as a mutual interrogation exercise of the researchers’ own experiences, understandingand interpretation of the area of research and the forthcoming data. In keeping with the ideathat focus groups aim to collate information about individuals’ knowledge and experiences of atopic, it was felt essential that a formal process was engaged in to record and take advantage ofthe research team’s knowledge of the data and applied sport psychology expertise. Facilitatedby the moderator, the focus group attempted to clarify, debate, and defend the complexitiesof the list of categories and emerging themes based on the personal experiences and observa-tions of the data in action by the research team in their role as sport psychology consultantsin cricket (as well as other sports). The principal researcher’s reflective journal was also usedwithin the focus group to stimulate additional reflections and points of relevance for the debate.On completion of the focus group a consensus was reached on a framework for representingthe structure of mental toughness for this particular data set.

The focus group was transcribed verbatim. Group interaction was monitored by observingquestion responses, group agreements and disagreements and attempts to reach consensus.These observations were then used to revisit the framework within which the global themeswere being collated. Therefore, the output from the focus group resulted in agreement of thefinal set of global themes, and consensus upon how relationships between the themes shouldbe represented to maximize ease of communication of findings to a variety of audiences. Thefinal global themes were recorded and one of the research team who had been involved inthe initial analysis reworked the diagrammatic structure within which these themes could besummarized readily, and presented to audiences of cricket coaches (Figure 1).

Trustworthiness of Data

On reflecting upon the generation of the research data, it was interesting to note that theexisting relationship between the interviewer and nine of the 12 players interviewed was in-strumental in the richness of the data generated. It is interesting to note that the two shortestinterviews were with two of the three players not known to the principal researcher at the time ofinterviewing. The third player who was not known prior to interviewing has a background as apsychoanalyst, and as such represented a unique participant within the study, and a player withan inherent interest to the area of psychology within cricket. In contrast, the longest interview(14,300 words) was with a player with whom the principal researcher had spent considerabletime in the previous 3 years. These figures may of course be either coincidental, or due to someother extraneous variable, but it is more likely that they are the result of the influence of rapportand trust in the research interview process. Such a finding highlights the important influencethat the interviewer/interviewee interaction plays in the gathering of qualitative data.

Having generated initial findings from the interviews, the top ranked participant was inter-viewed for a second time due to his standing as the number one ranked player. This interviewserved to allow the participant to respond directly to the output from the study. During thistape recorded meeting, the player was introduced to the key elements of the findings, and wasasked to reflect upon the relevance of these in relation to a) the comments he had offered inhis original interview, and b) the appropriateness of the model for providing a framework forcommunicating the findings to cricket audiences. The player was also asked to examine the


Figure 1. The mental toughness pyramid.

framework and global themes to determine whether any additional information might be addedthat in his opinion was missing from the framework. No additional data emerged within thefifty-minute discussion, and the player responded positively to the information presented.

Trustworthiness was also emphasized throughout the whole data collection and analysisperiod via the involvement of the research team in acquiring and transcribing the interviews.Additionally, all members of the team reading all transcripts and holding regular meetingsand discussions focused upon developments in the analysis helped to ensure understandingof the materials being generated at the various points throughout the research process wasmaximized.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

From the transcripts 733 separate quotes were identified as being of importance to cite in re-lation to the complex development, characteristics, and attributes of mental toughness. The rawdata themes ranged in length from a short sentence to lengthy paragraphs, and these were orga-nized into global themes of similar meaning. The organization of the global themes is shownin Table 2 under the general dimensions of ‘Developmental factors,’ ‘Personal responsibility,’‘Dedication and commitment,’ ‘Belief’ and ‘Coping with pressure.’

In isolation, the general dimensions and individual global themes do not represent newknowledge to sport psychology per se. The general dimensions in Table 2 and the globalthemes outlined within the framework of ‘Tough Character,’ ‘Tough Attitudes,’ and ‘ToughThinking’ structure (Figure 1) can be readily observed within sport psychology books (e.g.,


Table 2General Dimensions, Global Themes and Structural Categories Resulting From the

Analysis of the Mental Toughness-Focused Interviews

General Structural categorydimension Global theme location

Developmental factors • Parental influence• Childhood background

Environmental Influence

Personal responsibility • Exposure to foreign cricket Environmental influence

• Independence• Self-reflection• Competitiveness with self as well

as others

Tough character

• Exploit learning opportunities• Belief in quality preparation• Self-set challenging targets

Tough attitudes

Dedication and commitment • Opportunities to survive earlysetbacks

• Needing to “earn” successEnvironmental influence

• “Never say die” mindset• “Go the extra mile” mindset• Determination to make the most of

ability

Tough attitudes

Belief • Resilient confidence Tough character

• Belief in making the difference Tough attitudes

• Robust self-confidence◦ Overcoming self-doubts◦ Feeding off physical

condition◦ Maintain self-focus

Tough thinking

Coping with pressure • Thrive on competition• Willing to take risks

Tough attitudes

• Thinking clearly◦ Good decision-making◦ Keeping perspective ◦ Honest

self-appraisal

Tough thinking

Bull et al., 1996). However, as noted earlier, such constructs and skills have not normally beenpresented under a systematically constructed framework. The presentation of these findingswithin a hierarchical structure begins to elucidate the specific relationships between the separateitems, and adds to the definitional steps taken by Jones et al. (2002), albeit with a sport-specificsample. It is also interesting to note that the general dimensions repeat across the differentstructural categories.

When examining Jones et al.’s (2002) attributes of mental toughness, there are some clearsimilarities in some of the findings from the present study. The global themes presented herecan readily be compared to Jones et al.’s attributes of self-belief, desire/motivation, dealingwith pressure and anxiety, focus (performance related and lifestyle related), and pain/hardship.


There is also more specific detail provided than is found in Loehr’s (1995) markers of tough-ness, namely ‘Emotional Flexibility,’ ‘Emotional Responsiveness,’ ‘Emotional Strength,’ and‘Emotional Resiliency.’ The additional information presented here relating to ‘Environmentalinfluence’ provides an extra critical addition, which will be discussed later.

The general dimensions are believed to help with clarifying the meaning of the globalthemes, and each global theme is now outlined with indicative quotes provided where appro-priate. Each of the structural categories of Table 2 is also discussed.

Environmental Influence (Structural Category)

This structural category is perhaps the most important output of the study. The environmentprovides the foundation to the development of mental toughness on two key levels that coverupbringing and transition into an appropriate cricket environment. ‘Parental influence’ and‘Childhood background’ obviously refer to the players’ formative years. With the other globalthemes, ‘Needing to “earn” success’, ‘Opportunities to survive early setbacks’, and ‘Exposureto foreign cricket’, it is also clear that the environmental influence continues into the earlypart of a junior playing career, and has the potential to maintain an influence throughoutthe player’s career. Therefore a longitudinal approach to mental toughness development isrequired, but the findings also point towards the need to experience alternative and challenging“environments.” ‘Environmental influence’ is also a combination of characteristics of theenvironment, and lessons learned from experience within the environment. In both cases, theenvironment has impacted directly upon the individual, rather than the individual deliberatelyexposing themselves to specific environments from which they would benefit.

The participants from this sample reflected positively upon the impact of early environmen-tal influences, and although in some instances these influences might appear to be in oppositionto “appropriate” upbringing, all were perceived to have contributed positively to the formationof mental toughness. Interestingly, Clarkson (1999) highlights the positive and negative exem-plars of parenting in creating the drive behind many successful athletes. Gould et al. (2002)discuss environmental factors in relation to the broad range of psychological characteristicsin successful Olympics athletes, and it is useful to provide specific detail of the environmentin isolation for mental toughness. The development of mental toughness over a long period oftime concurs with Gould et al., and supports their practical recommendations for approachesto delivery of sport psychology.

Parental Influence (Global Theme)For each of the players, one or both parents were an important influence at various stages in

their upbringing. The quote provided here reflects the cricket-specific influence of the parents,as well as more general attitudinal influences.

Obviously my father has been a huge influence. He pushed me immensely and ruled with thestick a little but would do it and make sure you did it well. He would have the most mentalinfluence on me in 90% a good way . . . every innings was important, it wasn’t just that’s anothergame of cricket. . . . He was the one that always pushed me and backed me and did everything.

Childhood Background (Global Theme)For the majority of the players, it was noted that the background from which they developed

predisposed them to being mentally tough. Such a factor is of course difficult to guarantee inthe upbringing of a potential superstar. However, the presence of this recurring factor indicatesthat if such an early influence is missing, extra efforts may need to be made in other areas ofthe profile.


The basic thing is looking at all these names here (the list of top 15 players), one thing thatstrikingly stands out is their upbringing. I would say they were probably brought up from theschool of hard knocks.

Exposure to Foreign Cricket (Global Theme)Those players who had been and played cricket in Australia or South Africa reflected upon

how essential that experience was to them as a player. The sense of being an “outsider” wasvery important in helping them develop a mind-set and approach to training and playing thatproved to be very valuable when returning to English Cricket. Specifically, the players werereferring to going and playing foreign cricket in their late teens and early twenties.

I went to a cricket club where people didn’t know who I was and being an Englishman inAustralia you’re always going to be looked to, not so much down on, but you have to proveyourself more than an Australian.

Opportunities to Survive Early Setbacks (Global Theme)It was clear that the players were not always successful throughout their formative years. On

reflection, the players demonstrated that they valued the non-smooth pathway to success, andrecognised that there were positive results from these experiences. Such a finding obviouslymerits careful consideration of how it might be possible to provide developing players withsimilar, character building experiences.

I must have been 15 when I was going to be signed up as a leg spinner and then just lost it.That was mentally a very defining year for me. You’ve gone from being a hero in your schoolto being a bloke who’s lost it. . . . To then go away and having to work on batting. When you’re15 trying to work out whether you want to do it anymore.

Needing to “Earn” Success (Global Theme)This theme revolved very strongly around a historical investment in the success experienced

by the players. The players’ perception was that hard work had helped to fuel the ambition toultimately be successful. From a developmental perspective, the players reflected upon this asa positive influence, but it is also clear that once the players knew what had to be achieved to“earn” success, this then served to fuel the desire further to stay at the top having experiencedthe less salubrious side of professional sport in their development:

A lot of things in life are about what you miss and its an absolute glaring example of peoplewho end up not getting a contract and have to go off and do things off their own back alwayscome back stronger mentally.

Tough Character (Structural Category)

The ‘Tough character’ structural category provides a change of emphasis in the globalthemes. Rather than being an external variable that has produced an influence upon the mentaltoughness development of the player, this is the first of the themes that focuses upon the actualplayers themselves. The character refers to personality characteristics that were shared acrossthe players, and are believed to be essential components in mental toughness. The global themesfalling under ‘Tough character’ clearly identify how the players have made use of these factorswithin cricketing life, and are themes deemed to be more enduring characteristics that weredifferentiated from the more readily acquired, and less stable, ‘Tough Attitudes’ structuralcategory.


Independence (Global Theme)The players demonstrated an ability to be independent, and take responsibility for them-

selves. Players demonstrated both independence within their cricket, but perhaps more impor-tantly, an independence outside of the performance arena. Having players who are able to takeresponsibility for their overall professional development, as well as their actual performancewithin matches, would obviously be of great benefit to coaches. This finding also challengessome approaches to aiding professional performers where the aim is to take as many hasslesaway from them as possible in order to allow the player to focus on performing.

What you need to do is go to Perth or Sydney, anywhere where you’re on your own with noMum or Dad to look after you. You’ve got to look after yourself, you’ve got to present yourselfto the team you play for and show them what you can do. You’re either sink or swim. You’ll getup and mature, stand up for yourself, think things out for yourself and work things out on yourown.

Self-Reflection (Global Theme)The quality of information gathered within the interviews was testament to the degree of

reflection that the players had obviously carried out as an ongoing process. However, it was alsoevident that self-reflection was taking place throughout their careers as an important influenceupon the players’ ability to maintain high standards and performances.

I’m not the most gifted batsman but I can make up for that using my brain. I have to be veryaware of what I’m doing—what I can and cannot do in any particular situation.

Competitiveness with Self as Well as Others (Global Theme)It was clear that the players had a very strong desire to be the best cricketers in the game,

and importantly the best players that they could possibly be relative to their own potential.There is evidence of a strong mix between task and ego perspectives. Although formal goalswere not always necessarily set, it was clear that players were using both forms of competitionto keep the pressure on themselves to maintain performance levels.

I want to play against the best bowlers—I want to play against the best—that’s the challengefor me.

Resilient Confidence (Global Theme)Jones et al. (2002) refer to unshakable self-belief in their recent mental toughness attributes.

The quotes offered here by the current sample echo the meaning of those provided in theaforementioned research. It is evident that confidence alone is not sufficient to ensure mentaltoughness, it would also appear true from the sample that it is actually the nature of thisself-confidence that makes the difference. Furthermore the players possessed high levels ofself-confidence, but also levels that were very hard to undermine.

It’s something that’s been there all the way. I suppose in a way it’s having an inner confidencethat if you wanted to you could beat him and you’re not worried about losing to him every nowand then.

I had seventeen catches dropped in the series, which is enough to finish a lot of people off,and I still finished leading wicket taker with 21 wickets.

The biggest thing for me is self-belief, that’s all, because . . . whether it was instilled intome . . . if you don’t believe in yourself, then why should anyone else?

staff

Highlight


This “negative” definition of confidence (i.e., “not losing confidence”) is very interestingfrom a research perspective, with the issue of confidence not needing to focus upon the his-torically accepted approach of “how high can we get your confidence?” but perhaps morepowerfully needing to focus upon developing interventions that are geared towards protectingthat confidence which does exist.

Tough Attitudes (Structural Category)

The ‘Tough Attitudes’ structural category appears to play an important role in allowingthe ‘Tough character’ global themes to be exploited effectively on an ongoing basis. Thecombination of the Character and Attitudes appears to be of importance in the make-up ofthe winning mind. It is feasible to provide a player with the ‘Tough Attitudes,’ but if they donot have the independence, resilient confidence, self-reflection, and mix of competition, thenthe attitudes are not as consistently impactful. The combination of the Character and Attitudeattributes provide important information for how the results of this study need to be developedinto practical recommendations.

Exploit Learning Opportunities (Global Theme)A clear desire to use learning opportunities and keep learning was evident. The players did

not necessarily dwell upon failure, but looked to learn from it.

Well it starts, it starts from the very first moment you start playing the game, you know, andwhat you’re prepared to do to learn and improve yourself, and how you’re prepared to gleaninformation because you, you glean information from everywhere, and everything.

Belief in Quality Preparation (Global Theme)Sport psychology consultants have long been promoting the use of quality preparation, and

consistency in its application. Players confirmed their belief in this approach with specificexamples of practising effectively, as well as more general quality preparation principles.

For example if I got a full toss in the net and I was hitting through the off-side, I’d always tryto make sure I was hitting the gap between mid off and extra cover rather than just drilling itstraight to where those fielders would be.

Self-Set Challenging Targets (Global Theme)The Tough character global theme of being competitive with oneself as well as with others

supported the specific Tough Attitudes of the players being able to set themselves challengingtargets. The ability to set these goals and not be overly concerned with not achieving them wasclear.

With me it’s wanting to be the best and aiming to get there. You’re not always going to getthere. Very few will get there but it’s aiming to get there and believing that you can and thenworking out as quickly as possible the best way of getting there from your practice, from yourmind games, mental strengths, etc.

“Never Say Die” Mindset (Global Theme)Many of the players reported career ups and downs, even after becoming established. Many

strong performances were identified as taking place when it was essential to produce a perfor-mance, and the attitude presented itself in terms of influencing long-term motivation to achievewhat the players felt they deserved, and also in terms of an acute attitude to help deal with the


specific challenges encountered when playing. On recalling his attitude early in his career, oneplayer said:

You can throw whatever stones you want at me but I am not going off this course. I am gettingthere. I am right here. I will prove to you that I am right. It might take me 10 or 15 years but Iwill get there. I will play for England.

“Go The Extra Mile” Mindset (Global Theme)In combination with never-say-die,’ the players also showed a repeated ability to go the

extra mile in order to get the most out of their ability. A very clear work ethic came throughthat resulted from this attitude. The ‘extra mile’ work provided a clear focusing of the strongdesire to succeed possessed by all of the players. Although this is a very obvious inclusion, theplayers repeatedly showed the ability to deliver on this concept throughout their careers.

It’s who wants it the most. Who is the most committed? Who is the one who is prepared to gothat little bit extra to get more out themselves in whatever sphere is necessary.

I’m only gonna achieve that through my own hard work, and you’ve got to back that up bybeing prepared to put in the hard work.

Determination to Make the Most of Ability (Global Theme)Jones et al. (2002) identified an attribute of ‘having an insatiable desire and internalised

motive to succeed.’ Players within this sample identified that they were not necessarily themost naturally gifted players, but the desire to succeed made them search for the approach tothe game that allowed them to excel. Loehr (1995) also identifies performers who are not themost gifted in talent or skill, but have few competitors in terms of getting the very most out ofthe ability they do have. In combination with the other attitudes, the determination was givenspecific direction and focus, meaning that the players were constantly trying to get the mostout of themselves.

As a batter we know the areas we’re going to score . . . we’ve all got to play to our limitationsso you can’t play a shot that you don’t play successfully. You’ve got to play to your strengthsand not to your weaknesses.

Belief in Making the Difference (Global Theme)In addition to the resilient confidence character global theme, and in combination with the

attitude of thriving on competition, the players demonstrated a belief that they alone couldbe the person in the team who could make the difference. Without the self-confidence orenjoyment of the competition environment, it is unlikely that a player would demonstrate thisspecific belief. The players actively sought out the responsibility that would go along with thebelief that they would make the difference. Fundamentally, players backed themselves to riseto the occasion.

Taking responsibility on your shoulders is what it’s all about . . . and the more responsibility Iwas given the better I reacted. . . . The tighter the situation the more highly motivated I became.

I kind of set the challenge to myself that it was down to me to drag us out of this mess.

Thrive on Competition (Global Theme)As with Jones et al.’s (2002) attribute, thriving on the pressure of competition, the players

demonstrated a very clear attitude towards approaching matches with positive intent, and risingto the occasion. Cricket provides many individual competitions within matches, and it was very


clearly the individual competitive challenge to which the players had the most positive attitude.Team competition was important, but finding the meaningful individual competition within amatch was the most common form of competition referred to.

That’s the winning moment. I mean you can’t beat that moment and that’s where everything,what you’ve achieved, all you’ve done, comes out and there’s no stopping that. That’s not anact—that’s just everything. The pressure. Everything that’s built up—and then you just let it go.And that’s why I play. You can’t beat that moment.

Willing to Take Risks (Global Theme)Risk-management is an important part of any sport. Cricket, within its different forms of

one-day, four-day and Test Match, also requires risks to be taken in order to make things happenwithin the game. Equally, players need to be willing to take career risks at certain points inorder to take the next step towards achieving key goals. The data provided valuable insightsinto the willingness of the players to take these different kind of risks.

I was completely out of the England frame for lack of form. I had to sit down with my wife andsay ‘look I’ve got these two options. I could either not do anything this winter—just get a joband do well for Essex, but I need to get back in the England side and if I’m going to do that Ineed to go away. I’m going to have to leave you for six months, go away and just work hard ateverything’. So I went off to Australia and the next year I got 1,500 runs and was back in andcaptain of the A tour.

Tough Thinking (Structural Category)

This structural category represents the pinnacle of the pyramid and of course, relates directlyto the desirable thought patterns a player should have around the competitive situation. Themajority of sport psychology work focuses primarily upon the development of this “matchwinning” thinking, with much less emphasis being placed upon the three previous categories.The robustness of the thought patterns in this final category will be determined by the presenceand stability of the categories below. Again, as with previous categories, there is agreementwith Jones et al.’s (2002) attributes. Remaining fully focused, regaining psychological control,not being adversely affected by others, and accepting competition anxiety can be seen to haverelated attributes within the present findings.

The ‘Tough Thinking’ category relates to the ability of the player to translate some ofthe more general character and attitude global themes into the competition environment. Thedifferentiation was made in order to highlight the fact that not only did the players possessthe general abilities, they were able to make use of them at the critical performance moments.Many sports performers possess an ability to achieve specific actions within competition, butultimately are unable to perform in the same way when it really matters. The players within thesample have clear evidence that potential actually resulted in performance. Once again, thisconcurs with Loehr’s (1995) perceptions of toughness in sport.

The essence of this ‘Tough Thinking’ is captured in the term ‘self-awareness.’ It is feltthat there are two branches to this worthy of presentation; thinking clearly and a robust self-confidence.

Robust Self-Confidence (Global Theme)The recurring confidence factor appears again at the performance level, but this time

is very much about “in performance” thinking. The ability to make use of robust self-confidence in competition resulted from a combination of the three following areas,


but is also obviously influenced from the ‘Tough Character’ global theme of resilientconfidence:

Overcoming self-doubts . Players identified being able to deal with the inevitable self-doubtsthat occur in performances and in particular in the early stages of an international career whenbeing selected is not enough evidence on which to base an unshakeable belief that you are ableto perform at that level;

Feeding-off physical condition . Generating self-confidence was also helped from the knowl-edge that the body was in robust physical condition and would not be prone to weakness.Interestingly, Loehr (1995) states that in the final analysis, toughness is physical. This mind–body connection identified within this sample supports the importance of this very obviousrelationship;

Maintain self-focus . Although not “selfishness,” this theme is concerned with focusing onpersonal needs as a very high priority. Data emerged to suggest that players had a healthy balancebetween being self-focused in order to ensure performance for the team was maximized.

Thinking Clearly (Global Theme)Thinking clearly indicates that the players are aware of their thoughts, understand what they

need to think and focus on at a given time, and are able to maintain control of thinking. It is acombination of the following:

Good decision-making . Being able to make the right decisions with confidence and commit-ment, particularly when the pressure is on or at a critical moment in a match;

Keeping perspective . Being able to get the balance right between approaching competitionwith an attitude that suggests immense importance with a sub-conscious knowledge that it’snot a big deal and only a game at the end of the day;

Honest self-appraisal . Knowing exactly where personal strengths and limitations lie andmaking performance decisions on the basis of this appraisal.

The Relationship Between Structural Categories and Global Themes

In order to demonstrate the conceptual relationship between ‘Environmental influences,’‘Tough Character,’ ‘Tough Attitudes,’ and ‘Tough Thinking,’ the framework shown in Figure1 is proposed. This representation of the data formed an important output of the research, as itwas an effective vehicle by which the findings were reported to the cricketing audience. Equally,from a theoretical perspective, the graphic provides clear ideas relating to the construction ofmental toughness for cricket, the influences upon the development of mental toughness, andthe need to allow for individual variation.

The pyramid creates a very simple visual representation of the key elements involved indeveloping mental toughness and a winning mind. As can be seen, ‘Environmental influence’underpins the whole framework, and is therefore the most important area upon which to focusresources. The environment sets the base upon which a ‘Tough Character’ is developed. ‘ToughCharacter’ is proposed to be fairly stable and generalizable across different situations. Themanifestation of this mentally tough character is in a set of Tough Attitudes that are observablein the form of certain behaviours. Finally, and very specifically, on top of these attitudes sits


‘Tough Thinking’, which represents the key psychological properties of a “mentally tough”mind, oriented towards the competition demands of the moment. The behaviours that we seeexhibited alongside ‘Tough Thinking’ are those that we consistently associate with the mentallytough performer in the competition context. In addition to the core components of the pyramid,the breadth of the base of the pyramid represents the impact that an environment has had ona player. The depth of the pyramid represents the range of experience that a player has had(e.g., foreign cricket, coaches, forms of cricket, different training environments), and formsan important addition to simply existing within the same environment for a prolonged periodof time. With a broader and deeper base, a more stable pyramid is created, and the constructsbuilt on top of the foundation become less prone to change. It is also a useful practical ideato highlight that the more stable the base, the higher the pyramid can be built, and the greaterconsistency of achievement will be. This contrasts with players who may have a high peak levelto their pyramid, but built with a narrow base. The result is a player who is able to produce greatperformances sporadically, but is unable to produce the great performances when excessivepressure is exerted. The pressure causes the structure to topple over and break down.

Within the development of the research, and analysis of the findings, it was evident that therewas a diversity of approach, and that individuals who are all considered as mentally tough canachieve performance excellence through quite different means. The reported results representthe attempts to define the similarities evident within the interviews, but it is also clear thatalthough global themes can be identified, the subjective meaning for each of the themes for theplayers will not necessarily be the same. In keeping with this subjective meaning, it was feltthat an analogy to the production of high performance cars was appropriate. As can be seen onFigure 1, ‘Production Line’ has been associated with ‘Environmental Influence.’ The ‘Engine’has been allied to ‘Tough Character,’ and the car’s ‘Fuel’ and ‘Performance’ allied to ‘ToughAttitudes’ and ‘Tough Thinking,’ respectively.

To elaborate, ‘Production Lines’ for different cars require fundamentally similar elementsin order to produce car component parts. However, depending upon the specific nature ofthe vehicle and its performance requirements, these key production tools are modified, andslightly different looking components produced. The components are recognizable as the samething (e.g., contrast the suspension of an off-road vehicle with that of a high performance roadcar), but they will play a different role in the final performance of the vehicle. The same canbe said within cricket, with different players having subtly different character, attitude andperformance. Although there are similarities in the production lines, individuality has resultedin the most appropriate methods to produce performance. Therefore, although the quest forshared qualities is critical, an important message from the findings is that there must be roomfor an individual development of a mental toughness that works for each player. Coachesmay indeed vary the type of attitude they seek to nurture according to the type of characterdisplayed. They may also encourage different thinking according to the dominant attitudesdemonstrated. Within the sample this was exemplified by one of the bowlers valuing match-winning performances of getting opponents out, whatever the cost, whereas another bowlervalued his ability to limit the scoring chances of the opposition as much as possible, and gettingopponents out was of secondary importance. Such differences in character and attitude thatproduce such different performance philosophies are a real challenge for the coach who isresponsible for managing the development of these diverse winners. The analogy, along withthe associated implications, has been very well received by the coaches.

The ability to account for individuality within the development of mental toughness isbelieved to be a strength of the approach proposed within this research, and concurs withGould et al’s (2002) views on developing broader psychological skills and characteristics.Although generalized findings need to be provided in order to inform professional practice and

ireade

Highlight

staff

Highlight


allow attempts to be made to develop mental toughness, the recognition of the individualitycomponent provides an important additional directive for the effective implementation ofthe findings. Without this qualification being placed upon the findings it would be easy toassume that the recommendation from this research was to attempt to create players withthe same thinking, attitudes, and character. With the individuality qualification being made,the focus of the findings changes dramatically, with the recommendation now being firmlyfocused upon the development of an environment within which players are given maximumopportunity to benefit in terms of character, attitude, and thinking. This is an indirect approachto developing mental toughness, but if successful would result in an enduring mental toughnessthat was individual to the player rather than artificially imposed.

It is also interesting to note that very little of the output relates directly to mental skillstraining. The findings suggest that rather than focusing time solely upon the top of the pyra-mid, sport psychology consultants need to consider how their expertise can be exploited in thedevelopment of the “mental toughness” ‘Environment,’ ‘Tough Character,’ and ‘Tough Atti-tudes.’ The development of mental skills is obviously still an important outcome. However,it appears that the sport psychology consultant should be considering how best to integratethese skills into an appropriate environment, rather than simply focusing upon the delivery ofisolated programs of mental skills training, as has been the historical approach.

The similarity between the global themes identified in this research and the mental toughnessattributes proposed by Jones et al. (2002) is very encouraging, and provides a positive reflectionupon the trustworthiness of the present data. Being able to identify the subtly different natureof the global themes is a positive development, and provides additional valuable informationfrom that presented by Jones et al., and also provides further empirical data to support theobservations of Loehr’s (1995) building blocks of mental toughness.

Dissemination of Findings, Practical Recommendations and Conclusions

The research findings and the development of the framework provide a sound base fordisseminating an understanding of mental toughness within English cricket. Furthermore, theframework also provides a reference point for making informed recommendations for thedevelopment of mental toughness, to the ECB.

With the goal of the research being to help the ECB work towards developing a greaternumber of mentally tough cricketers, the dissemination of the research findings is an impor-tant part of the research process. On a national level, the project has received excellent mediaattention, with feature articles in national newspapers, crickets magazines, and a special itemnews report on national television. Strategic work has been carried out with the ECB’s Perfor-mance Director and National Coaches through introducing the framework and discussing itsimplications for coaching practice within the national age group sides. Also, the framework ofmental toughness is now an integral part of the ECB’s Level 3 and 4 coaching qualifications.

Due to the recommendations arising from the framework, and changes to coaching ap-proaches, the role of the sport psychology consultants within the ECB age-group squads isdeveloping. The sport psychology consultants have become more integrated members of thecoaching team, working closely with the coaches on how to develop an impactful environmentas well as providing recommendations to the coaches regarding how to integrate mental skillstraining experiences into the overall training program, rather than being a stand alone con-cept. Mental skill development is being delivered less formally and is integrated into practicalsessions more frequently. Additionally, with coaches using the sport psychology consultantsto help build a “winning environment,” much more emphasis is being placed upon helpingplayers to learn the psychological lessons being delivered, and develop individual approaches

ireade

Highlight

ireade

Highlight

staff

Highlight


for maximizing the impact of their time in the ECB training environment. Coaches are beingencouraged to bring in approaches that promote multiple definitions of success in training andplaying. Furthermore, the Winning Character and Attitudes are explicitly being introduced toplayers as valued commodities in the ECB training environment, and the focus of one-to-onesport psychology work is moving towards assisting players in developing individual approachesto acquiring these commodities for themselves. Specific training exercises are being developedthat directly help to promote key Winning Attitudes within physical, technical, mental, andtactical training sessions. The sport psychology approach is becoming more focused uponhelping players learn how to develop psychologically as a result of the experiences they havein training. The role of mental skills coach for the sport psychology consultant still exists,but the relative importance of ‘top of the pyramid’ approach is now viewed differently. Otherindividuals within the coaching environment are equally skilled at teaching mental skills forperformance, and have far more opportunity to carry this out.

Although it is clear that there is still some way to go before the conceptual ambiguities ofmental toughness are fully resolved, the present research project has represented a significantstep for the development of the young English cricketer. Findings from the present study havebeen passed on to the ECB’s Long Term Athlete Development Project to determine how thisinitial work might be further refined to be of specific use within the development pathway. Theresearch team are currently considering how a further research project may shed additional lighton effective ways of creating high levels of mental toughness in the players spending time at theNational Academy which is being viewed as a future stepping stone to the full England side.The ongoing effort to more fully understand and operationalize mental toughness will be veryimportant to the development of English cricket and sport psychology alike. Further researchis warranted to build upon the positive recent steps presented in the sport psychology literaturein order that sport psychology consultants can have a greater impact upon this essential areaof performance psychology.

REFERENCES

Bull, S. J., Albinson, J. G., & Shambrook, C. J. (1996). The mental game plan: Getting psyched for sport.Eastbourne, UK: Sports Dynamics.

Clarkson, M. (1999). Competitive fire. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among the five traditions.

London, UK: Sage.Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffett, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development

in Olympic Champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172–204.Hamer, S., & Collinson, G. (1999), Achieving evidence based practice: A handbook for practitioners.

Edinburgh, UK: Harcourt.Jones, J. G., Hanton, S., & Connaughton, D. (2002). What is this thing called mental toughness? An

investigation of elite performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 205–218.Kreiner-Phillips, K., & Orlick, T. (1993). Winning after winning: The psychology of ongoing excellence.

The Sport Psychologist, 7, 31–48.Loehr, J. E. (1995). The new toughness training for sports. New York: Penguin.Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.) Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Robson, C. (1993). Real world research. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.Romney, A. K., Weller, S. C., & Batchelder, W. H.. (1986) Culture as consensus: A theory of culture and

accuracy. American Anthropologist, 88, 313–338.Williams, J. M., & Krane, V. (2001). Psychological characteristics of peak performance. In J. M. Williams

(Ed.), Applied sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (4th ed., pp. 137–147)Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

ireade

Highlight

toeard an understanding of mental toughness in elite english cricketers

Documents