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To me every hour of the light and dark is a miracle, every cubic inch of space is a miracle, every square yard of the surface of the Earth is spread with the same.- Walt Whitman

2Photo by Harm de Blij, Michigan State University.

Hispaniola (“The Spanish Island”) is an island that Christopher Columbus took possession of during his voyage of 1492.

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Columbus Landing on Hispaniola, 1492.Artist: Theodor de Bry, 1594.

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Hispaniola had a wide variety of ecosystems, ranging from arid plains to lush tropical forests.

Five mountain ranges run through the island.

6Los Haitises National Park, Dominican Republic

As the island was colonized, most of its indigenous tribes died out from diseases and harsh working conditions in Spanish gold mines.

By 1517, the indigenous population was down to from an estimated 250,000 to 14,000. They were replaced with 14,000 African slaves and

1,000 Spanish colonists on the island.

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The slave population revolted in 1804, winning independence from France for Haiti, their part of the island. Initially, no nation

would recognize the country as sovereign.

France demanded150 million Francs asrestitution for lost property, which was paid with lumber from theisland’s forests.

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Battle at San Domingo. Artist: January Suchodolski, 1845.

The biosphere is the part of the Earth that supports life. Scattered throughout the biosphere is a wide range

of habitats– dry deserts, lush rainforests, even dark caves.

Each of these areas, called biomes, has its own unique geography and climate.

A biome is a major regional complex of similar communities – a large-scale ecological unit recognized primarily by its dominant plant type and vegetation structure.

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11Opeaka’a Falls, Wailua, Kauai. Photo by Aaron Feinberg

12Ka’u Desert, Hawai’i

13Mauna Kea, Hawai’i

The two most significant abiotic factors that influence life in a biome are temperature and precipitation.

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Which biome covers each portion of the planet depends on a wider variety of abiotic factors besides temp. and precip.:

Atmosphere

Oceanic circulation patterns

Soil characteristics

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As the latitude, or distance away from the equator, increases, average temperature tends to decrease.

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Hawai’i

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Latitude is measured in degrees north or south of the equator.

Hilo, Hawaii: lat.19.7, long.-155.1

Latitude: “lat is flat from E-W” Parallels of latitude: 0°-90°

Some common parallels of latitude:

Arctic Circle 66°33’ N

Tropic of Cancer 23°27’ N

Equator 0°

Tropic of Capricorn 23°27’ S

Antarctic Circle 66° 33’ S

Longitude: “the longest lines are N-S” Meridians: 0°-180°

Prime Meridian is the 0° point in Greenwich, England

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As the altitude, or elevation from sea level increases, average temperatures decrease.

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Under normal atm.

conditions:

Lapse Rate =

6.4°C/ 1km or

3.5°F/ 1,000ft

In addition to changing altitude, the presence of mountains has a major influence on the distribution of precipitation. As warm, moist air travels up a mountain range, the

air cools (due to altitude) and the moisture condenses.

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As a result, the windward side of the mountain facing the incoming air currents receives disproportionately more precipitation than the opposite, leeward side. This is called the orographic effect, or rain shadow

effect.

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Biomes located near a large body of water often have greater precipitation levels and milder, more stable temperatures. Water gains and loses

heat much more slowly than air.

The nearby water evaporates and fuels incoming storm systems.

22Waimanu, Hawai’i. Photo by David Chatsuthphan

23Precipitation map of Hawaii. Map by University of Hawaii at Manoa 2013

A climatograph is a combination precipitation and temperature graph for a given biome. The average monthly

precipitation for the area is displayed as a bar graph.

The average monthly temperature is displayed as a line graph.

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Lowest moisture levels of all ecosystems. Precipitation is infrequent

and unpredictable.

The lack of water is a major limiting factor for plant growth. The lack of plants, in turn,

is a limiting factor for any other consumer or decomposer.

Dry year around but NOT always hot

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Subtropical deserts are usually located in the interior of continents, far from sources of moisture. Wind patterns also prevent any moisture from

collecting.

The Sahara Desert in Africa and the Great Australian Desert are examples.

Kalahari Desert, Botswana, Africa

Rain shadow deserts are formed primarily due to their position on the leeward side of a large mountain range. The Gobi desert

falls on the leeward side of the Himalayan mountains.

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The Atacama Desert in Chile is the driest place on Earth, outside of Antarctica. Some weather stations have

never recorded any rainfall!

This is a coastal desert. The ocean water cools the air so much that it is unable to hold moisture well. The Andes Mountains form

a rain shadow effect on the opposite side.

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Midlatitude, or temperate deserts fall in higher latitudes, between 40 and 60 degrees. This means much more temperature variability,

including different seasons.

Temperate deserts receive somewhat more precipitation than subtropical deserts, supportingplants adapted to the climate.

The Sonoran Desert in the southwestern United States is an example.

Many temperate desert plants are succulents, meaning they have thickened, fleshy parts for storing water.

Succulent plants also grow very slowly. The Saguaro cactus

grows 75 years before sproutingits first arm!

Saguaro cacti, Carnegiea giganteaSonoran Desert, Arizona, USA.

Polar deserts consistently experience temperatures below freezing. The little precipitation that falls takes the form of ice

or snow.

Most of the interior of Antarctica is considered a polar desert.

250 year-old mummified seal carcass. McMurdo Dry Valley, Antarctica.

Grasslands receive more precipitation and cooler temperatures than deserts.

With water being less of a limiting factor, more biomass is found here than in deserts.

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Tropical grasslands, also called savannas, are located near the equator, usually between desert and rainforest biomes.

Savannas have consistent temperatures. The seasons are instead based on precipitation.

Clusters of trees.

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Temperate grasslands, called steppe or prairies in North America, are farther away from the equator and experience seasonal temperature shifts.

Prairie plants have adapted to the cold winter and frequent absence of precipitation by developing root systems that can be several feet deep. This enables

prairie plantsto recoverquickly fromdrought orwildfire,while the slowgrowing treescannot.

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There is a growing season in the tundra, but it is only a few months long. Only lichens, herbs, and other small plants survive there.

Cold and dry, alpine tundra found at higher altitudes.

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Dense thickets, consists of evergreen shrubs

Highly seasonal: Mild, wet winters Warm, dry summers “Mediterranean” climate

influenced by surrounding ocean Coast of California, Chile, and

Southern Australia

Experience frequent fires Plants adapted to resist fires, or

require fires for germination of their seeds

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Tongariro National Park, Autearoa

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Forest biomes receive much more consistent precipitation than deserts and grasslands, allowing them to support hardwood trees.

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Tropical rainforests receive the greatest amount of rainfall of any other biome and are consistently warm.

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Few abiotic limiting factors for plant growth.

Rainforests are so dense with life that they are divided into four layers: Emergent layer

Canopy

Understory

Forest Floor

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The emergent layer and canopy contains the majority of the fruit, leaves, and flowers of the trees. Most of the animal life is also found in the canopy.

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Iguaçu Falls, border of Brazil, Argentina, and Bolivia.

The understory only receives about 5% of the sunlight that shines on the canopy. Contains shrubs, seedlings, and some animals.

The forest floor is the darkest layer and is mostly home to decomposers like insect larvae and fungi.

Despite the rapid decomposition rate, the nutrients are reabsorbed so quickly that the topsoil is very thin.

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Phallus indusiatus, Veiled Lady Fungus

In Haiti, a combination of a severe hurricane in 1954 and increased demand for charcoal lead to further deforestation.

The peasants began clearing and farming on the forested hills. The thin rainforest soil

was quickly depleted and began experiencingsevere erosion.

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Tropical dry forests, also called tropical deciduous forests, experience significant seasonal variation in precipitation and relatively stable, warm temperatures. Wet and dry seasons span half a year

Many plants grow quickly with rain and drop leaves when dry

Rains heavily in wet season

Many tropical dry forests used for agriculture Clearing is easier with less vegetation and lower canopy

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Temperate deciduous forests, located at higher latitudes, experience a winter that reaches below freezing. Like rainforests, these mostly contain broadleaf

trees which are well-suited for absorbing sunlight.

They are divided into the same layers – canopy, understory, and forest floor. The growth is not constant, so the soil is actually much

deeper and richer.

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Winter poses a problem for these trees – the air is too dry for the trees to survive with their leaves intact. Deciduous trees adapt by shedding leaves when

water is scarce or ground is frozen.

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DandenongRanges,

Australia.

Temperate rainforests receive a comparable amount of precipitation to tropical ones, but are in higher latitudes. One example is the

Northern Pacific coast of the United States and Canada, which has two geographic advantages: Located on the windward

side of the Olympic mountain range.

Receives constant moisture from the wind currents off the Pacific ocean.

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Issaquah, Washington, United States

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Boreal forests, also called taiga, are found throughout the far northern latitudes.

These forests are characterized by coniferous trees, which are much more well-adapted to the long, cold, dry winters. Needle-shaped leaves have

a waxy coating that retains moisture in the winter.

Cone shape allows accumulated snow to slide to the ground.

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Fairbanks, Alaska, United States.

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Biomes are dynamic – they change as the Earth changes. This process is called succession. Organisms that thrive during the early stages of

succession are called pioneer species. Those only found in later stages are called climax species.

Ecosystem succession takes two forms, depending on the starting point.

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Primary succession occurs when a new ecosystem develops where there was none before. A combination of wind, water, and pioneer species

such as lichens break down rock into soil.

Once the soil has enough organic matter, small plants and shrubs can be supported. Over time, trees spout and become dominant.

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Secondary succession occurs following the disruption of an existing ecosystem. Fire, flood, volcanic eruption, clear-cutting, etc.

This form of ecological succession does not take as long. Soil is already in place, and pioneer species appear within days or weeks.

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Today, only about 2% of Haiti’s original forest cover remains. Even this remains at risk, because most of the

people depend on charcoal as a source of heat.

The lack of forests has made the country much more susceptible to flooding, mudslides, and erosion.

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Neighboring Dominican Republic, which gained its independence with much less strife, is the second largest economy in the Caribbean.

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Haiti’s hopes for recovery hinge on its ability to speed the process of ecological succession – to encourage reforestation and find an alternative fuel to charcoal.

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73Metrosideros polymorpha (‘Ōhi’a lehua)

74Nephrolepsis spp. (kupu kupu)

75Stereocaulon vulcani (lichen, limu haea)

76Dubautia scabra (Kupaoa)

77Vaccinium reticulatum (ʻŌhelo ʻai)

78Rumex acetosella Rumex giganteus

79Coprosma ernodeoides (kukaenene)

80Dodonea viscosa (a’ali’i)

81Dicranopteris linearis (uluhe)

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Climax community with multiple forest layers

and highest diversity