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A P M t o r a i

[or i V d i t a s o r

K l n o r P r o f e s s o r

•an, t h e OrgdtMt* tela©#!

THE RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGE AID ARTICULATION

ABILITY TO READING ABILITY

THESIS

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State Unifersity in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

MASTSR OF ARTS

By

Francis V. Butt, B. A,, M. Ed.

Denton, Texas

January, 1968

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pag©

LIST OF TABLES IV

Chapter

I, INTRODUCTION AID REVIEW OF THE t rrnvm a mmp- 1

I I . , SUBJECTS , TESTS, PROCEDURES 31

III, RESULTS AID DISCUSSION U6

VT* SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 76

BIBLIOGRAPHY 86

iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

I, Comparison of Chronological Ages, Mental Ages, and IQ Scores of Normal, Minor, and Severe Articulation Groups 33

II, Comparison of M m Score Means and Standard Deviations on the Test . . , kB

III. Grade Equivalent Scoras on the SaM&i&aMfiMs SMJUSI. XftS& **9

IV• Comparison of Mean Standard Scores on the Vocabulary Test and the Comprehension Test 51

V, Correlation Coefficient Between Vocabulary and Comprehension Within Group I, Group IIt and Group III . 51

VI. Correlation Coefficients Between the Illinois si AMttHss. an* the

vocabulary Test and the Comprehension Test . . 52

VII. Correlation Coefficients Between the Illinois Isafr. fi£ AMjJAisa subtests and the Vocabulary Teat and the Comprehension

Test of the Rfllftlfllg SMfc # * *-53

VIII. Means and Standard Deviations on the £mt Ml EmshslUimUUn A U l t t e & Group 1 >7

3X« Means and Standard deviations on the Illinois iMfff Stl XMtahQXtM!tX$%te AMlltto In-

Group II . . . 58

X. Means and Standard Deviations on the Illinois

lfllp £iii sr! 0^ ef! tl c . . . . . . . 58

XI. Comparison of Language Ages on the Illinois ffoup?I^n^and^II?'!0 £liti©s^ amongs . 59

iv

fable

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

x v m .

xu*

Page

Correlation Coefficients of the I l l i n o i s l§f.t at ftoteMmlatlg Total Seer© and lach Subtest Score * 61

Correlations among Subtests of the aUJtoflU iMt AMttllfJ, within Group I 63

Correlations among Subtests of the

S S S i S a m t u E Qroup 11 . . &*

Correlations among Subtests of the fflkfilfl fall M AUUUQS vithln Group III . . 65

Fisher Scores for the Difference between the Means of Group I and Group II . 67

Fisher % Scores for the Difference between the Means of Group I and Group III 68

Fisher t. So ores for the Difference between the Means of Group II and Group 111 . 69

Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . 70

f i

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION AND BE VIEW OF TUB LITERATTJRE

The existence of a fundamental relationship between

speech and reading is frequently encountered as an accepted

fact# Sampson stated that it is "often assumed as almost self-

evident that there Is a. basic association between speech and

reading (2k)»n leading ha® been defined as "the activity of

reconstructing a reasonable spoken message from a printed

text# and making meaningful responses to the reconstructed

message that -would parallel those that would be made to the

spoken message (5# p* 62)." It is generally taken for granted

that the learner already has some control of the spoken lan-

guage before he tries to learn to read# lyklebust (22t p. 2)

pointed out that there are both receptive and expressive

aspects of language* The receptive aspects of language are

involved in taking in and attaching meaning to linguistic

symbols. The expressive aspects of language are involved in

the setting forth of ideas through linguistic symbols. In

the development of language skills» the receptive aspects of

language are basic to the expressive aspects and must be

learned before expressive skills can develop. Myklebust

further stated that there are two types of verbal language,

spoken ©r auditory language and written or visual language.

1

tfhaa the child begins learning to use verbal language, he first

learns to receive, or understand, the spoken. When he has

established some skill in comprehension of oral language, he

learns to use these linguistic units to express his wants.

After he has developed auditory language and has attained

sufficient neurological and psychological maturity, the normal

child acquires the visual forms of language. Just as the

child learns to comprehend spoken language before he learns

to speak, h© learns to comprehend the visual form of language

before he learns to express- himself in the visual form of

language* He learns to read before he learns to write* In

addition, according to Myklebust, the relationship of the

visual and auditory language forms is heirarchical in nature,

the visual form of language being dependent on the auditory

form* This means that to develop normally, the receptive

form of visual language, reading, is dependent on auditory or

spoken language# and the expressive form of visual language,

writing, is dependent on the integrity of both the auditory

and the read forms. Thus, the child initially "translates"

what appears on the printed page into the auditory equivalents

which he has previously learned. Monroe {20, p. 79) observed

that in learning to read, the individual »ust learn to respond

in an organized way to printed symbols which stand for objects

and relationships. These printed symbols are usually graphic

representations of speech. It is possible to respond directly

to the printed systbols without the process of speech. However,

since the child on entering school has already acquired a

large number of speech symbols, these sysbols are usually

associated with the printed ones as an intermediate link be-

tween the printed symbols and their meanings. Reading Is,

then, intimately connected with speech, and may be regarded

as a parallel system of language which Is usually built up

from speech.

By the time the child reaches the first grade, he has

mastered all of the basic sentence types in spoken adult

English and the major inflectional forms. The most Important

features of English granmar are known by the first grade

cMld. From this point on, spoken language development in-

volves vocabulary development, refinement of sentence structure,

improving the development of grammatical usage, and oppor-

tunities to use language to express meaning and observe the

effect of his expression on others (31). Zigler, Jones and

K&fes 0+1), Investigating the acquisition of language habits

in first, second, and third grade boys, found that the lan-

guage measures which most discriminated between first and

second grade boys and between second and third grade boys were

those measures requiring reading ability.

Smith and Bechant (27, pp. 102-103) stated that language

development plays a significant and unique role In reading

readiness and that the language aspects which are significant

for reading are vocabulary, sentence structure, and clarity

of pronunciation. Carroll (6, p. 3**2) observed that "experience

should run ahead of the development of competence with reading

and writing." The child should generally learn language

patterns in the spoken form before they are introduced in the

written fora. Smith and Dechant (27» pp. 57-58) farther

stated that "speech disabilities may affect the child*s reading

In a ntuaber of ways. Their effect on oral reading is obvious.

Moreover, they may have a decidedly deleterious effect on

reading in general# and further important indirect effects of

speech disorders are likely to be underestimated."

In the study of delayed reading, one area which has been "

studied is the relationship of speech difficulties to reading

delay. Most of these studies have lumped all types of speech

problems together rather than studying the relationship of a

specific type of speech defect to reading. A few studies

have, however, examined the relationship of articulatory

deviations to reading ability. The results of these studies

have been inconclusive and contradictory. As one researcher

observed, "An Investigation of research reports indicates an

absence of complete agreement as to the relationship of reading

defects to articulatory aberations (9, p. 61)."

Statement of the Problem

The purpose of this study was t© determine the relation-

ship between articulation ability and reading ability, between

articulation ability and language development, and between

language development and reading ability. Although several

studies have been carried out which examined the relationship

of articulation ability to reading, these studies have not

differentiated between those children hairing minor articulation

problems# involving only one or two speech sounds, and those

children -whose articulation difficulty involves several sounds.

This study examined children with minor difficulties and

children with a history of sore severe articulation problems

separately in order to determine whether severity of articu-

lation disability is related to reading ability. Ho study has

been reported -which attempted to relate reading disability and

articulation disability with language development. The present

study has compared articulation ability, reading ability and

language development.

Definition of Terms

In considering the fields of reading, articulation, and

language, some clarification of terminology is necessary. The

terms speech and language have been used interchangeably.

However, for the purposes of this paper, speech and language

are considered as two distinct teras.

To soa© authorities, language consists of vocal symbols

only. For these authorities, language is speech. All other

forms are related to the essence of language without essentially

being language (7, p. xxxiv). Sturtevant, for example, defined

language as "a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by which

members of a social group cooperate and interact (32, p. 5)*"

In defining language as a system of vocal symbols, he delib-

erately ruled out gesture language, sign language or written

language. Sapir defined language as "a purely human and non-

instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and

desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols

<25, p# 6)#" These symbols he specified as auditory symbols.

To Whatmough (37, p. 20), language is a herbal systematic

symbolism which makes use of verbal elements and structures

which are called words and their arrangements. Language,, as

defined by Carroll (6, p. 332), is "a structured system of

arbitrary vocal sounds and sequences of sounds which is used

in interpersonal communication and which rather exhaustively

catalogs the things, events, and processes of human experience."

Hall (12, p. 1*0 is in agreement with the foregoing definitions

in stating that language is a system of oral-auditory habits

which are used by humans for conveying messages through arbi-

trary symbolism. He further observes that although writing

systems have been devised for some languages, they are basically

oral-auditory systems*

Other authorities extend the definition of language to

include visible movements or written words, as well as spoken

words. Brooks (2, pp. 16-18) conceptualized three broad bands

of language 1 the audio-lingual band, the gestural-visual

band, and the graphic-material band. The audio-lingual band

is conceived of as the central band of language. This band

may be defined as "talk" and is always linked to the present

moment and involves interpersonal relationship between the

speaker and the hearer and the situation. Included in the

gestural-visual band are the facial and bodily movements of

the speaker -which are perceived by the listener• The graphic-

material band of language includes written Material. Brooks

observed that although it is usually the eye that mast restore

the graphic representations to a form that can be interpreted

as auditory images, its complete dependence upon, the central

audio-lingual band must never be disregarded.

Gez (11) defined language as a system of symbols which

functions in oral and written forms, Language is subdivided

into pronounceable and audible language, which relate to oral

languages and visible language, symbols which are taken in

through visual channels, such as information from a written

text, Ihe oral and written forms are not conceived of as

discrete forms. Gez recognized that there are complex inter-

relations between the two forms of language.

Language, including both the spoken and written forms,

is defined by Myklebust (22, p. 2) as "symbol-making" behavior,

encompassing the ability to abstract, to attach meaning to

vords and to employ words as symbols for thought, for the ex-

pression of ideas.

Implicit in all of these definitions is the principle

that the purpose of language is communication among human

beings. Even those authorities who limit their definition of

language to oral symbols recognize the relationship of graphic

representations to the oral form. Since human beings com-

municate in written as well as oral symbols, a definition of

8

language should Include the written for® of language. A set

of symbols, in order to serve the purpose of communication,

mast be organized according to some set of rtales.

A definition of langaage •which includes all of these

elements was proposed by Wood, who defined langaage as "an

organized system of linguistic symbols (words}, used by human

beings to communicate on an abstract level* Language, then,

is basic to all communication through words, encompassing

reading and writing as well as the spoken word <39, pp* 6-7)."

Speech is the oral egression of language (39, p. 7)»

More thoroughly defined, speech is "formalized communication!

audible language, particularly that which Is conventionalized

Into an arbitrary code, in contradistinction to emotional

cries (38, p. 628)."

Review of the Literature

Several studies have examined the relationship of speech

defects to reading ability. The majority of these studies

were carried out with first or second grade children. The

findings of all of these studies are somewhat inconclusive.

Many of the earlier studies were conducted using children who

had various types of speech disorders.

Some studies measured the language ability of both normal

and retarded readers. Other studies have measured the language

ability of children with articulation errors. Five studies

tested the results of speech therapy or speech improvement on

articulation and reading ability.

Monro# (20, p. 92) examined *> children with special

reading defects varying from mild retardation to extreme dis-

abilities. These **1 *> children -were divided into three groups.

Designated as clinic reading cases were 215" of the children

who had been referred to a clinic for a variety of behavioral

and environmental problems. Their poor reading ability was

discovered as part of the routine clinical examination. This

group ranged in age froa six years to sixteen years eleven

months# with a mean age of ten years nine months# The second

group, referred to as the special reading eases* was made up

of 155 children who had been referred by their parents,

teachers or school psychologists for their reading problems.

This group ranged in ag© from seven years to fifteen years.

The mean age for the special reading cases was eleven years

one month. A third group of forty-five children were desig-

nated the defective reading cases. These children, ranging

in age from eight years to seventeen years, were referred by

school psychologists and teachers of special classes for

borderline and mentally retarded children. The mean age of

this group was twelve years eight months. In order to compare

the usual learning process with that of the experimental

groups, the control group of 101 children was selected from

among chronologically much younger children. The control group

children were between the ages of six and ten years with a

mean age of eight years four Months. The mean intelligence

quotients for the four groups were 90.U for the clinic reading

10

cases, 110.9 for the special reading cases, 77.H for the

defective reading oases, and 111.H for the normal group*

Monroe found articulation defects in 18 per cent of the chil-

dren with reading problems but only 7 per cent of the control

group. She defined articulation defects as infantile speech,

lisping# mispronunciations, etc.

In a study by Bond (1 ), sixty-four poor readers were

matched with sixty-four good readers. These children were

all enrolled in the second or third grade in the public schools.

All of the children included in the study obtained IQ scores

of eighty-five or above on the Stanford-Binet. The mean IQ

for the experimental group (poor readers) was 100.75 and 102.02

for the control group. Beading ability was tested by the

gates, gyp© III, Primary leading Test. Speech skill was

studied by giving each child a picture-word articulation test

and observation of his speech during conversation. No sig-

nificant differences in the incidence of speech defects in

good and poor readers was found.

Moss (21) tested the articulation of second grade children

who were referred by their teachers as having "speech irreg-

ularities." Prom among these children she selected thirty-six

children whose speech was normal. The median IQ for the con-

trol group was 91 and for the experimental group, 92.8. Both

groups had a median chronological age of seven years eight

months. Oral reading skill was tested by the Gates Standardized

Oral Heading Check Test. The speeah defective children were

11

found to read slower and to make more errors than the normal

group. The most frequent speech problem found in this study

was sound substitutions. Other problems among this group were

lisping# individual characteristics of voice, stuttering,

foreign dialect, and rapid speech# Although the speech de-

fective group read more slowly and made more reading errors,

there appeared to be little relation between reading rate and

reading error and severity of speech defect.

Hildreth (13) described several language difficulties

which she felt retarded reading* Among these were Inadequate

or Immature motor coordination, inadequate and inaccurate

articulation, ©motional conflicts due to speech defects •which

interfere -with oral reading as -well as comprehension and in-

terpretation, poor auditory discrimination of speech sounds,

sensory and motor aphasia, spasms and stuttering, and bllin»

guallsm.

Weaver, Furbee, and Everhart (35) tested 638 first grade

children in both reading readiness and articulation proficiency.

Articulation proficiency was tested by having the child name

pictures and by observation of connected speech. They found

163 children with normal articulation and b75 children with

articalatory deviations. The mean number of articulation

errors for the children in this group was 10.7. Beading read-

iness was tested by means of the Gates Heading Readiness Tests.

A drop of five percentiles in reading readiness was observed

between children with no articulation errors and children with

12

one articulation error. A drop of seven percentiles was noted

between children -with, two and children with three errors of

articulation. The results of their study indicated an almost

steady negative significant relationship between reading

readiness and the increase in the number of errors of articu-

lation. The difference in reading readiness between children

with normal articulation and children with articulation errors

was significant well beyond the one percent level.

In an analysis of the relationship of auditory memory

span and functional articulation problems t© reading^ Cabrinl

(k) tested 182 children enrolled in the second grade. She

used the Templin-Darley Tests of Articulation and the Gates

Primary Paragraph leading Test. She found that the majority

of below average readers had a speech age of three years*

utilizing the Templin-Darley Criteria. However, she also found

that children with a speech age of four years' showed no ten-

dency toward poor reading ability. The closeness of the mental

ages of these two groups ruled out intelligence as a factor

in the difference in the reading ability of these two groups.

Cabrini observed that the difference in the percentages seemed

to indicate a lack of interdependence between speech age and

reading at this lower level of achievement. Howevert she also

observed that the children who scored nearer the norm in speech

represented the majority of above average readers. She noted

that this may indicate that the closer a child is to the

attainment of normal speech, the better are his chances to

13

achieve well in reading. As a result of her findings, Cabrini

concluded that reading ability was not necessarily related to

articulation ability. However, she observed that the closer

the child's speech was to being normal, the greater was his

ability to read.

In order to discover the incidence of functional articu-

lation problems among a group of retarded readers, Senenberg

and Glass (30) tested forty children who had been referred to

a reading clinic. Children were defined as delayed in reading

who were reading below grade and expectancy level and were in

need of specific instructional aid. Thirty-two ©f the forty

children tested were found to have functional articulation

problems. Two matched groups were selected from among this

thirty-two. The experimental group received speech and reading

instruction. The control group received only reading in*

struction. The results of this study indicated that 80 per

cent of the total group of forty retarded readers had func-

tional articulation problems. Forty-seven per cent of those

who had functional articulation problems had problems with

auditory discrimination. Of the fifteen subjects who had

auditory discrimination problems, eleven had difficulty with

discrimination of the same sounds with which they had artic-

ulation difficulty. The author s noted that many of the

orthographic symbols associated with these sounds were cited

as letters which often appear as reading reversals. Four out

of five of the experimental group made greater improvement in

1*t

reading skills than the control group. Those children re-

ceiving speech therapy tended to improve reading skills beyond

those obtained by children not receiving speech therapy* It

was suggested by the authors that problems in articulation,

auditory discrimination and reversal of letters representing

these sounds amy all be part of the same problem.

Based on the findings of a previous study conducted by

the same authors# Lovell, Shapton, and Warsen (17) developed

the hypothesis that about one-half of all retarded readers

have nonverbal intelligence which is average or above* The

purpose of this present study was to test this hypothesis#

In this study* 1 , 6*f children nere administered a sentence

reading test and a picture intelligence test, the N.F.E.R*

Wonverbal feat lumber Five. The N.F.E.R. Nonverbal Test lumber

five is one of a series of five tests of nonverbal intelligence

published by the National Foundation for Educational Research

in England and Wales and the femes Educational Publishing Co.

Ltd. This test measures the child1s ability to manipulate

concepts such m classification, order of sequence or analogy,

through non-linguistic symbols. Buros (3, p. **90) stated that

although norms are given for this test, the manual contains

no information on validity or the relation of this test to

similar tests. He concluded that the use of this test vas

not advisable in an educational setting, but that its us© in

research as part of a battery of tests should be acceptable.

Of the children tested,, fifty retarded readers vere matched

15

with fifty average to good reader3, These one hundred subjects

were then given the Watt * s Bnglish Language Scalet which

measures the mastery of the basic varieties of English sen-

tences. In addition, they -ware given a sentence copying test,

a test of left-right discrimination, and the vocabulary,

block design, and coding tests of the Wesohler Intelligence

Scale for Children. No articulation tests were administered.

They'found that the retarded readers showed no deficit in

performance on the oral test of language structure but -were

poorer in vocabulary. The retarded readers also performed

less well on spatial relationships and right-left discrimi-

nation. They also made a larger number of errors in copying

•words.

Certain language characteristics of first grade children

"who had early success in reading were described by Oakes and

Plessas (23). The children selected for this study were iden-

tified by their parents and teachers as having the ability to

read when they entered the first grade. The language level

of these children was compared with the norms established

in Templin1s (33) study. Twenty first grade children were

examined. The mean TQ of these children was 120. Through a

non-directive interview in which the children were encouraged

to talk about a live guinea pig, a colorful jet airliner, and

a series of pictures, the examiners obtained approximately

sixty responses from each child. An analysis was then made of

the first fifty intelligible responses. They found that there

16

•was no significant difference between the early readers and

Templin's norms In regard to length of expression or parts of

speech used. It "was found that more on© nerd responses were

used by this sample; however, It "was felt that this could be

attributed to the testing situation. It was found that the

Mean of the five longest responses was longer than the norm

established in Templin1 s study. They also found that early-

readers used a predominance of simple sentences without

phrases. These early readers were also noted as using more

verbs than any other part of speech, The concept had earlier

been established by Davis (8) that the mean length of the five

longest sentences Is the best single predictor of language

maturity. Using this concept, Oakes and Plessas found that

the early readers in this study demonstrated greater language

maturity than did Templin1s sample population.

As part of a longitudinal study, Sampson (2*0 attempted

to relate reading performance to the present and earlier

speech development of a group of forty-eight eight-year-old

children. These children were drawn from the original group

with which she had begun the longitudinal study. These chil-

dren were given reading tests, vocabulary tests, and were rated

according to a developmental scale. Speech scores which had

been obtained on these children at two and one-half and at

five years had been obtained in terms of language development

rather than articulation development. At two and one-

half, language had been assessed In terms of the amount of

17

correctly phrased speech that was present. At age five, lan-

g %ge was measured by vocabulary and language tests and at

age eight, by vocabulary tests. The reading scores of these

children were compared with the speech scores previously ob-

tained at ages two* and- one-half and five and with the speech

scores obtained in the present study. Sampson found a con-

siderable connection between the development of vocabulary,

language, and later reading skill. A high correlation of .91

was found between comprehension and accuracy in reading. A

higher correlation (.8*0 was found between comprehension and

vocabulary at eight years than between comprehension and the

non-verbal intelligence test scores (.Wf>). Those children

who were defective in speech, as referred by the teacher,

were found to be lower in reading comprehension. This group,

however, had various types of speech deficiencies. As a result

of her study, Sampson concluded that there is a positive cor-

relation between reading skill and language development.

However, the relation of reading skill to the mechanics of

speech was not clear.

Kass (16) studied twenty-one elementary school children

with reading problems in order to determine the psycholin-

guists disabilities of such children. These children were

enrolled in the second, third, or fourth grade and were rated

as retarded readers on a battery of diagnostic reading tests.

In addition to the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities,

the children were given a Visual Automatic test, Sound Blending

18

Test, Mazes, Memory-for-'Besigns, Perceptual Speech lest.

These children were found not deficient in Auditory Decoding,

Vocal Snooping, Auditory-Vocal Sequencing, or the visual-motor

subtests at the representational level. These children -were

deficient in Auditory-Vocal Association, Auditory-Vocal Auto-

matic, Visual Sequencing, Visual Automatic, Sound Blending,

Mazes, Memory~for-Designs, and Perceptual Speed. The areas of

deficit were mainly on the Integratlonal level rather than the

representational level of organization#

A study by Yedinack (HO) investigated the differences in

development and patterning of intelligence, articulation,

oral and silent reading, vocabulary, and oral language devel-

opment in four groups of second grade children. These four

groups were (a) those who were seriously defective in artic-

ulation, being defective in at least ©ne frequently used

phoneme, (b) children who were seriously retarded readers,

Co) children who were normal in both articulation and reading,

and (d) children wh© were retarded in both reading and artic-

ulation. These children were given articulation tests,

silent and oral reading tests, vocabulary tests, and language

development tests. Yedinack found significant correlation

between oral and silent reading, between silent reading and

vocabulary, length and complexity of response, length and com-

pleteness of response, and complexity and completeness of

response in all three groups. She found significant correlation

between oral reading and vocabulary in the articulation group

19

and in the retarded reading group. On the basis of her

findings, Yedinack concluded that children -with functional

articulation problems were significantly inferior in both

silent and oral reading to normal speakers. She stated that

children with reading disabilities frequently have articulation

defects, and that the existence of this strong relationship

shows that either these two difficulties ha?© a common cause,

or that articulation disability impedes reading ability.

Children with articulation and/or reading difficulty tend to

be inferior in vocabulary.

Schnelderman (26) investigated the relationship between

articulation ability and language ability in children six and

seven years of age. Language ability was analyzed by three

Measures: spoken vocabulary, sentence length, and the teacher's

rating of the child's ability t© escpress himself• The teachers

rated the children according to the amount of language used

and the child's accuracy in word and grammatical usage.

Seventy first graders were included in this study. Schneider-

man found that the three language tests used formed a valid

measure ©f general language skill. Examination of the results

showed significant correlation between teacher s t ratings and

all other measures of language ability tested. Significant

correlation was also found between chronological age and

vocabulary, teachers' rating, and the combined language score.

Sentence length was the only language moasure tested which

appeared unaffected by chronological age. Articulation

20

ability was found not to increase with chronological age#

but with mental age* Articulation ability was also shewn to

be significantly associated with high scores in language

ability when mental age and chronological age were net held

constant• When the subjects were matched, the difference

was not significant, but the trend for the matched groups

was the same as for the unmatched groups.

A study which compared the grammar of children diagnosed

as using infantile speech with' children using normal speech

was conducted by Menyuk (19) in an attempt to formalize a

description of language which is characterized as infantile•

Ten children diagnosed as using infantile speech and ten chil-

dren using normal speech were studied. These children ranged

in age from three years to flve-years-ten^months. In addition,

the language of ©no child was recorded over a twelve month

period between the ages of two and three years in order to

examine the possibility that children with infantile speech

were using structures similar to those of a much younger

child. Some children in each group were also asked to repeat

sentences containing syntactic structures found in children's

grammar. It was found that the grammatical production of

children with infantile speech does not resemble that of &

younger child with normal speech. The children with Immature

speech tended to formulate sentences fro® the most generalized

rules or first approximations to rules of syntax. In sentence

repetition, the children with Infantile speech repeated

21

sentences with ©missions or repeated 3ast l*st words of

til© sentence. Non-repetition was significantly correlated

with sentence length. Children with normal speech tended to

depend on sentence structure rather than sentence length.

Whereas normal speaking children used increasingly differen-

tiated rules to generate syntactic structures# children with

Infantile speech seemed unable t© move beyond elementary and

generalized rules* In addition, the articulation disabilities

of the infantile speech group seemed t© follow the same pattern

as the syntactic deflations of this group#

VanBemark and Mann (3k) studied the oral language achieve-

ment of children with defective articulation to determine the

difference between the language skills of children with

defective articulation and those with normal speech. Fifty

children between the ages of eight and thirteen who had de-

factive articulation were compared with fifty children of the

sane age who had normal articulation* Spontaneous verbali-

zation was elicited in three sessions for each child* The

responses were scored on seven measures I mean length of re-

sponse 5 standard deviation of response length, number of one

word responses, mean of the five longest responses, number of

different words used, structural complexity score, and type-

token ratio. It was found that the groups were essentially

the same on all scores except the structural complexity score,

which showed a significant difference. It appears that chil-

dren with defective articulation are not inhibited in terms

22

of amount of verbal output bat do perform less well in areas

of grammatical completeness and complexity of responses.

Using forty elementary school children between the ages

of six-years»seven-months and e1ght-years-seven-months, Ferrier

(10) conducted a study designed to evaluate the psycholin-

guistic performance of a group of children considered to have

functional defects of articulation. , These forty children 'jere

judged as having at least a moderately severe articulation

problem by the referring speech correctionist. The Templln-

Parley 176 Item Test of Articulation •was given in order to

have another measure of the degree of severity. The Illinois

Test of Psycholingulstlc Abilities was administered to the

group, and the mean performance of the sample on each subtest

wa.s compared to the normative data for the test. Ferrier

found that this group performed Inadequately on both the auto-

matic sequential and the representational levels of psycho-

linguistic ability. The weakest subtest at the representational

level was vocal encoding. Those children in the sample with

severe articulation problems tended toward reduced verbali-

zation, which may have lowered the test scores on this subtest

beyond what might have been earned by an equally able but

more vocal group of children. Ferrier concluded that defective

articulation appears to affect vocal encoding performance by

reducing the total amount of verbalization.

Few experimental studies have been conducted to examine

the effect of speech improvement or speech therapy on reading

3

skills. Again the results of the few pertinent studies are

inconclusive.

One such study was conducted by Wilson (38\ which eval-

uated a speech improvement program with kindergarten children.

The purpose of this study was t© determine the effect of the

program on consonant articulation and developmental reading.

The experimental group was comprised of 128 subjects and re*

ceived a twelve week program of speech improvement, consisting

of five daily lessons per week. One week was devoted to each

of twelve sounds used in the program. The control group,

consisting ©f 11** subjects, received no speech improvement.

Results of the study showed that the reduction of articulation

errors made on sounds included in the speech improvement pro-

gram was related to the program of speech improvement. It

was also shown that reduction of articulation errors not in-

cluded in the program was also related to the program. The

results did not indicate that reading readiness was affected.

In studying the effect of speech training on silent

reading* Jones (1!?) studied sixty-one pairs of third grade

children. The ©istperimental group received thirty-six speech

improvement lessons which were built around the development

of sound discrimination, skill in speech production, and seme

aspects of personality. Twenty-five of the lessons emphasized

the consonant sounds of the English language. Eleven lessons

were devoted to dramatizations. The subjects were tested at

the beginning and the end of the study with the Gates Advanced

Primary Heading Jest. Results showed that this speech program

improved the silent reading ability of third grade children.

Irwin (1*0 evaluated the effect of speech therapy upon

articulation adequacy, reading readiness, word recognition,

and word meaning for second grade children with functional

mi sar tic illations. One hundred eleven second grade children

enrolled in the public schools were divided into three groups.

Group A was comprised of children having functional articulation

problems who received speech therapy. Group B was made up

of children having functional articulation problems who did

not receive speech therapy. Group C was made up of children

•with normal articulation and formed the control group. Irwin

found no significant differences among the three groups on

any of the skills measured. However, a trend -was noted in

favor of the speech therapy group in vocabulary recognition,

•word meaning, and articulation efficiency. Reading readiness

scores for the speech therapy group were found to be somewhat

better than those for the non-therapy group. There was, how-

ever, no evidence upon which to base any definite conclusions.

One thousand five hundred sixty-two first grade children

participated in a study by Darners and others (28) to examine

the effects of speech therapy and speech improvement on

reading and articulation skills. Sight hundred two children

were found to be defective in at least one of the ten consonant

sounds chosen to be used in this study. This group was then

divided into subgroups. These subgroups received varying

2?

amounts of speech therapy and speech Improvement. Seven hun-

dred sixty children with normal articulation comprised the

normal group. The normal group received only speech improve-

ment. Results of tests at the end of the nine month school

year showed that nine months of speech therapy improved artic-

ulation significantly more than a comparable period of speech

improvement. Speech Improvement, however, resulted in sig-

nificantly higher reading factor scores for both the normal

and the speech defective group®. Speech therapy was found

not to affect reading factor scores, and a combination of

speech therapy and speech improvement was found to result in

a significant difference in reading comprehension and in ar-

ticulation, but did not result in a significant change in

reading factor scores.

The same researchers (29) conducted a follow-up study

to examine sose implications which resulted from the findings

of the earlier study. Three groups of children were studied

in this experiment. Group A was made up of first grade chil-

dren who received sixteen weeks of speech improvement beginning

in the middle of the year. Group B was composed of second

grade children who had received nine months of speech improve-

ment in the first grade and eight weeks additional speech

improvement early in the second grade. Ten classes were

selected which had not received any speech improvement in

the first grade. This group was used as the control. Results

showed that subjects who had received speech improvement in

26

both grades made significantly higher reading factor scores

than those with no speech Improvement. Ho improvement in

reading comprehension as a result of the speech improvement

program was noted.

Mallard (18) examined the effect of a phonetic approach

to speech improvement on reading achievements sound discrim-

ination, and developmental articulation at the first grade

level. Thirty pairs of children who rated low in reading

achievement were used in this study. The speech improvement

program was based on a phonetic approach to speech training

and used twenty-five consonant sounds. The program consisted

of twenty-five lessonss each dealing with one of the sounds

chosen for inclusion in this study. Although discrimination

was significantly improved in the experimental group, neither

articulation nor reading achievement was improved as a result

of this speech improvement program.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1- "Sfe Contributions to Education, #&5/f York, Columbia University, 193?*

2. Brooks, lelson H.» Lang gage and Iflflgfltftft . »nd Practice. New fork, HarooartV Brace, and World, 1

3. Btiros, Oscar Krlsen, editor, fifagjfo Itel.ftl* Yearbook. Highland Park, Hew Jersey, Gryphon Press, 196?.

If. Cabrini, Sister M., "Auditory Memory Span and Functional Artieulatory Disorders In Relation to leading in Grade TwoJournal sL &aalmam%& MsMm* (Autumn, im)t 2H-2I.

5* Carroll, John B.# Xflflflms IMigMi Sngle^ood Cliffs, lew Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc», 1f6%.

6. . "language Development In Children,"

Saporta, lew York, Holt, Rineholt and Winston, Ins., 1961*

7. Chreist, fred M., Foreign Accent. Snglewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall| Inc•, 196^•

8. Davis* Edith,'A* t "Mean Sentence Length Compared with Long and Short Sentences As a Reliable Measure of Language Development," Child Development, fill (March* 937)$ 69-79.

9. Everhart, Rodney W., "Literature Survey of Growth and Developmental Factors in Artieulatory Maturation," Journal^of^Sneech £&& Hearing SSSEteis OT (February,

10. Ferrier. 1. I., "An Investigation of the OTA Performance of Children with Functional Defects of Articulation," ffilftf?*ioflal Children* XXXII (Mayt1966), 625-628,

11, Gez, N« L., "Interrelationships Between Oral and Written Forias of Communication,*1 Soviet M m & M s S s v m (Jlme* 1966), 2^-32.

27

28

12. Hall, Robert A., .jfefeaMwMia JMfllMtf&ttttfia. Philadelphia, Chilton Books, 196V.

13» Hildreth, Gertrude, "Speech Defects and Heading Dis-a b i l i t i e s . H ito»tTO Sfitisal JjUBJUl* OTI (February, 19^6), 326-332.

1H. Irvin, Ruth l . t "Speech Therapy and Children's Linguistic Sk i l l s , " JQTOfil jgI gptMfe M& I f W l M fiSSSMShs V (December, 1962), 377-381.

15* Jones, Morris Val, "The Effect of Speech Training on Silent

^Sep te lbe r^? | f ? i ^ X V I

16. Kass, Corrine E. , "Psycholingaisti© Disabi l i t ies of Chil-dren with Reading Problems,1 I g f f l M t t f t l S M M m » XXXH (April, 1966), 533-5^0.

17. Novell, I*, 9* Shapton, and N. S. Warsen, "A Study of Cog-ni t ive and Other Disabi l i t ies in Backward leaders of Average Intelligence as Assessed by a lon-Yerbal Test," M r M A /jBTOiXJ2& Jducfi^lofl^ Psychology. XXX17 (February, 196%), 58-oh.

18. Mallard, Arch Richard, "The Effect of a Phonetic Approach

published master's thes i s . Department of Speech, lo r th Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1966.

19. Menyuk, Paula, "Comparison of Children mith Functionally Deviant and Horaal Speech." Journal s£ StoSSti JU& Hearing Ms&msk* VII (June, 196*0, 109-121.

20. Monro©* Marlon, Mm fiWMMtt Sfiad* Chicago, Univer-s i ty of Chicago Press, 1932*

21. Moss| Margery Ann, "The Effect of Speech Defects on Second &£ SMMfet

22. Myklebust, Helmer R.» S i Written M m m m * *•* York, Grane and Stratton, Inc . , 19657

23• Oakes, Cl i f ton R. and Gus P. Plessas, "A Language Study of Selected Early Readers," i f tg l fJ r M r " •fllftifflMfl iMtMSJli XI? (September,1963), 178-186.

29

2^u Sampson, Olive C., "Reading Skill at light Years In Re-lation to Speech and Other Factors," Jfcltlfih &£ Educational MMM££U* XXXII (February, 1962), 12-17.

25* Saplr, Edward, "Language as Speech," PaSSlSiSlSSS sa Language8 £& Anthology, edited by John A* lycenga and Joseph Schwartz, New York, The Ronald Press, 1963•

26. Schneiderman, II or ma# "A Study of the Relationship Between Artieulatory Ability and Language Ability," Journal of Sgeech jsM IftlMSto Mfi£ZiSES» XX (December, 1965). 359-

27* Smith, Henry P. and Imerald ?# Beehant, Psychology in IftjgfllM BsifllMi Snglevood Cliffs, I m Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961.

28. Soramers, Ronald K., et. al», "Effects ©f Speech Therapy and Speech Improvement Upon Articulation and Reading,"

JBA& Hfittte, M a f f i & m * XXVI (February,

29« "Effects of Various Durations ©f Speech .Improvement Upon Articulation and Reading,"

M s m l m Disorders. XXVII (March,

30. Sonenberg, Charlotte, and Gerald Glass, "leading and Speech: An Incidence and Treatment Study," Reading Teacher» XXX (Decenber, 19^5)1 197—201.

31. Strickland, Ruth, "Hov Children Use Their Language," fiMMftfiM XXXXX (March, 1963)1 316-319.

32. Sturtevant, Edgar, "A Definition of Language," Perspectives m Jm/SMEto* M Anthology * edited by John A. Rycenga and Joseph Schwartz, I w York, The Ronald Press, 1 9 6 3 .

33. T ^ l ^ l t t M r e d g«t ,l<p|,p«.g.ptiJU.ia Children?

31* >

eaplin, Mildred C., S«|tfo ,lp|,p«.g jfeillg M S M M m pitf pyftAfpml Mm Interrelationships. Minneapolis, The University of Minnesota Press, 1957.

VahDemark, Ann Ahlstrand and Mary Bachmann Mann, "Oral Langua

1

35- Weaver, Carl H., Catherine Furbee, and Rodney W. Iverhart, "Artieulatory Competency and Reading Readiness," Journal .Si J$8M£& MB& MSMiM H I (June, 1966), 17^-180.

30

36* Wast. Robert, Merle Ansbury* and Anna Oarr, The Rehabili-tation Speech. }+th ed.t New York, Harper and Brothers# i 957.

37. Wh&tmough, Joshua, 'MMMS&* AM§SSM SX&UmXU ^ ^ k , The Kev American library, 1956.

38. Wilson, Betty Ann, "The Development and Evaluation of a Speech Improvement Program for Kindergarten Children," Jougnsl^of^SpeQch s M ,MS«te,gi (March,

39. Wood, Hancy E., M l M g jBMflfe x5ngie\Jood Cliffs, New Jersey, TWf.

HO. Yedlnack. Jeanette G», "A Study of the Linguistic Functioning of Children with Articulation and leading Disabilities,*

~ Ml itenifekfi IggMifiCt IXXH (March, 19*+9), 23-59

. Zigler, Idnard, Lyle V. Jones, and Patricia Kafes, "Acquisition of Language Habits in first, Second, and Third Grade Boys," 5MM ^SfllaaStiS# ®QC¥ (September, 196*0, 725-736.

CHAPTER II

SUBJECTS, TESTS, PB0C1DTIRSS

Subjects

Subjects for this study were selected from students en-

rolled in the third grade in the Irving Public School System,

Irving, Texas. The fifty-nine children chosen to participate

in this study were divided into three groups. Group I, com-

prised of twenty subjects* was made up of children whose

articulation was normal. Group II was made up of twenty

children with minor articulation problems, nineteen children

designated as having a history of severe articulation dif-

ficulties comprised Group III. Severity of articulatory

deviation was based on the number of speech sounds misartic-

ulated. Articulatory deviations involving three or fewer

speech sounds were termed minor articulation problems. Severe

articulation problems were designated as thot3 involving four

or more deviant sounds. Children with known or suspected

organic speech problems were omitted from this study.

The subjects in Groups II and III were selected from among

the children enrolled in the speech therapy program of the

Irving School System. The subjects in Group I had never been

enrolled in speech therapy. No subject in Group II had a

known history of severe articulation deviation.

31

32

The children selected for Group III had all been enrolled

In speech therapy for either two or three years. At the time

of this study, these children had corrected many of their

articulatory deviations. Since a population of children with

severe functional articulation problems was not available at

this grade level, subjects nei?e selected frost among those who

had previously had severe articulation problems. The presence

of severe articulation problems in these children suggested

the possibility that these children might deviate in other

areas of linguistic skill front both the noraally speaking

child and the child with minor articulation difficulties.

Articulation skill of the children in Groups I and II was

measured by the Templln-Parley Screening Test of Articulation.

Selection of subjects comprising Group III was made on the

basis of the results of articulation tests administered when

each child was originally enrolled in speech therapy, These

articulation tests were clinician-made picture inventories

similar in design t© the Tenplin-Darley Test but using dif-

ferent pictured stimuli. The analysis of their speech defects

was, in each case, further substantiated by an investigation

of their case history. The clinical record of the sounds

receiving attention in therapy, progress reports, and ultimate

dismissal from therapy or current speech production all demon-

strated the validity of including each child in Group III.

The mean chronological age, mental age and intelligence

quotient were obtained for each group. These scores are

33

compared oil fable I.

TABLE I

COMPAB ilSGII OF CHRONOLOGICAL AGES, MENTAL AGES. AMI) IQ SCORES Of NORMAL, MINOR, AND SEV5H15 ARTICTTLATIOW GROUPS

Normal _. . Jiinp;r : • Severe

CA R* 8-3 - 9-10

K* 9-1

£D* 5" months

R 8-0 - 10-0

K 8-11

SB 8 months

H 8~3 - 9-10

H 9-1

SD 8 Months

MA R 6-8 - 13-7

M 9-11

SD 21 months

B 7*1-18

M 9-9

SD 28 months

1 6-10 - 12-5

M 9-6

SB 15 months

IQ R 7^-136

w 106

SB 18.72

R 81-167

K 10>i

SD 15.69

R 81-126

K 102

SD 15.13

*R» Range| M, Yean; SD, Standard Deviation.

The twenty children making up the normal articulation

group ranged in age from eight years three months to nine

years-ten- months vith a mean age of nine-years-one month and

a standard deviation of five months. Mental ages for this

group ranged from six-years- eight months to thirteen years

seven months. The mean mental age for the normal group was

nine-years-eleven months with a standard deviation of tventy-

one months. The range of intelligence quotient scores was

3^

81 to 136f with a mean score of 106 and a standard deviation

of 18,72.

Chronological ages of the subjects in the minor articu-

lation group ranged fro® eight t© ten years. The mean ®g©

was eight years eleven months# with a standard deviation of

eight months. The mental ages of these subjects ranged from

seven years one month to eighteen years, the mean age was

nine years nine months. The standard deviation was twenty-

eight months. Intelligence quotient scores for these children

fell between 81 and 167, 'with a mean of 10*f and a standard

deviation of 15*69*

Subjects in the severe articulation group were between

eight years three months and nine years ten months ©f age.

Mean chronological age for this group was nine years one month,

with a standard deviation ©f eight months. Mental ages of

this group fell between six years ten months and twelve years

five months. The mean mental age was nine years six months,

with a standard deviation of fifteen months. The range ©f

intelligence scores was 81 to 126, with a mean of 102 and a

standard deviation of 15.13.

Tests

ifiMtofi lm.t - primary £

leading lest is a series of tests

replacing the Sato Xxtemx Mltiffit# .MlKO. I»4lM Tests

and the JMig Ia«flfig This new series of tests is

35

designed to cover grades one through twelve. The content of

this series of tests is "more varied, more up to date, and

more typical of current reading material for children" (2,

P* 1

lorms for the series are based upon new nationwide stan-

dardization* Approximately **0,000 pupils in 3^ cojamunlties

participated in the standardization procedures, fhe com-

munities were carefully selected on the basis of size, geo-

graphical location, average educational level, and average

fasily income.

fhe Primary C level test is intended for use in the third

grade, fhe test is available in two equivalent forms, Form 1

and From 2. Form 1 was used in this study# Each form con-

sists of a Vocabulary and a Comprehension Test, fhe Vocab-

ulary Test measures the child's ability to recognise or

analyze Isolated "words. Each item contains a test picture or

test word and four other words. The child chooses the word

that best defines the test picture or test word.

The Comprehension Test examines the child's ability to

read and comprehend whole sentences and paragraphs. This

ability includes many skills not involved in the ability to

recognize words (2, p. 1). The child must grasp the whole

thought clearly in order to answer correctly. Bach paragraph

is followed by two test questions with four alternative

answers from which the child chooses the best answer for each

question.

36

Two measures of reliability were used to examine this

tests alternate-form and split-half. Alternate form re-

liability* correlates the scores obtained on the two forms of

the test and takes into account variations in pupil perfor-

mance from day to day and variations in the content of the

two forms ©f the test. The alternate-form reliability co-

efficients for th© Vocabulary Test was .8? and for th©

Comprehension Test* .87. Split-half reliability indicates the

degree to which performance on one half of a test duplicates

performance on the other half daring the same test period.

Split-half reliability coefficients were found to b© .89 for

the Vocabulary Test and .91 for the Comprehension Test.

IfetTO lOftfttefl&lffjE iMfc

^e&body Picture Vocabulary Test was designed to pro-

vide a well-standardized estimate of verbal intelligence

through measuring hearing vocabulary. Scores which say be

derived from this test are age equivalents (Mental Age)#

standard score equivalents (Intelligence Quotients), and per-

centile equivalents.

flle Peabody Pleture IftqftbttlMar Jest ¥ a s described by the authors as high in interest value and is, consequently, good

for establishing rapport as ¥©11 as measuring intelligence.

It is quickly given and quickly scored. Scoring is completely

objective as •well. The test is untimed, being a power, rather

than a speed, test. Alternate forms are available for retest

purposes.

37

The test consists of 150 plates arranged In an empiraeally

determined order ©f difficulty. Bach plate contains four line

drawings. Five criteria -were established for selection of

pictures for each plate# All four words were of th© sane

level of difficulty. The words used demonstrated good linear

growth curves in the terms of th& per cent of subjects passing

them at successive age levels. No words were used If sex dif-

ferences existed. The words chosen were primarily singular

and collective nouns, with some gerunds and a few adjectives

and adverbs. Words which were biased culturally, regionally

or racially were omitted, as were dated words, plurals, double

wrds, etc. The illustrations were all of equal stse, equal

intensity, equal appeal, and appropriate to the age level

which was most likely to view the plate in a test situation.

The Feabody Picture Vocabulary Test was standardised on

*4,012 subjects between the ages of two-years-siMionths and

eighteen years.

Age equivalent norms were derived from a chronological

age-score graph. Standard score equivalents were based upon

the actual distribution of raw scores at each age level in

the normative group. Percentile equivalents were established

by computing the per cent of scores equal to or falling below

a given score.

Reliability coefficients were obtained by the Pearson

product-moment correlation on the raw scores at each age level.

Correlations ranged from .6? at the six year level to .8U at

38

the seventeen and eighteen year levels with a median of .77 .

Standard error of measurement for the intelligence quotients

ranged fro» 6.00 to 8.61 with a median of 7»20.

.MlflMf 2fi.fl J2l IMMIIgf de-

signed by McCarthy and Kirk as a diagnostic test for linguistic

deficiencies in children. The purpose of this test is to iden-

tify the psychollngulstle abilities and disabilities of children

between the ages of two and one-half and nine. The teat con-

sists of nine subtests and is based on a theoretical model of

the coaaaunlcation processes developed by Osgood (7). Clinical

observation and the practical problems of test construction

required a few alterations in Osgood*® original aodel, and it

•was from this revised model that the nine ®ubtests wre de-

veloped (6, p. 2).

Each psycholinguist!© ability tested vaa defined in terms

of three major dimensions* fhese three dimensions were levels

of organization psychollnguistlo processes, and channels of

communication.

Level® or organization describe the functional complexity

of the organism. Some psycholinguistlc activities appear to

demand much higher levels of organization than others. Two

levels wre identified as important for language acquisition

and use. The representational level mediates activities re-

quiring meaning or significance of linguistic symbols, the

automatic-sequential level mediates activities requiring

39

retention ©f linguistic symbol sequences and execution of auto-

matic habit-chains. The normal acquisition and its© of language

is dependent on both levels of organisation*

The second dimension, the psycholinguistlc processes, en-

compasses the acquisition and use of habits required for normal

language usage. Three main processes were tested: decoding,

defined as the sum total of those habits required to ultimately

obtain meaning from either visual or auditory linguistic

stimuli| encoding, the sum total of those habits required to

ultimately express oneself in words or gestures; and association,

the sum total of those habits required to manipulate linguistic

symbols internally (U, p. 2). The channels of communication,

the third dimension, are defined as the sensory-motor pathways

over which linguistic symbols are received or responded to.

The six subtests at the representational level test the

ability to deal with meaningful symbols. Two decoding tests

measure the ability to comprehend auditory or visual symbols.

Auditory decoding, the ability to comprehend the spoken word,

is measured by a controlled vocabulary test. The vocabulary

is presented in question form to which the subject responds

yes or no. Picture identification is utilized to test visual

decoding, the ability to comprehend written words or pictures.

The subject selects from a set of pictures the one which is

most perceptually identical to the stimulus picture. Associ-

ation tests examine the ability to relate visual or auditory

symbols, which stand for ideas, in a meaningful way. The

^0

ability to relate spoken words in a meaningful -way, auditory-

vocal association, Is measured by an analogies test in which

the subject completes the test sentence with an analogous word#

Visual-motor association, the ability to relate meaningful

visual symbols, is measured by a test requiring the subject

to select from among a set of pictures the one that most mean-

ingfully relates to a given stimulus picture. Two encoding

tests measure the ability to express ideas in words or gestures#

The vocal encoding test examines the ability to express ideas

in spoken words through the description of simple objects.

In order to test motor encoding, the ability t© express ideas

in gestures, the subject is shown an object and asked to

demonstrate the motion appropriate for the manipulation of

the object.

Tests at the Automatic-Sequential level measure the non-

meaningful uses of symbols, principally long term retention

and short term memory for symbol sequences. lo attempt was

made at dividing these abilities into their encoding, decoding

and association aspects because of the lack of theoretical

clarity at this level. The frequent use and redundancies in

language lead t© highly overlearned or automatic habits for

handling syntactical or Inflectional aspects of language

without conscious effort (H, p. 11). The auditory-vocal

automatic test measures the ability to predict future lin-

guistic events from past experience. This subtest requires

the subject to supply the last word of a sentence. This

1*1

final word invariably requires an inflection. Sequencing tests

examine the ability to reproduce correctly a sequence of sym-

bols. This ability is largely dependent on visual and/or

auditory memory. The auditory-vocal sequencing test examines

the ability to repeat correctly a sequence of symbols which

have been previously heard. A modified digit repetition test

is used to measure this ability. Visual-motor sequencing, the

ability to reproduce a sequence of symbols previously seen, is

measured by requiring the subject to duplicate a sequence of

pictures or geometric designs •which were presented and then

removed,

The Illinois Tost of Psycholingulstlc Abilities is a

"single ability" test which assesses a given process at a

given level through a given channel. The test Is administered

Individually and requires about forty-five minutes to an hour

to administer. The examiner's manual contains tables which

supply language age and standard score norma for the raw scores

obtained.

The 1961 edition of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistlo

Abilities was standardized on 700 children between the ages of

two years and nine years. Fourteen age groups were used, be-

ginning with two-and-one-half-year-old children and continuing

in half year intervals through age nine. The same number of

boys and girls were used.

Reliability was tested by the test-retest and the split-

half methods. Test-retest reliability was measured on a

W2

restricted age range between six and six and one-half years.

Coefficients for the nine subtests ranged from ,37 to .79*

The coefficient for the total score *ias .70. The coauthors

stressed that these 'were minimal estimates and that stability

W&.S this good or better. From these restricted range stability

coefficients* full range stability coefficient estimates vera

statistically derived. The rang© of these estimates -was from

.73 to .96 for the nine subtests. The estimate for the total

score uas .97* Split-half coefficients fere computed over the

entire age range. The overall split-half coefficients ranged

between .90 and •% with a coefficient of .99 for the total

score.

A limited amount of validity data is available on the

Illinois Test o£ AfelUtig8 because of its

recency and uniqueness# However, investigation of content

indicates that the Xftftt £l Esy.fiteXltttofelfi, Abilities

definitely seems to be measuring the Ghild's language ability.

Intercorrelations of each subtest vith the total score reveal

a range of .82 to .95* indicating the relationship of each sub-

test to the total ability being measured. The Illinois Teat

OL Psvcholineuistic total scores ere found to corre-

late with chronological age at .9** and with mental age at .95*

Further studies of predictive and concurrent validity of this

test need to be made.

1*3

Procedure

Each of the fifty-nine children participating in this

study was given the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, the

Illinois Test of Psyoholinguistic Abilities, and the Oates-

leading; feet. Daring the last two weeks in March,

each child was given the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, With-

in the five week period beginning the second week in April and

ending the third week in May, both the Illinois Test of Psycho-

l.iw»nintie Abilities and the Oates-MaeQintie Heading Test were

given to all subjects. Each child was seen three times. Every

child received the Peabody Picture foeabalary Test the first

time he was seen. Soae of the children received the Illinois

Test of Psycholingtilstlc Abilities at the second testing

session and the Gates-MacGintie Reading Test at the third

session, while others took the Gates-MaeQlntie Reading Test

second and the Illinois Test Psvcholinguiatic Abilities the

third time he was seen. The Peabody Picture $gS$.

and the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistlc Abilities were ad-',

ministered individually t© each subject, while the Gates-

MaeGintie leading Test, a group test, was given to groups of

the subjects in their own elementary schools.

At two of the schools, the group reading test was adain-

istered in the cafeteria becaase of the size of the groups.

In another school, it was necessary to use the reaedlal reading

room on one occasion, and on all other occasions, testing was

carried out in a recently constructed library, which had not

yet been opened for general school use. It a fourth school,

the cafeteria "was the only room available for use. In all

other instancest testing vas conducted in the various rooms

designated for speech therapy in each individual school*

These rooms w r e reasonably quiet vith a minimum of dis-

tracting noise. In order to assure a reasonably quiet environ-

ment -where it was necessary to use the cafeteria* testing was

carried out early in the school day or an hour before school

vas dismissed.

Because the rooms used for testing also served other

functions, it vas necessary to coordinate the testing schedule

vith other activities in each elementary school. Within this

schedule, each child vas seen at a time during the day that

would least conflict -with his classroom work.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Dunn, Lloyd m.# ffaaial, SM. -|M .ailttl SMSfeatea Test. Hashville, American Guidance Service, Inc., 1959 •

2. Gates, Arthur I, and Walter H. MacGintie, Gates-*«»

RvmM I&MMS tetouKx £• Emm, I MM l>^pg£ Manual. lew York, Teachers College Press, 196?»

3 # " x i F B i ^ i S i i - l i H S H S ^ H I H i S i i E i r H e M ^ l S k ^ e S h e r College Press, 1965V

**• McCarthy, James J. and Samuel A. Kirk, S M S s m & m & X m * standardization. s M $£. Cilia,ols Test of JggxafeftUnM AtlAft i M i m a S * Urbana, tllinols, University of Illinois, 1963. Cllinols, University of Illinois, 1963V

5» _ t TSyaBil riBf * Manual £se M a jtftoftla' jfttSfe' "M I^raK|'|«5ilg.Mft iMtiMss* S g g ^ f i l t l JlilfeB* Wbana, Illinois, University of Illinois, 1961.

6. and James Olson, M M l l E JStflfttol M

waukee, University of Wisconsin, 196%.

7. Osgood, Charles I., "A Behavioristio Analysis," Contemporary iPMAMtel M Cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1957*

8. "Motivational Dynamics of Language Behavior," ^ JfiMia&to# Lincoln, University

i,5

CHAPTER 111

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Results

Three groups of third grade children were studied in order

to examine the relationships among articulation, language,

and reading ability* The first group was comprised of twenty

children with normal articulation* The second group contained

twenty children with ainor articulation difficulties. The

third group "was made up of children with histories of severe

articulation problems. Tho children were given the Gates**

MacGintie Reading Test and the Illinois Test of Psycholla-

guistic Abilities,

The mean raw scores for each of the three groups on the

Gates-MacGlntie Reading Test and the Illinois Test of Psycho-

linguistic Abilities were compared. Intra-group correlations

of test scores were run to determine significant relationships

among the various language skills examined within each group.

Inter-group comparisons were made to determine if any sig-

nificant differences existed in performance on the skills

tested among the three groups. Differences were considered

significant which reached the 5 per cent level of confidence.

A level of confidence is the level at which a difference be-

tween scores is least likely to happen by chance, A significant

H6

*4?

correlation between. t-wo measures Indicates an interrelation

between, the measures which are least likely to occur by chance,

and that the level of performance on one of the measures can

be predicted fro® the level of performance on the other#

Within each group „ correlations were made between the

Comprehension Test and the Vocabulary Test of the dates-

MacGintie Reading Test and between these two tests and the

total score and each subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycho-

linguistic Abilities. Correlations between the Illinois

Iftftt SL PsTOholinguistlc Abilities total score and each of

the subtests and correlations among the various subtests were

computed#

Tests of the significance of difference of the means

between the groups were computed for the two tests of the

Gates*MacGintie Reading Test and for the total and all of

the subtests of the m t o A g I&S$ Psycholinguistic Abil-

The mean raw scores and the standard deviations for

the two subtests of the Gates-MacGintie Reading Test were

computed for each of the three groups. These scores are com-

pared on Table II.

kB

TABUS II

COMPARISON OF RAW SCORE MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ON THE GATE S-MACGINTIE HEADING TEST

Group Vocabulary Test Comprehe nsion Test

Mean Standard

Deviation Mean Standard

Deviation

I

11

III

37.70

36.60

35.00

7 . 8 0

8.HO

8.60

32.10

29.85

28.37

10.25

10.95

10.91

The rang© of scores on the Vocabulary Test within Group

I fell between 18 and 50 items answered correctly. The mean

score for this group was 37.70, with a standard deviation of

7.80. The range of scores on the Comprehension Te®t was 11

to k7, with a mean score of 32.10 and a standard deviation of

10.25.

Within Group II, the range of scores on the Vocabulary

Test «as from 19 to 50. The mean score for Group II was

3 6 . 6 0 . The standard deviation vas 8.*i0. Scores on the

Comprehension Test ranged from 10 to U8. The mean score -was

29.85* and the standard deviation was 10.95*

Scores for subjects in Group III ranged from 18 to **8

on the Vocabulary Test* with a mean of 35»00 and a standard

deviation of 8.60. Scores on the Comprehension Test ranged

from 10 to **5« The mean score on the Comprehension Test was

28.37* and the standard deviation was 10.91.

k9

Grade equivalent scores were derived for the mean scores

of each group. For this purpose, the group mean score was

read to the nearest whole number. The grade equivalent for

each test was then read from the appropriate table supplied

in the test manual. These grade equivalents are reported in

fable III.

TABLE III

GRADE BQUI7AISNT SCORES ON THE GATES-MACG INT IE READING TEST

Group Voeabula: py Test Comprehen sion Test

I

II

III

Hanie Mean Range Mean

I

II

III

1.7 - 7.0

1.6 — 7.0

1.6 *• 6.6

U.i*

k.2

3-9

2.5 * 7.1

2.2 - 7.1

2.0 - 6.5

*n1

3.7

3-5

Grade equivalent scores in Group I ranged from 1.7 to

7.0 on the Vocabulary Test, with a mean grade equivalent of

H.**. Grade equivalents for the Comprehension Test ranged

fro® 2.5 to 7»1» The mean grade equivalent was 3*7.

The range of grade equivalent scores on the Vocabulary

Test was between 1.6 and 6.6 for Group III, with a Mean grade

equivalent of 3*9. The range of scores on the Comprehension

Test fell between 2.0 and 6.5 The mean grade equivalent on

the Comprehension Test was 3«5«

50

Using the critical ratio for the difference between two

estimated true scores and the standard error of measurement

of that difference. Gates and MacGlntie prepared equations

for computing the critical values for determining significant

differences between different subtests taken at the same

time (1, p. 7). Differences were considered significant at

the 15 per cent level of confidence. The following equation

was used to compute the critical values for the comparison

of average standard scores for two subtests taken by the same

group f

C s ,98? - 1.15 *

where

C = Mean standard score for the Comprehension Jest ? « Mean standard score for the Vocabulary Test If as lumber of individuals in the group

These scores are compared on Table IV•

The mean standard score for Group I on the Vocabulary

Test was 53*60. The critical values derived for comparison

with the Comprehension Test were 52.00 • 55.36. The mean

standard score of 51*65 on the Comprehension Test fell Just

below the lower critical value.

A mean standard score of 50.58 on the Vocabulary Test

was obtained for Group III. The mean standard score of **7.95

on the Comprehension Test fell below the lower critical values

of **8.99 - 52.^5 derived for this group.

51

TABLE IV

COMPARISON OF KB AN STANDARD SCORES 01 THE VOCABULARY TEST AND TUB COMPREHENSION TEST

Grout)

Vocabulary Test Mean

.Standard Scores..

Comprehension Test Mean

Standard. Scores... 3r,itical .

I 53-60 51.65 52.00 - 55.36

11 52.30 U9.95 50.72 - 5^.08

III 50.58 >*7.95 H8.99 - 52.H5

The Pearson produet-moment correlation coefficient was

established between the Vocabulary Test and the Comprehension

Test for each of the three groups. Within each group, e&eh

of these tests vas also correlated -with the Illinois Test of

Psychollngqistic Abilities total score and with the scores

on each of the subtests.

Vocabulary and Compr©hension -were found to be correlated

at the 5 per eent level of significance in each of the three

groups tested. Group 1 obtained a correlation of .8830.

The correlation coefficient for Group II was «7?09 and for

Group III, .8212. These correlations are shown on Table V.

TABLE V

CORRELATION COEFFICIENT BETWEEN VOCABULARY AND COMFREHEN5ION WITHIN GROUP I, GROUP II, AND GROUP III

Groui) I I . , Gr.ott® II ptTovpa Ill

.8830 I .7709 .8212

52

Significant correlation coefficients at the 5* per cent

level were also found between the Illinois Test of Psycho-

linguistic Abilities total score and both the Vocabulary Test

and the Comprehension Test of the Gates-MacGlntie Reading Test#

Table VI compares these coefficients. The coefficient of

correlation between the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic

Abilities and the Vocabulary Test «is .8^52 for Group I,

•5605 for Group II, and .6622 for Group III. Between the

Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities and the Compre-

hension Test, the correlation coefficient was .8¥*5" for

Group I, .78^7 for Group II, and .<>690 for Group III.

TAB IE VI

CORRECTION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE ILLINOIS TEST OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ABILITIES AND THE

VOCABULARY TEST AND THE COMPREHENSION TEST

Group I Group II Group III

ITPA Total Seore and .8552 .5605 .6622

Vocabulary Test

ITPA Total Score and

Comprehension Test ,8M0 .78^7 .5690

The Vocabulary Test and the Comprehension Test were also

correlated with each of the subtests of the Illinois Test of

Psycholinguistic Abilities. Pearson product-moment correlation

coefficients were also computed for this purpose. Table VII

presents these coefficients.

53

Examination of fable ¥11 indicates that within Group I,

the Vocabulary test was significantly correlated at the 5 per

cent level with all subtests of the Illinois Test of Psycho-

linguistic Abilities except Auditory Decoding* Visual Decoding,,

and Vocal Encoding# Significant correlations were established

between the Comprehension Teat and all of the subtests with

the exception of Auditory Decoding and Vocal Encoding.

SABLE VII

CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN THE ILLINOIS TEST OF PSYCHO-LINGUISTIC ABILITIES SUBTESTS AND THE VOCABULARY TEST

AND THE COMPREHENSION TEST OF THE GATE S-MACGINTIE READING TEST

Vocabulary Test Comprehension Test

ITPA Mtofc.

Group , I „•

Group -JUL.

Group m , .

Group I

Group -I3L.

Group III

Auditory Decoding. ,2529 ,3011 •**292 •3970 .2^69 M907*

Visual Decoding Auditory-Vocal

>**370 •0711 ,1115 .5331* >3193 >15$*

Association .5276* •1721 •7339* Visual-Motor Association

5399# * *3 .5220*

.5837* **021 ,2201 5512* ,5058* .3975

Vocal Encoding • 3202 1991* 00**7 28*49 •**311 " ,08 2

Motor Encoding

Auditory-Vocal Automatic

.7535* 1260 .2806 62k?* .3676 .1935

•6635* 6837* •6810* 7010* •5651* .5976* Auditory-Vocal Sequential ,5285* *•*•*•3* .6030* 5665* •6086* >k$k9*

Visual-Motor Sequential

.6050* 5969* ,17M* 59^1* .688*** .0865 •Significant at the 5% level

As shorn on Table VII, the following subtests were sig-

nificantly correlated with the Vocabulary Test within Group

ft

lis Auditory-Vocal Automatic, Auditory-Vocal Sequential,

arid Visual-Motor Sequential. Significant correlations were

obtained between the Comprehension lest and Visual-Motor

Association, Auditory-Vocal Automatic, Auditory-Vocal Sequential,

and Visual-Motor Sequential*

Within Group III, Table Vll shows that significant cor-

relations vera obtained between the Vocabulary Test and

Auditory-Vocal Association, Audit or y-Voeal Automatic, and

Auditory-Vocal Sequential. The Comprehension Test was sig-

nificantly correlated with Auditory Decoding, Auditory-Vocal

Association, Auditory-Vocal Automatic, and Auditory-Vocal

Sequential.

Means and standard deviations for the Illinois Test of

Psychollngulstlc Abilities total score and each subtest were

derived for each group. These scores are presented on Tables

VIII, DC, and X.

Means and standard deviations for Group I are shown on

Table VIII. The range ©f total scores on the Illinois Test

of Psycholinguistlc Abilities fell between 131 and 221 in

Group I. The mean total score was 192.20, and the standard

deviation was 21.78. Scores on the Auditory Beeoding Subtest

ranged frea 25 to 3*tg with a mean of 28.90 and a standard

deviation of 2.99. Visual Decoding subtest scores ranged

from 10 to 21, with a mean of 16.10 and a standard deviation

of 2.89. The range of scores on the Auditory-Vocal Associ-

ation subtest fell between 16 and 28. The mean was 23.WO,

55

and the standard deflation was 2.1*6. Visual-Motor Association

subtest scores fell within a range of 11 and 27, with a mean

of 22.10 and a standard deviation of 3-5*6. Scores on the

focal Encoding subtest ranged from 13 to 32, with a mean of

22.1?. The standard deviation for this subtest was H.82.

Scores ranging from 10 to 22 were obtained on the Motor En-

coding subtest. The mean score was 17.50, with a standard devl»

ation of 3*32. The Auditory-Vocal Automatic subtest scores

fell within a range of 12 to 22, with a mean of 18.80 and a

standard deviation of 2.75* The range of scores ©n the

Auditory-Vocal Sequential subtest was between 12 and 36, ith

a mean of 26.35 and a standard deviation of 6.22# A range

of scores from 8 to 25 vas obtained on the Visual-Motor

Sequential subtest. The mean was 16.05, "with a standard

deviation of .83.

fable IX presents the means and standard deviations for

Group II. Within Group II, the range of total scores on the

Illinois Test of Psychollnguistic Abilities was 1 % to 2*+l.

The mean was 200.25# vlth a standard deviation of 20.25.

Auditory Decoding subtest scores fell in a range between 17

and 35, with a mean of 29.85 and a standard deviation of 3 .93 .

The range of scores ©n the Visual Decoding subtest fell be-

tween 11 and 22. The mean was 17«50, with a standard devi-

ation of 3»01• Auditory-Vocal Association subtest scores

ranged from 18 to 26, with a mean of 23.20. The standard

deviation was 1.99* Scores on the Visual-Motor Association

%

subtest covered a range from 11 to 25s with a mean of 21.05

and a standard deviation of 3*56. The range of scores on the

Vocal Encoding subtest was bet-ween 13 and 30. The mean was

22.80, with a standard deviation of *+.55* Motor Encoding

subtest scores covered a range froa 1k to 2^# with a mean

of 18.60. The standard deviation was 3.20. The range of

scores on the Auditory-Vocal Automatic subtest was between

1 5 and 22. The Bean score was 19*50, and the standard de-

viation was 2.^2. Scores on the Auditory-Vocal Sequential

subtest fell between 20 and 38. A mean of 29.20 and a

standard deviation of 5*91 «ere obtained. The range ©f

scores on the Visual-Motor Sequential subtest was 10 to 25.

The mean was 18.50, and the standard deviation was U.5U.

Total scores on the Illinois Test of Paycholinguistlc

Abilities in Group III ranged from 173 to 222. The mean score

•was 19^*58, and the standard deviation was 15*0*t. Auditory

Decoding subtest scores fell within a range between 18 and

3^» with a mean of 27*58 and a standard deviation of k.^Q.

Visual Decoding subtest scores ranged from 11 to 21. The

mean was 16.53, with a standard deviation of 2.85. A range

of scores between 20 and 26 was obtained on the Auditory-

Vocal Association subtest, with a mean of 23.26 and a standard

deviation of 1.^. Visual-Motor Association subtest scores

ranged from 16 to 26, with a mean of 22.16 and a standard

deviation of 2.39* Scores ranging from 12 to 36 were obtained

on the Vocal Encoding subtest. The mean was 21.68, with a

57

standard deflation of 5»20» Scores on the Motor Encoding sab-

t e s t ranged froa 12 to 23, "with a mean of T9*H2 and a standard

deviation of 3 .12 , Auditory-Vocal Automatic subtest scores

fell within a range between 12 and 22.. The mean score m s

17.8%, 'with a standard deflation of 2.6H. The range of scores

on the Audltory-Vocal Sequential subtest vas between 17 and 37*

with a aean of 28.89 and a standard deviation of H.%2. Scores

on the Visual-Motor Sequential subtest fell v i th in a range

between 10 and 2£» ulth a mean of 16.89 and a standard deviation

of 3.99. Means and standard deviations for Group III are

show on Table X*

TABLE VIII

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ON THE ILLINOIS TEST OF PS2CH0LIHGUISTIC ABILITIES IN GROUP I

..Mean St.and.ari .Deviation ,

192.20 21.78

^uditoM...Oeeodlnc 28.90 2 .99

Visual .QeeoAlcuc r — ir: 2.8.9

Auditory-Voeal Association .; 2 M

Visual-Motor Association

.,

22.10 -1.56.

Vocal Enc od in« , 22 .1?

Motor ..Encoding. , 12..5Q

Auditory-Vocal Automatic 18.80 2.75

Auditory-Vocal.. Sequential , 26.A5

16«.0<? nr. , , , - -l7rri nrT

k*M

vphXltW TV liUDjUti* JUL

HEAHS AID STANDARD DEVIATIONS OH THE ILLINOIS TEST PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ABILITIES IN GROUP I I

OF

.Mean ., Standard Deviat ion

T o t a l , .'200.. 25..! m T..., „ 20 • 25 r rv.Tri n

Auditors: DecodinE , . 29.85 \*9%

.fisa&l. leeoding , . 17.50 1.01

Auditory-Vocal Assoc ia t lon 21.20 1.99

Vis f i a l -MotorAssoc ia t ion £1.05 1.56

Ycttal. .Speeding , . 22.80 i t .55

Motor Encoding , 18.60 3.20

Auditory-Vocal Automatic 19.50 2*k2

Auditory-Vocal Seauen t ia l 29.20 5.91

J 1 8 . 5 0 ., H. 5H

TABLE X

MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS ON THE ILLINOIS TEST OF PSYCHOLINGUISTS ABILITIES IN GROUP I I I

Mean. Standard Deviat ion

To ta l 1 #1.58 15.0H

Auditory Decoding 27.58 k.kQ

VisiM^ Decoding , 16.58 2 .85

Auditory-Vocal Associa t ion 23.26 ,. 1,9k

Visual-Motor Assoc ia t ion 22.16 2 . 1 9

.YooaI Encoding 21.68 5.20 Motor Encoding 19.^2 . . % * 12 . .... A tidi t or y-V ooa 1 Automatic 17.8H 2.6k

Audltory>"Veeal Seauen t ia l 28.89 k . ^2

Visual-Motor Seauen t i a l 16.89 1.99

59

Language Ages for the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic

Abilities total score and each subtest were read from the

appropriate tables in the examiner's manual (2, pp. 109-111).

fh.es© Language Ages are compared on fable XI#

TABLE XI

COMPARISON OP LANGUAGE AGES 01 THE ILLINOIS TEST OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC ABILITIES AMONG

GROUPS I, II, AMD III

Test Groux> I QT-Qod II Grout) III

Total 8—6* , abo^e 9-*4 , , , 8—9

Auditory .Decoding..., above 9-0 above 9-0 8-10

Visual Decoding 7-1.0 above. 9-0.... 8-9 Auditory-Vocal Asaoela^ien 9-0 9-0 9-0

Visual-Motor Association 8-7 8-3 8—7

focal Bneodine: , , above 9-0 above 9-0 8-11

Potor Encoding 7-11 8-8 8-8 Auditory-Vocal Automatic 8-9 9-1 8—H Auditory-Vocal Sequential 7-10 above 9-0 above 9-0 Visual-Motor Sequential 6-9 8-5 7-k _

•Ages are expressed in years and Bohths* '

The Language Age within Group I for the total score was

eight /ears six-months. The subtests obtained the following

Language Agess Auditory Decoding* above the nine year levelf

Visual Decoding* seven-years ten months| Auditory-Vocal Associ-

ation, nine years§ Visual-Motor Association, eight-years-

60

seven months; Vooal Encoding, above the nine year level;

Motor Encoding, seven years eleven months; Auditory-Vocal

Automatic, eight years nine months; Auditory-Vocal Sequential,

seven years ten months; and Visual-Motor Sequential, six

years nine months#

The mean Language Age for Group II on the total score

©£ the .MiiMi l&ii stt slightly

above nine years four Months* Pour of the subtests obtained

Language Ages above the nine year levelt Vocal Decoding,

Visual Decoding, Vocal Encoding, and Auditory-Vocal Sequential.

The remaining subtests obtained the following mean Language

Ages: Auditory-Vocal Association, nine years; Visual-Motor

Association, eight years three months; Motor Encoding, eight

years eight months, Auditory-Vocal Automatic9 nine years

one monthj and Visual-Motor Sequential, eight years five

months *

Within Group III, the mean Language Age for the total

score nas eight years nine months. Language Ages for the

subtests were Auditory Decoding, eight years ten months;

Visual Decoding, eight years nine months ; Auditory-Vocal

Association, nine years; Visual-Motor Association, eight

years seven months ; Vocal Encoding, eight years eleven months,

Motor Encoding, eight years eight months ; Auditory-Vocal Auto-

matic, eight years four months; Auditory-Vocal Sequential,

above the nine year level; Vocal-Motor Sequential, seven years

four months•

61

The Illinois East, of. Psvcholinguistic Abilities total

score was correlated with each subtest, utilizing the Pearson

product-moment correlation. The correlation coefficients for

each group are presented en Table XII,

TABU XII

CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF THE ILLINOIS TEST OF PSYCHOLINOU 1STIC ABILITIES TOTAL SCORE

AND EACH SUBTEST SCORE

Total Scoreand Subtest Groun I Group II ; Grout).. Ill

Auditory Decoding w ( *.661.2 .52*18

I£pual Decoding .5751 .5060 .2681* Aud itory~Voeal Association , .7981 .mkk .7279 Visual-Motor Association . .7525 .6809 .5201

Vocal. ,.lnc@dln£ i • f>bh2 .. .*•672 .29^9*

Motor.Ine©dine , •5|6^ * .. .5279 Auditory-vocal Automatic .817% .6^5 .7800 A udit©ry-V00al

.**756 .6611 .5127 Visual-Motor .Sequential .69^5 .72^5 A 8 n

•Not significant at the 5% level.

All ©f the subtests -were correlated with the

IMJL at g.SKtel.tegai.a.llfi, A M U M s j . total score at the 5 per

cent level of significance in Group I. Table XII shows that

coefficients ranged from a low of .*ff>05 for the total and

Auditory Decoding to a high of . 8173 between the total and

Auditory-Vocal Automatic.

62

Within Group II, the JLHflftia last, Sil ,g83 UftK,q4ff.U,9

Abilities total score was significantly correlated -with all

©f the subtests at the 5 per cent level* Table XXI shows

that coefficients ranged from ,H6?2 between the total and

focal Encoding t© .7235 between the total and Visual-Motor

Sequential.

Within Group III, the J l M m J j & £ & M EffOTWUMC&ffUft

Abilities total score was significantly correlated with all

bat two of the subtests# Examination of Table XII reveals

that only the Visual Decoding and Vocal Encoding subtests

failed to reach the 5 per cent level of significance*

Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients were

also computed among the subtests of the Illinois Test of

Psycholimtuistlc Abilities for each group. Correlation co-

efficients for these tests are presented on Tables XIII, XIV,

and XV.

Examination of Table XIII reveals that of thirty-six

intertest correlations, Group I obtained twelve correlations

which reached the 5 per cent level of significance. At least

on© of the two associational subtests was significantly' cor-*

related with every other subtest in the battery, with the

single exception of the Auditory Decoding subtest. Besides

correlation with the association subtests, none of the regaining

seven subtests was significantly correlated with more than

two other subtests. Vocal Decoding, Motor Encoding, and

Auditory-Vocal Sequential were significantly correlated with

63

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66

no other subtests. Two of the subtests, Visual-Motor Sequential

and Auditory-Vocal Automatic, -were significantly correlated

with two other subtests# focal Encoding was significantly

correlated with on© other subtest. Auditory Decoding was

significantly correlated with only one of the nine subtests,

Auditory-Vocal Automatic•

Table XIV shows nino significant correlations among the

various subtests in Group II? twenty-seven intortest correlations

failed to reach the 5 per cent level of significance. Exami-

nation of the correlations revealed no consistent pattern as

was demonstrated in Group I.

Within Group III, five significant correlations occurred

among the subtests, as shown in Table XV* Four of these five

scores correlated the Auditory-Vocal Automatic subtest with

other subtests.

- The Mean scores of each group on each subtest of the

Illinois Test of Psyoholinguistic Abilities and of the Gates-

MacQintle Reading Test were compared to determine if any sta-

tistically significant differences existed among the three

groups on any of the abilities measured. The Fisher t test was

employed in order to make this comparison. Significant dif-

ferences are differences which are not likely to occur by chance

and indicate real differences between conditions or events.

Results of the Fisher t test between Group I and Group II

are reported on Table XVI. Examination of this table shows

that no statistically significant differences were obtained

between Group I and Group II on any of the twelve items.

67

TABLE n r i

FISHER T SCORES FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEANS OF GROUP I AND GROUP I I

Tes t Group 1

1 20 Grouj

H 5 ) I I >0 Fi she r

t Tes t

' Moan.." s u . :: Mean !" m F i she r

t

Vocafeulary ftsst , , , !

37.70 7.80 36.60 B.kO .H096

Comprehension Tes t ,

32.10 10.26 29.85 10.96 .61+73

ITPA T o t a l 192.20 21.78 200.25 20.25 -1.28*48

Auditory Decoding: r

28.90 2.99 29 .85 3 .93 - .7679

V i s u a l pp&trtpa*

16.10 2 .89 17.50 3.01 -1 .^765

Audi to ry -Vocal Assoc i a t i on

23.^0 2M 23.20 1.99 .2871

Visual-Motor Assoc i a t i on

22.10 3.56 21.05 3.56 1.0017

Vocal EncMS,iM j

22.15 k.82 22.80 *4.56 — .M 22

Motor Snftpdluft,

17.50 3 .32 18.60 3 .20 -1 .0535

Auditory* Vocal Automatic . .

18.80 2 .75 19.50 2 M - .827k

Audi to ry-Vocal S a a u e n t i ^ l

26.35 6.21 29.20 5.91 -1 .5707

V isual -Motor i S e q u e n t i a l

16.05 ^ . 8 3 18.50 *4.5*4 -1.6851

68

TABLE XVII

FISHER T SCORES FOR THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEANS OF GROUP I AND GROUP I I I

Tes t Group I

- . N 20 Group I I I ._JL 20 F i s h e r

: J SD : sD ;" - & ,.

Vocabulary .Tes t .

37.70 7.80 35.00 8 . 6 0 .9926

Comprehension 32 .10 10.37 28.37 10.91 1.0597

rT_.,. „,,

ITPA T o t a l 192.20 21 .78 19^ • 58 15.0*4 « .37^7

Audi to ry M e ©dine

23.90 2.99 27*58 k«ko 1.05*41

V i s u a l DectoftLu; . :

16.10 2.89 16.58 2.85 -• .*4528

A u d i t o r y -V octal A s s o c i a t i o n

23 .^0 2.*+6 23.26 1.9*4 .1939

Visua l -Motor l s sM l . a t . i o n

22 .10 3.56 22.16 2 . 3 9 - .05^5

Voeal JBOCO&MUC :

22.15 *•.82 21.68 5 .20 .2916

Motor Bpc.ssd.inK.,...,

17.50 3.32 19 .^2 3 . 1 2 - 1 . 8162

A u d i t o r y -Voca l Automat ic , _

18.80 2 . 7 5 17.8*4 2.6*4 1.1177

A u d i t o r y -Voe&l . .Seauent la l

26.35 6 . 2 2 28.89 k*k2 - 1 . 3 8 ^

Visua l -Motor S e a u e n t i a l

16,05 ^.83 16 .89 3 *99 * .5735

69

TABLE XVIII

FISHER T SCORES FOE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE MEANS OF GROUP II AND GROUP III

Test Group I I 1 2Q „

Group 1X1 N 20 . _ Fisher

t . , ^ lean...;" HeiAEL , . . m . „ Fisher t . ,

Vocabulary ...Test

36,60 8.U0 35.00 8.60 • 5882

Comprehension Test

29.8? 10.96 28.37 10.91 .*+207

IT PA Total 200.25 20.25 19H.58 15.0H .893^

Auditory UpecHliXtt

29.85 3.92 27.58 k.ko 1.8121

Visual Decoding

17.50 3.01 16.58 2.85 .9588

Auditory-Vocal Aasyafti^on.

23.20 1.99 23.26 1.9^ - .0895

Visual-Motor As^oeiftt^cm ,

21.05 3-56 22.16 2.39 •1,0*433

Vooal .Eao..Q.d[lii£

22.-80 ^•55 21.68 5.20 .6986

Motor JSnccriMLoE.

1 S.60 3*20 19.^2 3.12 - .7762

Auditory-Vocal AstsstSJ-s

19.50 2.^2 17.8*4 2.6*4 1.93^5

Auditory-Vocal Seau.enti.al ,

29.20 5.91 28.89 k.k2 .1660

Visual-Motor 18.50 W. 5** 16.89 3.99 1.0898

70

table XVII shows the results of th© Fisher ji. test between

Group I and Group III. No t,»soores reached the 5 per cent

level of confidence on any of the items compared between

Group I and ©roup III.

Fisher £. test scores between Group II and Group III are

reported on fable XVIII. I© significant differences were

obtained between Group II and Group III on any ©f the twelve

abilities measures.

The analysis of variance technique is a method of ob-

taining a ratio between the variability between groups and the

variability within groups in order to determine whether the

groups were dram from similar populations or fro® populations

•which differed on the characteristic being measured. The

F»rati© is the numerical expression of this statistical

test.

The analysis of variance and F*ratios for this set of

data is presented on Table XIX. Examination of this table

reveals that no item obtained an F-rati© at the 5 par- cent

level of significance.

TABES XIX

ANAEifSIS OF VARIANCE

- ^©st Source Sum

Icuares df* Variance Estimate

F . Level

Vocabulary Test

Between Within Total

71 .$*50 H037.0000 1*108.61*50

2 56 58

35.8225 72.0892

,k%9

TAB IS XIX—Cantlnaad

71

Test Source Sam

Sauares If* Variance Estimate

L'""¥JU11

..Laval

Comprehension Test

Between Within Total

138.1^0 676H.7720 6902.9160

2 56 58

69.0720 120.7995

.5717

TSfk Total Between Within Tota l

682*8000 21983.7000 22666.5000

2 56 58

3**1 000 392.5660

.8696

Auditory Decoding

Between Within Total

50.5780 856.9820 907.5600

i 2 156 58

25.2890 15.3032

.6525

Tisaa l Decoding

Between ' Within t o t a l

20.2300 503.H320 523.6620

2 56 58

10.1150 8.9898

1.1251

Auditory-fmrnl Asseeiat ion

Between Within Total

.U170 271.6850 272.1020

2

58

.2085 *•.8515

.$*29

T i s a a l -Motor Association

Between Within : Total

15.^010 615.2770 1

630.6780

2 56 58

7.7005 10.9870

.7008

Yocal Encoding

Between Within Total

12.2800 1391.8560 1 W . 1 3 6 0

2 56 58

6.11*00 2*4.85^5

.2^70

Motor Encoding

Between Within Total

36.31^0 610.H320 6W6.7h60

2 5? 56

18.1570 10.9005

1.6656

Auditory-f o c a l Aatomatic

Between Within Total

26.9350 ^•00.7270 1*27.6620

2 56 58

13^675 7.1558

I.8820

i m m XPC—Continued

72

Tast Source su»

squares _ df* , "fa lan&e r f

Auditory-Vocal Sequential

Between Within Total

97.3760 18U3.5HOO 191*0.9160

2 5 6 58

Ml,6880 32.9203

1A789

Visual-Motor Sequential

Between Within Total

61.8880 1183.7^00 12^5.6280

5 I *»8

30.9M*0 21.1382

1.H638

Discussion

In order to study the relationships among articulation,

language, and reading ability, the Illinois Test of Psycho-

llngulstic Abilities and the Gates-MacGintle Reading test

uere given to children with noraal articulation, minor ar-

ticulation problems, and histories of severe articulation

problems. Children examined in this study were enrolled in

the third grade in public schools. Test results were compared

•within each group and among the groups to determine the

existence of significant correlations within each group and

significant difference among the groups. Significant cor-

relations indicate interrelations between conditions or events

which are least likely to occur by chance, and the level of

performance on one measure can be predicted from the level

of performance on the other. Similarly, significant differences

are differences which are not likely to occur by chance, but

rather, indicate real differences between conditions or events.

73

Examination of tlx© results obtained on the Gates-

MacGintie Reading Test showed that vocabulary and compre-

hension, as measured by this reading test, uere correlated

significantly In all three groups. Utilizing the foraula

derived by Sates and MacGintie (1» p. 7)» the critical values

WT® computed for comparison of the Vocabulary Test and the

Comprehension Test* Critical values are scores for deter-

mining whether differences between different subtests taken

by the same group at about the same time are significant. The

mean standard score of the Comprehension Test fell below the

critical values for the Vocabulary Test in all three groups.

Both the Vocabulary Test and the Comprehension Test were

significantly correlated with the tetal score of the Illinois

Teat of Psycholingulstic Abilities in all three groups#

In comparing the Vocabulary Test and the Comprehension

Test -with the various subtests of the Illinois Test of Psycho*

linguistic Abilities# it was found that vithin Group I, the

Vocabulary Test was significantly correlated with six ©f the

subtests. The Comprehension Test was significantly correlated

with seven of the subtests. Within both Group II and Group

III, the Vocabulary Test correlated significantly vith three

of the subtests, and the Comprehension Test correlated sig-

nificantly vith four of the subtests.

In no group was the Vocabulary Test correlated signifi-

cantly with the Auditory Decoding8 Visual Decoding or Vocal

Encoding subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycholingulstic

7k

Abilities. No group obtained a significant correlation be-

tween the Comprehension Test and Vocal Encoding. Within all

three groups, both the Vocabulary Test and the Comprehension

Test were significantly correlated with the Auditory-Vocal

Automatic and the Auditory-Vocal Sequential subtests of the

Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities.

All of the subtests of the Illinois Test of Psycho*

linguistic Abilities correlated significantly with the total

score within Group I and Group II. Within Group III, the

total score was significantly correlated with all but two

of the subtests, Visual Decoding and Vocal Encoding.

In correlating the various subtests of the Illinois Test

of Psycholingulstlc Abilities, Group I obtained twelve sig-

nificant correlations among the subtests. At least one of

the two association subtests was significantly correlated

with every subtest with the single exception of Auditory

Decoding. Group II obtained nine significant correlations

among the various subtests, but no pattern of correlation

was apparent. Of the five significant correlations among

the subtests obtained by Group III, four of the correlations

involved the Auditory-Vocal Automatic subtest.

Significance of differences was tested among the groups

by the Fisher t-test. The t*»test revealed no significant

difference at the 5 per cant level of confidence between any

two of the groups for any of the twelve measures. Analysis

of variance also revealed no significant difference on any

of the twelve items.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

York,

2# McCarthy, Jaaes J# and Samuel A. Kirk. Examiner * s Manual J*M JptolfijMl j£ ihUlMas*

Urbana, Illinois, University of in©ls# 19

75

CHAPTER I?

SUMMARY AID CONCLUSIONS

The purpose of this study was to examine the relation-

ships among speech, language and reading abilities* Fifty-nine

children enrolled in the third grade ere chosen as subjects

for this study. These subjects were divided into three groups.

Group I was composed of twenty children -with normal articu-

lation who had never been enrolled in speech therapy# Group

II was compossd of twenty children who had articulation prob-

lems involving three or fewer speech sounds. The nineteen

children who comprised Group III were children who had histories

of articulation disorders involving four or more speech sounds.

Every child was given the Peabody Picture focabulary

Test» the Illinois Test of Psychollngulatio Abilities, and

the Gates-MacGlntle Reading Test. Each child was seen a total

of three times* receiving one of the three tests at each

meeting.

Mean-raw scores within each group were correlated to de-

termine if any significant relationships existed among the

various language skills tested. Comparison of the mean raw

scores was made among the groups to determine the existence

of any significant differences in performance on the skills

among the three groups.

76

77

Children in Group I had a mean chronological age of nine

years one month and a mem mental age of nine years eleven

months. Mean intelligence score was 106. This group obtained

mean grade equivalents of k»k on the Vocabulary Test and

on the Comprehension Test of the IfiMiBH ffiMfr*

Results of the Ift&S J2£ PlTflMlMttlltifi AMUfrte,

revealed a mean Language Age ©f eight years six months, with

mean Language Ages ranging from six years nine months to above

the nine year level.

The mean chronological age of Group II was eight years

eleven months. Mean mental age was nine years nine months,

and th® mean intelligence score was 1C&. Within the Gates*

MacGintie Reading Test, mean grade equivalents of **,2 were

obtained on the Vocabulary Test and 3.7 on th® Comprehension

Test* Mean Language Age on th© Illinois .Test of Psraholin-

jt&ftUfl Abilities was slightly above nine years four months.

Mean Language Ages on the subtests ranged froa eight years

three months to above the nine year level.

Group III obtained a mean chronological age of nine years

one month and a mental age of nine years six aonths. Mean

intelligence score was 102. Mean grade equivalents on the

lnl.MsllM.tlllMf £ftS& 3*9 on th® Vocabulary Test

and 3*5 on the Comprehension Test. Subtest mean Language

Ages of the JCUtftftlfi. Test & AfrlUUftft ranged

from seven years four months to above the nine year level.

Mean total Language Age was eight years nine months.

78

Comparison of the average standard scores of the two

subtests of the Gates-MacGintie Reading Test repealed that

the mean standard score of the Comprehension Test was below

the mean standard score of the Vocabulary Test at the 15 per

cent level of confidence in all three groups*

Within each group, the Vocabulary Test and the Compre-

hension Jest were significantly correlated# Both of these

tests were also significantly correlated with the Illinois

fest of Psycholinguistic Abilities total score within each

group*

Within Group I, all of the subtests of the Illinois

fest of Psycholinguistic Abilities were significantly correlated

with the Vocabulary Test except Auditory Decoding, Visual De-

coding, and Vocal Encoding. All of the subtests were sig-

nificantly correlated with the Comprehension Test with the

exception of Auditory Decoding and Vocal Encoding. All of

the subtests were significantly correlated with the Illinois

Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities total score. Significant

correlations were also obtained among the subtests. Twelve

significant correlations were obtained among the subtests.

At least one of the two association subtests was correlated

with every other subtest with the exception of the Auditory

Decoding subtest.

The Vocabulary Test was significantly correlated, in

Group II, with three of the subtests of the Illinois Test of

Psycholinguistic Abilitiesi Auditory-Vocal Automatic,

79

Auditory-Vocal Sequential, and Visual-Motor Sequential. The

Comprehension Test was significantly correlated vith Visual-

Motor Association* Auditory-Vocal Automatic, Auditory-Vocal

Sequential, and Visual-Motor Sequential* All of the subtests

were significantly correlated with the Illinois Test of

Fsycholingulstlc Abilities total score* line instances ©f

significant correlation were obtained among the subtests of

the Illinois Teat of Psychollngulstlc Abilitiest however, no

pattern of correlation could be established#

The Auditory-Vocal Automatic, Auditory-Vocal Sequential,

and Visual-Motor Sequential subtests were significantly

correlated with the Vocabulary Test in Group III. Auditory

Decoding, Auditory-Vocal Association, Auditory-Vocal Auto-

matic, and Auditory-Vocal Sequential were significantly

correlated with the Comprehension Test. All of the subtests,

with the exception of Visual Decoding and Vocal Encoding,

were significantly correlated with the Illinois Test_of

Psycholinguistlc Abilities total score.

Of the fife significant correlations obtained among the

subtests, four were obtained between the Auditory-Vocal Auto-

matic and other subtests.

Differences between the means were compared among the

three groups. No significant differences were found among the

three groups on any of the tests.

80

Conclusions

The lack of significant differences among the three

group® indicates that there is no difference between the

third grade children in this study with normal articulation

and those with articulation deviations on any of the language

abilities measured by the Gates-MacGintle Heading Test and

the Illinois i§st jgf Abilities.

It was noted that, although there were no significant

differences, the normal articulation group scored higher on

the G-ates-MacGintl© Reading Test than either of the two

groups of children with articulation deviations. Comparison

of the standard scores on the two sections of the Gates-

MacGlntie Reading Test showed that the normal group more

nearly approached the lower limits of the critical range than

did the deviant articulation groups. The normal articulation

group earned the highest correlation between the Vocabulary

and Comprehension Tests of the Gates-MacGlnti© Beading Test

and the highest correlation between the Illinois Test of

Psyohollnguistlc Abilities total score and each of the two

reading subtests. The two reading subtests were also signif-

icantly correlated with more of the language subtests of the

normal speakers than of either of the other two groups of

children.

The group defined as those children having minor articu-

lation deviations ranked below the children without articulation

errors on all of the reading measures. The group of children

81

with histories of severe articulation problems obtained the

second highest correlations between the reading subtests and

between the Illinois feat jf Fgyc holing ui at ic 4bllltjes and!

the Vocabulary Test. The two defiant articulation groups

were similar on the number of language subtests which were

significantly correlated with the reading subtests.

The severe articulation group was the only group in which

not all of the subtests were significantly correlated with

the total score on the Illinois Test of Psychollngulstlc

Abilities. There were the most significant correlations

among the subtest© within the normal group and the least

number within the severe articulation group. This lack of

correlation Indicates a variability of performance on the dif-

ferent psycholingulstic abilities among the subjects in this

group.

Examination of these findings indicates the possibility

that the variability of performance on the abilities measured

by the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities may reflect

factors that tend to retard the development of language

functions. The group of children who had the greatest amount

of variability were known to have been seriously delayed in

the acquisition of at least one language skill, articulation.

The group of children who were only slightly delayed in this

language skill demonstrated more variability than the normal

group, but less than the severe group. Developmental data

was not available on any other language skill. However, at

82

the present time, although there isas no significant difference

in ability* the normal articulation group, "which also displayed

the least variability among the language abilities, tended to

have the highest level of reading ability, "while the severe

articulation group, having the greatest variability, tended

to have the lowest level of reading ability#

As noted in Chapter 1, Myklebust (1, p. 2) stated that

there is a hierarchical relationship between the auditory and

visual language forms, the visual form being dependent on the

earlier development of the spoken form of language* If the

development of the spoken form of language is delayed, the

development of reading would be similarly delayed#

If this is the case in language development, then the

delay in the acquisition of one spoken language skill could

act to retard the development of the visual language skills•

As the acquisition of spoken language skills approaches the

normal, through training or maturation, the visual language

skills might also tend to approach the normal. If this is

true, then the delay in the acquisition of adequate articu-

lation skill could act to delay the acquisition of reading

skill. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the children

in this study who had been seriously delayed In the acquisition

of articulation skills had not also been significantly delayed

in the acquisition of reading skills at an earlier age.

The variability of performance on psychollnguistlc

abilities might suggest a lack of basic Integrity within the

83

language system which could delay the acquisition of the various

language skills, both spoken and written# As the child

matures, he becomes able to compensate for this basic lack

of integrity# and, thus, he is able to function adequately in

the area of language.

No third grade children who had severe articulation

problems at the present time were available for testing. It

is not known, therefore, whether these children are signif-

icantly different on the language skills examined in this

study.

Implications for Further lesearch

The conclusions drawn from this study suggest further

areas of investigation. Since the language functioning of

third grade children currently exhibiting severe articulation

problems was not measured, a similar study involving this

type of child could reveal differences which would be of

value in understanding the linguistic behavior of children

who are delayed in this language skill.

The suggestion was made earlier in this chapter that

children who had histories of severe articulation problems

might have also been seriously delayed in the acquisition of

reading skill, and that as articulation skill improved, there

was a similar improvement in reading ability. Studies similar

in nature to this present one, but utilizing first and second

grade children, would examine this suggestion.

8%

The Illinois Test of Psychollngtilstlc Abilities Is

described by its authors to be a "single ability" test -which

assesses a given process at a given level through a given

channel. If the interrelationships of these abilities are

laportant for language functioning at the third grade level,

a study designed to assess these relationships and their

Influence on language functioning might reveal significant

differences among children with problems in articulation or

other linguistic skills.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

Myklebust, Helmer R. , ( M MsJMm mage. New York, Grune and St ra t ton , Inc . , 1965. ,

85

B3BLI0GHAPHY

Books

Bond, Gay L., iiBfififlb S ^ p | « i f M f t g Ml $M& Readers. Teachers1 Colleges Columbia University, Con-tr ibut ions to Education, #657# Hew York, Columbia University, 1935.

Brooks, Nelson H. t J M ftlMMMME MaBtiSS* BWIMg.. and Practice. New York, Harcourt, Brae© and World, 19o*4•

Burost Oscar Krisen, editor , , j t e p Mpllftl Mfiftftffifjpl XjUttbfififc* Highland Park, New Jersey, Gryphon Press, 1965.

Carroll , John B., J # 2boai&&t Inglewood C l i f f s , Hew Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc . , 196h.

Chreist, Fred M., fpEffiUB ASWfa Inglewod C l i f f s , New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, Inc. , f9©¥»

Dunn, Lloyd M., HmMl £ m £ » £MlTO Test* Nashville, American Guidance Service, Inc. , 19?9*

Gates, Arthur I . and Walter H. MaeGintie MJU X« CUMJ W«UU V19* ii • mMm ,p,.a\gt M i a n £* top i „ « w . Manual. lew York, Teachers College Press, 1fo§.

jjbi Jtf t i iM1 l i i i f j i ' ' College Press, 19o?»

&&L Msmal £ov Teachers

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ep

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Unpublished Material

Mallard, Arch Richard, "The Effect of a Phonetic Approach Speech Improvement Program on leading Achievement, Sound Discrimination, and Developmental Articulation," un-published master's thesis, Department of Speech, North Texas State University, Denton, Texas, 1966.