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VOWELSYMBOLS EXAMPLE

CONSONANTSYMBOLS EXAMPLE

tiyl

hl

leyl

lel

lal

lal

lol

luwl

["]

lowl

lrl

layl

la*l

loyl

see, prece

sit, give

say, break

rest, head

map, laugh

shut, ago

hot, father

boot, shoe

book, could

go, road

bought, Iaw

buy, side

house, now

toy, voice

lpl

tbl

ttl

tdl

tkl

lsl

lel

t6l

tfl

lvl

lsl

[z]

tJl

l:lthl

ItJ]

tdrl

lml

lnl

tllId

trl

tyl

lwl

past, pepper

box, number

time, most

date, hard

king, come

get, dig

think, author

this, other

fair, rough

vote, ever

same, nice

zoo, reason

shop, nation

pleasure, beige

hear'y, ahead

check, watch

joke, age

mail, summer

now, know

sing, tongue

rent, borrow

Iast, collect

year, young

west, away

Contents

t

About the Series

English lan[iuagc teachers alwa)'s appreciare and enjov professional reference books withprnctical classroonl approaches that are firmlv grouncled in current peclagogical r.escarcl.r.Tips for:Ie.ching is a responsc to this demancl in the form of a series of books on a varictyof topics of pmctical classroom-centcred interest.

Designed for teachers of ESL in nativc Engrish speakinlr countries as welr as teacrrersof EFL in non-native English-speaking countries, z?sfar r Teacbrng acrdresses aucliences insecondarl' schools, colreges, and aclult education courses with students at var).ing levelsof prolicicncy. Each book in the series is a pftrctical m:rnual that provicles teachers withclearly conceived firethodological ideas, approaches, tasks, activitics, anal,/or techniques tobetter accomplish their pedagogical goals. tlsers may be novice teachers seeking pr;cticalguidelines for instfuction in a specilled area, or cxperiencetl teachers in need ofrelicshing new ideas.

Each book in the series is committed to offering soundli. conceived, realisricapproaches to classroon instruction. There is some treatment of r-lndedl,inla pedagogicalprinciples of language learning and teaching in clearr), comprehensible terms.These treat-ments arc brief and concise but not rrivial.The metho dology of rips I()r Teachitlg is based,on communicative ancl/or. task-based language teaching foundations. Sftrclent centered,interactive classroom activities fecciye primary fbcus, but not at the expense of appro_priate tercher-cente|ed approaches or tasks fbr indi\-idual in class or homework :rctivit\r

We're very pleased to present the most reccnt vohrfire in this series, this time on pro_nunciatiur.In Tips for Teaching pronu.ncicttion. .nuthor Lincla Lanc l.ras provicled rcaders$'ith the best of cuttin€i edgc r.escarch on tlte acquisition of phonology, along with prac_tical teclx qucs for inproving rearners' pronunciation. c)nc of the first things y'ti willnotice is that the sequencing of chapters does n ot begin witl] the more traditionxl con-sonants lnd vowels. Recent research ancl practice have shown that adult learners ofEnglish find significanrl-y greater bcnelit in a primary fbcus on the prosodic elements ofphonology. As thc author notes in hcr text, most misunderstendings of learners. speechproduction stem from $ord stress, rlr{hln, and intonation.

Anothcr imporrant feature of rips for Tbaclsing pronunciation is its focus on intel-ligibilit\', comprelicnsibiliq', acccnt, and voice quality. Recognizing that achieving a ffue"nativelike" accent is an unrealistic goal for adult students, Lanc offers a common-scnse

Vi AboLt! the Se es

approach that encoumges teachers to work $'ith their students on the many aspects ofpronunciation that inpede a listener's clear understanding of the learner's speech

A third refreshing perspective provicled by thc author is her recognition of a myriad

of variables that can affect a learner's oral production, not al$'ays in sJ'stematic or pre-

clictxble ways. It is now well known that age, personaliq', motivation, learning style,

amount of exposure, native language background, and other factors can all affect a

learner's success in clifferent r.a_vs. ancl therefore eech inclividual may present a uniquc

set of circumstances for the teacher to address. The author provides readers with an

abunrlance of practical options to approach sr-rch variabiliryFinalll', teachers will be pleased to see in Tips for Teqcbing Pronunciation an

emphasis on helping learners to become responsible for theif own linguistic der-elop-

ment, so that they can eYentually wean themselves from the teacher and classroom'

Exercises on selimonitorin€i range from the segmental leatures of speech to global char-

acteristics of speech in a context of natural discourse And, recognizing that teachers

cannot always be available for correction of student errors, Lane provides the feader with

options for self- and peef-corre(:lion.Teachers who use this volume not only gain acccss to a multitude of pfactic:rl tech-

niques for teaching pronunciation, but also acquire awarencss of the rationale behind

such techniques. This unclerlying knowledge enables teachers to adapt techniques to

their own cofltexts. Teachers will also find Tips.for TeaclJing Pronunciation to be an

invaluable hamlbook of information that is easily accessed through chaptef headings, an

index, and a u\ehrl bibliogr:rPh1.Best wishes as )'ou usc the tips in this book to help -vour learners achieve their goals'

Dr H. Douglas l3rownProfessor Elneritus, San Francisco State UniuersitySeries Edilor

I NTRO D U CTIO N

TEACHINGNUNCIATION

Reccnt lears hare scen I rcncwecl rccolaritioll that pronuncietion js :r cnlcialclement of effccti!,.e contml'llticati(nt and that proltunciation teachhg belor]gs innlainstrc:rm. conrn ll'ri.rtiv. I:SI- classlooms ESL students pl:rcc a l-righ pfiorit\ onirst^rction in pronunciation. At the sarlc time. EsL tcacbcrs'rav fecl urcasv ab'utteaching pronunciation becausc the) lack training in phoncti!^s or linguistics orcxperiencc in texching pronunciatiou. As a rcsult, in spitc of its rccognizccl importanceto comrrunication. pronunciation is still a natginalized skill in manr ESL progruls.

It should not be. Pronunciation is inti'rarcl,v linked to other oral,/;r.ml sklls, bothinllucncing an<l influenced b\'listcning co',prchension a'd fl.e'cr,. Gilbcrt describcsthc rclatioflshi1t betn ccn promutciation al]d listcning comprehcnsion ils a ..speech

loop betrveen spcaker and listcncr" (1987. -lJ): instruction in onc intpro\espcdbrmancc in thc olher. for c\amplc. the reductjons that nativc speakers use in bothfrrrmal and infornral spcakiig arc in sl.raq) contrast to their word list pronunciati(xrs:comparc thc pronllltciation of czl promruncecl alone encl its prorunciatioll in Bedcdtt ligbt tbe bc.{con ligl.rt (/bivkat laYt 6r bi,vkan laytl). The rvord list pr(nrLrnciation.ho$.e\.er. is thc one that ntost stuclents learn first ancl the one the] expcct to hear ir.lspcaki|rg. "Xlicroieyel' listening tasks can make studcnts awarc of ltow grammarwofds like cdl/ sour]al in conltected speech ald thus il]lprol e corlprehensiotl (Choi19f38. Murph,v 1991.). In addition, Xlichaud and l{eed nainrain thar pronunciationirNtruction can lead to inproYelnent in \\,riti1lg b_v naking students morc aw:rre ofer()rs thilt occuf in borh sPcaking ancl $riting, like nissing $()rd endings (2(X)8).

In this Inlroductioll. we discuss the goals of pronunciation teaching. f-actofsthat aft'ect lcarning a new pronunciation. pronunciation s\.llabi, gcncral tyl)cs ol'pronunci;rtior.l excrcises and actiYities. scll-monitoring, and fccclback.

C.OAIS OF PRONLINCIATION TEACHING

Studcnts who lcarn Enlilish as aclnlts Or $'h0 are adults wtcn significantexposure to English begins \['ill probabll'never speak jt \1,irh a nati\.e acccnt (br.ttsec Bonlaacrts et al. 1997). A natiYelike accent is not a realistic goal ii)r studcnts. t.tor

t{

Icr. hrn,g fr',nunci.rtion

is it a necessaq' one for effcctive commlrnication in English More fealisticpronunciation go: s afe intelligibilit\'. confidence in speakinl], an(l a reduction ofaccent features that distract the listener's attention fiom intelligible mcss:rlacs

(Modey 1994, Gilbert 1980, (lelce-Murcii et al. 1996). A gcntlc accent, together withaccuracy in other areas of English (grammar', word choice), can even be an

advxntage, conferring on thc speaker positil'e qualities like sophistication and

irtclligence. While these are not modest goals and not all students achieYe them,

most stlrdents can (and do) learn to speak lnore clearl)'and conlidently

Intelligibility, Cornprehensibility, Accent, and Yoice Quality

Intettigibitity refers to the dellrcc to $'hich a listener can recognize words,

phrascs. and utterances (smith and Nelson 1985, smith 1992, Derwing alld Munro

1997).In research, it is rtsuallJr measured by asking listcners to tmnscribc nonnativc

spe€ch ancl comparing thc worcls listeners recognize with the words speakers

intend. Another term, comprehensibili4,', descrlbcs the easc with which listeners

can understand a nonnative speaker (llerwing and Munro 2005). "Confortable

intelligibility" is also usecl in this sense (Abercrombie 1949, Kenworthv 1987, 16).

Accent refers to noticeable differences betwccn native and nonnativepronunciations. Wlile htelligibilit)', compre hensibiliq', and accent are interwoven,

they are also, to a certain extent, indePendent lt is possible, fbf example, fbr even

heavily accented spcech to be intelligible. Vrtice quality refers to pronunciatiol.)

features that arc gcnerall,v present in nativc speech, like averagc level of'PitchThe goal of inte lligibilit.Y is uncontroYersial: Without intclligibilit t',

conlnlunication is impossible. Considering all areas of language, errors s-ithpronunciation and worcl choicc (the choice of an inappropriate word to exprcss a

speakcr's meaning) afe the rwo t,vpcs of errors most likely to nake a student

incompre hensible (Gass ancl Sclinkcr 2001, 266). Grammatical errors, such :rs

omitting tlre past tense in a selltence (c.g ,I'ast nlght I go to d lnof ie) rarel-v lead

to unintelligibiliry althou€lh a ltrrge number of grammatical errors, togethcr witl.I

pronunciation cffors, can reduce comprehensibilitv (Varonis ancl Gass 1982), as can

ronpronunciation discortrse etrors ('Nler 1992)Research on the contribution of pronturciation to intelligibilit]' has asked

which t'catures of pronunciation havc the greatest impact Accurate use ofsuprasegmentals (stress, rhlthm, and intonatiort appears to have a grcater impact

on intelli€libility assessments b)' rrative listencrs than accruate promrnciation ofconsonanis and vorvels (see, for example, Anclerson Hsieh et al. 1992, Derwing,

Munro and Wicbe 1998. Hahn 2004). Tllese strtdies havc inYestigated the

pronuncietion of primarily intefnediate ancl athanced ESL learners, and it is tlotclear whether the same finclings wor'rld hold lbr studcnts at lowcr levels ofproficienc)'. In addition, experjirental conditions can be far removcd from real

situations in which two per)ple try to unclerstand each othcrAssessmcnts of illtelligibilitv also dePcnd on w-ho the Listeucrs ere Most research

on intelligibiliq' hes usecl mtive Englisll listel]ers When nonnative listeners iudge thc

Teaching Pronunciation 3

intelligibility of norxratiye speakers, their assessments are sometimes based on aspectsof pronunciation that are not importanr to native listeners Oenkins 2000, 2002; Field2005).I'he familiarity of the listener with nonnati\,e speech in gene ral, with a particularforeign accent, and with a particr- ar nomative speaker also ailbcts ;rssessments ofintelligibility: Thc greater the familiarity, the more intelligible the speech (Gass andVaronis 1984). Because of this, ESL teachcrs may not be the best judges of theirstudents' intelligibility. Kenworth,v suggests that teachers sct higher standards forintelligibilit!' than what they themselves actually require in the classroom (1987).Muchas our students like us, they are probabl_v not taking English so that they can ralk to us.

Stuclies of comprebensibility (easc of untlerstanding) show that listcners'judgments depend on both segmental (consonants and vowels) and supfascgmental(stfess, drythm, and intonation) errofs (Dcrwing and Munro 1997). In addition toefrors in pronunciation, many other factors have an effilct (nr compre he nsibility:Speaking rate, effors in granmaq word choice, cliscourse markers, the age at whichEnglish is learned, the amount of exposure the learner has had to natively spokenEnglish, the extent to wltich learners use English, and the listenef's familiariw withthe topic of conversation have all bcen shown to affect comprehensibility (Hinfotisanti Bailey 1981, Anclerson-Hsieh and Koehler l988,Varonis and Gass 1982. Gass andSelinker 2001, cass and Varonis 1984, Flege et al. 1995).

Accent tefefs to djffefences between native and nonnative pronunciations thatare noticed by native listeners (Derwing, Munro, andWiebe 1998,396). The degreeof accent is xssociated y/ith segmental, supr.rse€imental, and yoicc quality features.r

Although accented pronunciations do not necessarily intedere with inre lligibiliqr,distracting, stigmatized, or stereofi?ed pronunciations should be addressed bypronunciation teachers. Even fu y htelligible pronunciations can be evaluatednegatively by native speakers because of accent (?ermington 1998, Levis 2005, Rineyet aI.2000). For example. the substitution of /d/ for /6/ iJ.:,ttle word tbem (e .g.,Bringdem lserc),whtle tnderstandable, is stigmatized (for native Enlllish listeners) because itis a dialect feature of nonstandard English. The substitution of /z/ for /6/ in tbem G.g.,Bring zent beA, on the other ltand, simply marks the speaker as nonnative .

Distracting or stereotyped pronunciations can affect intelligibiliry by dmwingthe listener's attention away from the message to the mispronunciation itseliExamples of distracting or stcrcotyped pronunciations inclucle the confusion of /n/and /l/ by speakers of some Cantonese dialects (e.g., He nooked at tbe uomaninstezd, of He looked at tbe u)ornan); conftrsion of /r/

^fld /l/ (tbe sterectLyped, flie.l

Iice fot fried rice) forJapanese ESL students; and the confusion of /y/ ^nd

/d3/ (jessfor !es, jesterda! for lesterda!) for Spanish ESL students. These are pronunciationproblems that can and should be addressed. The pronunciation of the vowels inbeach, sbeet, and Jbcu' words which have caused corntless ESL studentsembarrassment. should also be addressed.

listeneii do not (Rine,v et al 1005) .

4 Teachinp, Pronunciation

Voice quality settll1gs are pronllnciatioll features that are present most of the

time in the speech of native spelll<ers some languages, for example, are tlpicallyspoken at lower levels of pitch (e.g., Dutch) and others at higher lcYels of pitch (e g ,

Japanese) relative to a particular Lurguagc (e g.' English) In one language, words may

be spoken with greater ovenll musclllar tension and witll less in another language;the

lips may be more olten spread (or roundcd), or speech may havc a generzlly "creat<yl'

"breathll'or modal (neutral) sound (see, for example' I'aver 1980, Esling and wong

1983, EsLing 1994, Keating and Esposito 2007). Esling a]1d Won€l suggest thxt ESL

studcnts become familiar with a broad model of voice quality settin€ls for Nofih

American Englisl.r (NAE), but note that not all dialects shxre these characteristics: spfead

hps, open jaw, palatalized (fronted) tongue body position, retrof'lex articulation (the

tong.,. tlp ftrrns up and back), nasal voice , lowerecl larynx (lower o\'-erall pitclt, and

cfeakyVoice(1983,91)'The)'offbfsevel?lwaysinwhichStudentscanbecomeawareof voice qriality settinlis;for exrmple, students speaking differert native languages can

say a shon phnsc in their native language and <lifferences can be conpared (19a3,94)'

Although there is Iittle doubt that Yoice quali$ plays a role in accent, more

Stud-Yisneeded.Notonlyarethefedi-fferencesintheVojceqllalitySettingsofspeakers of the same language, there is also not alwa-vs agreement about which

pafriculaf settings are pfesent or absent (Keating and Esposito 2007). Mofe fesearch

using larger numbers of speakers is neecled befbre teachers can confidently apply

these findings in the classroom

FACTORS THAT AFFECT PRONI-NCIATION LEARNING

The degree of success that learners achieve in adopdng a ncw pronunciati')n is

influenced by many elements, irlcluding age and social-psychological factors' amount

of exposurc to the second language (L2), amount of use of the L2, the native language

to€lether with univcrsals, ancl personaliry Many of these factors (such as age and

native language) are beyond the control of the classroom teecher and the learner

Age and Social-Psychological Factors

Lenneberg (1967) proposed thlt there is a "critical period" for learning a

language natively, which exten.ls up to puberty: Neurobiological chanlaes in the

bfaintl]atculmiflateatpubert-vblocktl]enativc.llLngualieleafningabilitythereafter.2 In the area of grammatical learning, .Iohnson and Newpoft found

evidenceforagraclualcleclineinlanguageleafningabilitiesduringthecfiticalperiod rather than an abrupt fall off at the end (1989)'

social'psychologicaldiffbrerrcesbetweenadultsandchilclrcnhavealsobeenollerccl to explain the effect of age Aclults are assumcd to have a deeper and

stfonger attachrnent to their natiYe culture than children, which ma,v consciousb' or

'Tliis clllln is.Luestioned Lrr (r:rsltert, l9li.

Tead)ing Pr()nuncialian 5

unconsciously prevent the adults from fully adopting the norms of a new language:rnd culture (catbontin, Trofimovich, and Majid 2oo5,Jenkins 2005, Leyis 2005). Oneof my students was very conscious of the conflict between English anct his nativelanguage (culture) and stated that he did not want to sound like a.fake American.,,Another explanation of the age effect may be that adults'greater cognitive abilities(cspecially anah.tic abilities) are less effective in learning a new pronunciation tltanthe mofe natural abilities found in young cl.rildren.

Exposure and Use

Pfonunciation learninti is also affected by tlte amount of exposure lcafnershave to the new language and the extent to which they use it (see Trofimovicl.r andBaker 2006 for a review of research on these factors). It is not surprising thatstudents who have spent three years in the United Srates typicalli, pronounceEnglish bcttef than those who have spent three months. Similafly, students who useEnglish a great deal in drcir daily actiYities are likely to pronounce the languagebetter than tltose who rarely use it.

Native-I-anguage Backgfound arrd Linguistic UniversalsThe ability of natiye speakers to recognize specific foreign accents once they

have expefience with them attests to the influence of the native language onpronunciation of a new language. The native-language sound q/stem (consonants,vowels, stress, rhlthm, intonation, and voice quality) affects not only how learnerspronounce English but how they hear it. For example, the two vowels in the Englishwords sceze and slz correspond to a single vowel in Spanish. Bcginning ancl low-intermediate Spanish-speaking stndenrs arc likel,v to haye difficulfl hearinE! thedifference between sc?n e and sl, and may transfer their native{anguage vowel intothe pronunciation of these words. As proficiency increases, students becomc betterable to hear differences and notice pfonunciations that are not present in theirnative languages.

Similafities between a natiye language and English can either facilitate orhindcr learning. Lee, Guion, and Harada (2006) for-lnd that Japanese ESL learnerswere better able to lengthen stressed English \.owels and shorten unstressed vowelsthan Korean ESL learners. They attributed this result to the fact that, while neitherlanguage is similar to English in terms of word stress,Japanese uses long and shoftvowcls to contrast some words (e.g., stt -"vinegar" and szzr-,,numbef,,) whileKorean does not.3 Because vowel length is impodant in Japanese, the Japaneselearners may have been prirned to notice diJlerences in vowel length in English. Onthe othef hand, if learners interpret a similafity as an equivalence, tlte,v may beunable to noticc the differences between sin lat but not identical, pronunciations

i Sone dialecLs of Korean conlr?Lst long end shofl vo,x€Ls, but l€ leatu€$ in lhei,ee et al. stud\ werr: not sp€rkeN 0f dtos€ dixlecll

(2006. 49r.

$ wra.toucnaN TeachingPrcnunciation

Glege 1987). The persistent mispronunciation of the vo$'els in sreet and beacb maybe the resnlt of classifying English /iyl (the \.owel it sheet alf.d beach) tl:le same as

the natiyelanguaEie pure vo$,'el /i/ (seeVowels, page 169). Classroom work can helpto make students aware of differences they might otherwise not notice.

Universals are features of language that afe in some sense easier, more natural,more common in languages, or typical of children leaming their first language (L1).The terms /ess marked and more marked are also u sed to descfibe the relatir.e ease

or clifticulty of rclated features of pronunciation. For example, open syllables-syllebles that end in vowels (e.9., so, me, sta!)-^re easier (i.e., morc universal, lessmarked) than closed syllables that end in a single consonant (e.9., dog, top, miss).Closed syllables that end in one consonant (.e.g., dog, top, miss) are easier (less

marked) than closed syllables that end in a consonant cluster (e.9., beh, ask,stoppe.l). Open syllables are found in every language, whereas closed syllables arenot; and both 1,7 and L2 learners have more difficulty pronouncing the finalconsonants of closed syllables (Broselow and Finer 1991, Eckman 1991). For a

comprehensive review of natiyeLanguagc transfer and the fole of uniyersals, see

Eckman (200,i).The native-language background(s) of students should influence the choice

of pronunciation topics addressed in the classroom. Difficulty with specificconsonants, for example, depends heavily on native language. Arabic studentsconfuse /p/ and /b/, sour]ds that do not contrast in Arabic. Spanish students haYcproblems with ,/b/ and /v/, which do not contrast in Spanish, while cantonese,German, Russian, and Turkish students have problems with /v/ and /w/ .

Difficulties with English vowels, on the other hand, are widespread, anddifficr- ties v/ith stress, intonation, and drythm are even more widespread.Appendix B summarizes typical pronrinciation problems of students from a

variety of native-language backgrounds.

Personality

Research has not shown a clcar link between personality characteristics andsLlccess in L2 learning. Neyertheless, it is reasonable to suppose that outgoing,sociable learners should have an adyantage over introverted, shy leafnefs inacquiring oral-aural skills, including pronunciation. Outgoing students are morelikely to participate in conversations with native speakers and will therefore have

more opportunities to practice and to hear English.A relaxed classroom atmosphere should also foster pronunciation learning. In

an oft-cited experiment on lowering inhibitiot]s, Guiora et al. found that learners'pronunciation improved after drinking moderate amounts of alcohol (1972).

Fossilization

Vrith adult L2 leamers, pronunciation :rnd grammar learning seems to plateau,perhaps pemanentl)', after a number of years. Selinker first described the cessation ofleaming as fossiLization (1972): it is also referred to as stabilization (Gass and Selinker

/NrfOUU( r/ON Teaching pnuutjci,lti()n 7

2008)." Once fossilization (stabilizatiorD has ser i,', substantial improyemenrs inpronunciation (and grammar) in spontaneous speech mav not be possible. Althougdtvafious causes of fossilization havc been proposed. including Ll intcfblcnce.motil?tion, leamers' goals or needs, and alae . the process is not well unclerstood. andmore resea.rch is needed on both why antl when fossilizetion occurs (sce. for example,knneberg 1967, Gardner 1988, i_ong 1990, Nakuma 199u).

Acton describes a prollram to change the intelli€iibility of fossilizedpfofessionals who have spent many veafs in an English_speakinpl coulttrv anclreached high lcvels of fluencv (198,i). Thc program requires a substantialcommitment of time both in and our of class and a native_English .,infbrnrant,,on the.iob who assists the student witlt pfoblem words and provides natural pronunciationmodels. Students learn not only about pronunciarion but also about body languageused bv native speakers of English. About half of the shjclents who be€iin thcprogram afe able to devote the time needed to show progress.

My own experience, which has ilcluded lrany students of the type Acto11describes, confiflns that very fer wurkitrg pr,,fessionals lre rble to make the timecommitment that might lead to significant improvements in intelligibilitY ofspontaneous speech. Howel'ef, it is possible fof thcse students to lcafn to self coffec^tand to speak more intelligibl,v in some situations. Fossilizecl learners. fbr cxample, canlearn to pronounce English nore accuratel-v in controlled classro.m acti.,,ities ancl toapply this knowledge when they deliver a rehcarsed presentation. However whenthey mo!'e from plarmed into unplanned speecl], thc old errors are likely to recrjr.

Phonological learning may be most rapid in the eafhr stages of lcarning (Flege1988, Flege, Munro, and Skelton 1992), suggesting that ir is imporrant to srartpfonunciation wofk with beginning learners. Chela_Flores recommends thatpronunciatiorl be a regular part of coursework with beginncrs, like vocabulary orgrammar teaching (2001).

SYLLABUS

Pronunciation shour(l be taught to a revcls of strrtlenrs as tonla as intelligibiritlldistracting pronunciations, and lack of confidencc in speaking are issues.Pronunciation improvements, like improvemcnts in grammatical accuracl,, occurslowly (Trofimovich et al. 2007). According to wong, dramatic changes in stude'rts,speech in 3 to 6 montlts arc rare', (l!g7, g). Because inprovcments are graclual ancloften piecemeal, students benefit from reviewil.tg or recycling olcl topics.

Given that there are over fofty consonants and I,owels (segmcntals) and atleast as nany features of word stfess, rhtthn, and intonation (suprasegmcnhls),curriculum planners, textbook writers, and cl;rssroorn teachers have a lurge numberof potential pronunciation topics trom which to choosc. The audiolingual approachfocused more heavily on the teaching of segmentals, r-Nin!! acti\.ities like nir.f'ral

$ t^-rroo,:rcaov TcachinEPranunciation

pair drills, sentence repetitions, anci dialogues. communicative approaches havefocusccl more on suprascllmcntals, moving stuclents bc1'ond the level of singlewords. Totllrl', a more "txrlancecl' approach, inchtcling important consonants andvowels as well as sr.rpnscgme ntals, is fecommended ((lelce-Murcia et al. 1996, 10;

Derwing, Mr.rnro. andWiebe 1998. Dauer 2005).Because rhlthm and intonation aflect mcanin!! in discourse profounclll',

teaching them promotes intelligibility as well as flucncy.Word stress (lexical stress)is also impoftant since misplaced stress caJl make a word unrecognizable.

Problem consonants and vowels drat are liequent or have a higl] ftu]ctional loadstrould atso be taught (Catfbr.l 1987,Browl 1988, Nh.nro and Dcrwing 2006).Thc vowelcoutrdst leaue-lil,e has a hi!fi functionad loacl because there are rnany p:tirs of wotds thatcontr:$t these two sounds (e.g., seat-sit, sleep-slip, least-list). C)n the other hand, thevowel contmst in Iuke-look, whiclr occurs in fb$' word pairs, has a low linctioral load.

From a pedagogical standpoint, thc \owels iu the pair /ea.,e-l/./e arc more impoftant lbrstudents to leam than those it Lukc-look. As discussed eadier it is also irnpoftant toaclclrcss mispronunciations that are distracting, sti€lmatized, or stereot!?ed.

Pronunciation textbooks providc rcad,y-made q'llabi from wltich teachers canpick and choose. A course syllabus that includcs problem pronunciation topicscor,'ering vowels, consonants, stress, rlrythm, and intonation is approprilte lbr alllevels of studcnts. The teacher can alternate topics, starting, for e'xample, with a topicon intonatiol, next addressing a problem consor.]ant or consonant cortrast, and thenprescntinli a topic on word stress. arld so o1]. This approach provicles variety arld

interest and also reflects the fact that in speaking, all aspects of pronunciation occursirnultalreously; a two-syllable word like uisit ot drugstorc, for exanplc, has bothconsonants and vowels, differcnt le\.els of stress, and diffcrent lcYels of pitcll.

In choosing topics for a particular class, the teacher can eithcr stafi with a

diaEinostic tcst to idcntiq,' problem areas or cltoose topics which Posc pfl)blems forlnost studcnts, regaralless of native-language backpgouncl (sce Conlmolt P()mrnciatiollProblcms, bclow). A good diagnostic tool is a one minutc recording of unrehearsed(:nd unwritten) speecl], such as a descriptiotl of a picture stor,v or caftoon. A shortsample of spontaneous spccch provides a liood snapsltot of a strtdertt's pronunciationproblems. Problems with rhlthm (choppy or staccato clelivery unclear wortl grortps,

ditliculty linking w<rrds), with ir.Itonation (inappropriate dses/falls in pitch, lack ofdiscourse foctts, general levcl of expressi\-cness), and segmentals (consonants and

r.owcls) will be evident. A sample diagnostic test is provided in Appenclix D.

The cl]oice of pronunciation topics should also fef'lect students' necds andgoals. In a life-skills class for immigrant parents of school-aged children, for instance,the pronunciation syllabus night centcr on topics required fcrr giving personalinformation: the letters ol the alphabet fbr spelling names; numbers and thcirapp()priate grouping for giving telcphone ancl address information; and irltonationand rhlthm in questions. Work $'ith these pronunciation topics will also improvestudents' comprehension of inlbrmation reqlrests.

International teach rg assistants (ITAS) in thc scienccs must be able to clearlypronor-rnce technical terms that may contain many s-vllables and difficult sounds (c.g.,

geothermal energi). Levis and Grant st rgElest basing plonutciation work on errors that

/NIROLrL,a r/oN Tcaching Pronunciation !

occur in student prescntatiolts (2003). ITAS ffLlst also be able to use appropriaterhythm and intonation pattefns to ask qucstions of their stuclents. to group wofds, tohipdrlight kc1'w.ords, and to signal topic changcs in their presentations of material.

'lhe sl,llabus fbr a short-term tlltorial f(,r a professional who is preparing apfesentati(,n can include the pfoltunciation problcms that occur in th€ presentatiollitself. To prepare for the q Llestion-and-answer session that fbllows nlanypfesent:itiurs, classwork can irlclude topics such as highlighting key words (seeIntol.ration, pag€ 96), which will Irelp stuclents understand the direction of questionsand make their answers ciearcr to an auclience.

Alrother factor thirt sho! d ilJlucnce the choice of pronunciation topic is theteacher's level of comfort in tcaching it. Duri|tli classwork on pronunciation (of anytopic), students pa,v attentioll to how thc,v sot-urcl. As long as pr.lctice includes the useof connected speech, other aspccts of pronunciation not dircctly addtessed in thelesson are likely to bencfit from this incrc;rsed arrenrion (Hardison 200.1). F'or example,a teacher ma-y not fcel cor.nfortable teaching some aspects of intonation but may feelcorafident about teaching the t, sounds (e.g.,tlxink, t/rrt, sornds tltat are casy to reachand learn end important to leerncrs (Tirdt 1992). In a conlmullicative acti.r'ity focusedon btlhdays (or personaLity characterisrics related ro birth order), not only are //,sounds in words like birtbdar- hkclv to be pronounced mofe accumtel)', but thegrouping of words (e.g.,May 41 mal' b e clearer and intonation more natunl sounding.Vhen students pa). attention to how they sound during speaking, many featufes of theirpfonunciation souncl better Attcntion to pronunciation druing speaking, then, may beas impoftant as the particr ar point of pronllnciation beinla focused on during a lesson.

Institutional or program goals and assigneal curricula may determinc thesl.llabus, rather tl.ran the teachcr In some progmms, for example r pronunciation workis narrowly focused, covering all the vowels in one semester all the consonants inanothct and so on. Even though this ry..pe ol syllabris does nor pro\.ide a balanccdcoveragc of sormds and suprasegrnentals, otltef lbatures of pronunciation, such asfhlthm and intonation, can still be addresseci as long as clxss materials includeoppoftunities to practice connected spccch (e.9., di"k)gues).

The Lingua Franca Core

Jcnkins (2000, 2002) proposes a pared-down pronunciation syllabus, theLingua Franca Corc (I-FC), fbr. stu(lents who will be using English with otl]crnonnative speakcrs (rather thalt native speakers). Jenkins's clata sulllicst thatcommulication breakdowns betrveen nonnative spcakers are usnally the fesult ofmispronoulccd consonants or yo$'cls, rather than inappfopriate suprasegmentals.In contr:Lst, inappropriate usc of suprascgmentals appears to hal.e a greater effecton inte lligibilit_y with native listencrs (see Intelligibilit]' on page 2). The LFC s.vllabus,which focuses on teachable ;rnd leernablc p(,ints of pronunciation that promoteintelligibility bctween nonrati\'-c spcakers, inclucles primarily consonants, some!o\4iels. and onc suprasegmental (highlighting of kcy words).

Jenkins's proposals have inspired he:rlthy debare on which areas ofpronunciation should be taught and who the arbitefs of intelligjbility shor cl be

10 Teach i ng Pran unci at i on

(see, for example, Dauer 2005, Levis 2005). Given that more research is needed andthat teachers cannot know for ceftain wl]ether their students' future inteflocutefswill be native or nonnative Englisl] speakers, a syllabus that includes importantpfoblem sounds as well as suprasegmentals will serve students' needs better thanone that focuses on only one area of pronunciation. A balalced syllabus is also likelyto be nore appealing to teachers and more interesting for students.

Comrnon Pronunciation Problems

The following chart shows pronunciation topics that are useftll for moststudents, regardless of native-language background.

Vowel length in stressed and unstressed syllables See pages 2L-27

Vowel :eduction in unstressed syllables See pages 25-27

S:ress patterns of classes of words See pages 28-38

Highlighting important words with stress and pitch See page 96

Tlought groups Grouping words into meaningful phnses) Sec page 52

Linking adjacent words See page 54

Intonation to mark utterance boundaries See page 100

/, sounds ln thinh and then See page 126

Conffasls involving the first souflds in per, bet, fbte, uet, afid uet See page 124

R:etoflexed. /r/: red, driue See pages 141, 146

Ftral consonants and consolant clusterc: bed, belt See pages 151- 162

cmmmatical endings See page 159

The vowels in leaue-Iiue (/iy/-/ID See page 16P

The vowels k7 net-Nat-nut-not uE/-/r/-/e/-/oD See pages 176-183

r-colored vowels in heorcl, hard, and board See page 192

Teaching Pronunciation'll

PROIIIINCIAIION DGRCISES AND ACTNTTIES

Pronunciation work call be integrated with other coursewolt, providin!!reinlbrcement of vocabularl', content, and structures dtat students are alfeadylearning. \)(r'ork with word stress is easily added to a reading or vocabulary lesson(see page 23). Dialogues in course books can be used to practice grouping words orintonation. A key word in a reading/discussiolt activitF may include a problemsound that can be a point of focus. Grammatical structures pfovide manyopportunities fof pronunciatiolt wofk: practice with comparatives, for example, canalso incorporate practice with the /-colored vowel in bigger, with tl]e //, sound inthan, or with contrasti!.e stress (e.g., It's BIGget not BETter). In tlte sectionsco\IerinE! specific leatures of pronunciation, links with othef types of courseworkare pointed out.

In pronunciation textbooks, lessor]s typically includc an int{oduction,contfolled acti.llities. and communicative activities. Some textbooks also includehomework rcti\ ities.

The introduction devclops awareness of the topic, sometilnes indr.rctivell',sometimes deductively. For example, after hearing a number of two-syllable nouns(e.g., table, kitchen, sanda'icb), even beginning students can induce rhe rule thatmost two-syllable nouns are stressed on the first syllable. On the other hand,students are not likely to induce the articulation of r-colored vowels (e.g., bird,bqrd, LUqr) simply by hearing examples. In the latter case, articulation must beexpiicitly taught.

Controlled exerciscs allow students to de\.elop skill in perception andlorpfoduction witl.r a fe ature of pronunciation: exxmples include repetition of words(addressing sounds or word strcss p;rtterns) or phrases (acldressing rhlthm andintonation), minimal paifs (pairs of words diffbfing in only one sound, fofexample, bid-liead), dialogues, and so on. Exercises may progress from highlycontrolled (repetition of words, for example) to less controlled activities (creatingdialogues and some types of games). The teacher can spend more or less time oncontrolled activities, depcnding on the difficulty students experience with apronunciatiol.t point.

Many students learn to pronouncc a feature of pronunciatioll accurately incontrolled exercises (reading a list of words, for example) but are unable to applytheir ncw skills in cofirmunicatiye spcakinla. In communicatiye speech, where thefocus is on meaning, and processing demands are high, pronunciation often seemsto"fall apart" (Dickerson and Dickerson 1977, tune)'et al.2O00, Lin 2001,I-in 2003).'l'he leafner must fincl words to express his meanin€i, make grammatical decisions,and, at the same time, manage ditficnlt articulations and unfamiliar pfosodicpatterns (stress, rhlthm, and intonation). Thc fact that pronunciation gains incontrolled activities may not carr_y o\rf in communication does not mean thetcontrolled activities haye no value; on the contrarl', they provide practiceopportunities that can graduall_v lcac1 to more automatic use of the newpronunciation as well as to skills for self-correcting. However, contfolled activities

12 Teach i ng P ro n u nc I ati an

should not be the end of the lesson. C)ur students are nor studying English tobecome proficient readers of word lists.

Communicative actiyities push students to apply their new learning in morenormal speaking tasks and to deyelop self-monitoring skills. Thc_y establish a

context in which a particular feature of pronunciatioll is called fbr ancl allowstudents to create their own language in that context. Al example of a

con nlrnicative ncti\Iit] involving contrastive stress is a compafison of two cellphone plans presented in chart form (Plan A is CHEAPCT, but Plan ts has moreANYTIME minutes).

Homework activities can take almost any form. In a pronunciation/speakingcourse, homcwork can include short recordings of eithcr spontaneous speech or a

controlled warm-up exercise followecl by a freer speakin€i task. If str-ldents haveacccss to a compute! an inexpensive microphone, and the Internet, their recordingscan bc e mailed to the teacher xs atteched sould files.t The teachef can give live ofrecofded feedback. Student recordings can also be used in class in peer feedbackactivities (see Self-monitoring and Feedback, below). Instructions for recording andsending a sound file are provide.l in Appendix E.

Homework in ESL settillgs can also include real-world speaking and listeningtasks, such as calling an 800 number to inquire about a product or seryice (1brexamplc, ayailability on a llight to San Francisco) or lioing into a store to getinformation about a particular product. In these assilinments. the teacher caninstruct studcnts to pay attention to their use of a particular t'eatufe ofpronunciation (for example, question intonation) or simpl_v to speak as cleady as

possible. In tlre lbllowing class, students report on thc experience they had.Listeninla tasks can also be used as homewofk. Students can listcn to a recorcling andnote how many times a reducecl w<)rtl llke can is used and how it is prurounced.

SELF-MONITORING AND FEEDBACK

Because pronunciation improven.rcnts are gradual ,md piecemeal, spreadingfrom a more limitcd use of a new pronunciation to a wialer Llse, it is important thntstudents develop self-monitoring and self-correction skills.6 A student whoconsistently uses an s-like soud fot the"tl1" iJ1 tbing, th.tnks,

^nd tbink is li1(.ely f[st

to pronounce the l/: sountl correctl,v when it begins a common word like tbanks butcontinue to use /s/ in other words. With time, the correct pronunciation spreads toothef wofds and other positions. C)sburne's stud.v of pronunciation seiicorrectionsfbuncl that a common strate€l'used by advanced learners involrcd focusing onspccific worcls as units and thinking about how they shor. d sound (2003).

t lne4ensir,e r crophones fie prlerxble sinc€ thel lick ul less ambiert noisc. Built in micro loncs nrin ormal olprolideclearenough sound.

and onh later i stxtile (rr) and lLctility (rurlr) lerbs (Budoli Hdig ard Re|noLtls l99i).

TeachingPronunciation l]

Monitoring for Specific Pronunciation Features; Carryover WordsThis technique reflects the piecemeal nature of pronunciation changes, which

often start in common words or phmses. ln this tcchnique, a carrl-or,rr word orphrase containing a targeted pronunciation feature is selected by the stuclent ofteacher for self-monitoring and self-correction.

Continuing wirh the example of tr, the teacher can assilan the word, tbink asa catryover word. Thc students goal is to pronounce thc caffyover word correctlywhenever they use it. Tlte cafryover worcl/phrase should be semantically cleaf,grammaticall)' easy. communicatively important, and frelluent enou€ih tltatstudents harr opportunities to use it in x variety of contexts. The phrases I thinkand I don't think, used to introduce opinions, rncct all of these rcquiremeflts. AcommlrniclLtivc activity cenrered on givin!! opinions v,ith I tbink/I futn't thinkcan serye as a watn-t-up for carf,yover Studcnts can also select thcir.o!r-n earryoycrwords; an ITA doing rcsearch in geothermal energv migl]t select geothermql as acrrr) (

'\ cr u ord for /h.While the carryoyer technique is particularl.t' srdted ro rvords (and the

problem souncls tltey contain). it can also be extended to common phfases: thephrase i7t q minute can serve as a cafryoYer phrasc for tlte rhlthm pattern ofprepositional phrases (see Rhy'thm, page 60) or for joining final consonants tovo\\.'els (c.g., in d minutq see Rhlthm. pagc 56). Greetings can be uscd forintonation carryover with beginning leafners (see xlso Chela-Florcs 20Ol).

Monitoring for Global Characteristics of Clear Speech

The carryoyer technique focuses monitorinli on specific worcls or phrases.Studcnts should also learn to nonitor thcir spcech fcrr more general (global)charactcristics tltat affect clarity. 'l'lrese include specch fate, spcaking volume.attention to the ends of s.'ords, and speaking expressivcl)'.

Researcl.r on speaking rate shows that nonnati\,-e speakers spcak English moreslowly than native speakers, a reflection of their incornplete knowlcdge of the L2(Guion, Flege, Liu, and Yeni Komshian 2000).'Ihere is some e\.idence that slowerspeaking rates contfibute to accentedness ancl reduced comprchensibility (Munroand Derwin€i 199u). tlowever, asking most students to speed up is likely to becor.lnterpfoductive , intfoducin[i crrors that would not occur if students ga\.ethemselves more time. In the expcricnce of many teachers, when fast talkers(students whose speaking rate outpaces their abilitv to spcak accurately) slowdown, their pronunciation and contprchcl.tsibilitv improve, cven though the_v may

--/Mo\Gaad n ing I

--l *\See you ter I

"14 Tfithing hanutu iJltnn

not be speaking as quickl-y as nadve speakers. In contrast to fast talkers, otherstudents may seem to speak too slowl_v, pausing too often. for too k)ng, or ininappropriate places. Inappropriate pausing often reflects a lack of fluenc-y

It is not easy lbr students to change their speaking mte. Fast talkers needfrequent rerninders to slow down ancl ma-v also feel that speaking more slowly willmake then sound less fluent.Inappropriate pausing may disappear as students gainfluency; it can also be addressed by pronunciation work on thought groups andlinking adjacent words (see Rh)'thm, pages 52 ancl 51).

Speech that is not lor.rd enough to hear (in my experience ,more cotrrmon withfemale students than with males) ma-y result from a lack of conficlence or culturalgender roles. Like speaking rate, it is difficult to change.I am sure that I am not theonly teacher who has repcatedly reminded a student to speak up in class only tohear the same student booming fofth in her native language in the hall during a

break. A technique that is usually effectivc is to ask the student to address hercomments to a classmate on the opposite side of the room.

Many students have problems pronouncing consonants at the ends of words(e.g.,pick, ask, belt). Pronunciation wolt with fu]al consonants and frequent errorcorrection are effective in improying this area of pronunciation.

Some students use a flat, monotone delivery when thev speak En€ilish, possiblybecause they lack confidence or because the)' are using natiYe lartguage intonationpatterns or both. They need to understand that a flat delivery can make thcm sounddisiflteiested and to be reminded to use their voices more (use a $/ider range ofpitch). This is a difficult pronunciation problem to correct, especially if a widerrange of pitch sounds unnatuml or silly in tlte student's native language.

To help students monitor the general clarity of their speech,I keep this shortlist of reminders in the upper left corner of the blackboard and point to themwhen necessary:

Slow down

Speak u p

Final sounds

Spea k expressive y

Error Correction by Teachefs and Peefs

Little research has treen donc on thc effect of ertor correction onpronunciation. Research on error cofrectiolt of gnmmar, l]orveve! indicates that itis effective in promoting accuracy in communicatiYe contexts when it can be doneqr.rickly and when students are familiar with the technique and the types of errorsto be corrected (Lightbown and Spada 1999). These finclings would seem to appl-Y

equally well to efror correction of pronunciation.Teachers should always draw attention to unintelligible speech, asking the

student to repeat or rephrase more carefulll' (and often more slowll). It is only

TeaLhing Pronuncrton I J

possible to coftect efrofs when the teacher knows what the student is trying to say.

'iyhen a whole discourse is unintelligible, the teacher must work with the student,often using spelling and repetitions, first to determine what the student is trying tosay and then to identily the errors.

Teachers cannot possibly correct evefy pfonunciation effof, or even most ofthem. Error correction during most class activities should be selective and directedat unintelligible or odd sounding pronunciatiolls. During pronunciation activities,feedback should also be provided on the topic at hand. The teacher should choosea cue to signal pfonunciation errofs and explain it to students. The cue should beas general as possible (for example, sa_ying "Pronunciation" or "Be clearer" a-fter anerror). The general cue allows a student to appb-his pronunciation learning andhelps develop self correction and monitoring skills. Sometimes students areunaware of what the pronunciation erfor is and may need to hear both the incorrectand coffect pronunciations to notice the error.

Peer feedback on student recordings is also effective and gives thenonspeaking peef additional monitoring practice. Celce-Murcia rccommends thatpeers listen for a particular feature of pronunciatlon (1996,352).

The next five chapters deal with pronunciation topics from word stfess,rhythm, intonation, consonants, and vowels. Each chapter presents usefulbackground information and research, general teaching tips, and suggestedclassroom acdyities for specific features of pfonunciation.

CHAPTER

WORD STRTSS

A consrunefs' politician? M]. student intendcd to sa,y 'a consummatc politician.,,He gucsseci *rong when hc stressed "c6nsummate," a word he hacl ncver heardbefbre. placing strcss on the second slllable rather than thc first. As a result. hissentence (He's ct c()nsttl|ttnate politician) sounded like .,Hes a col]sumcrs,politicitrn. 'lhe student's gucss tliat corstt rtl.tctlc was strcssed on tlte seconclslllable rvas probabll based on words likc contro| consurnet; connectj orconfession, all strcssed on thc second s,yllable. It was a good guess-whichhappcnecl to be wrong.

For native English listeners, the most important syllablc in a word is thestressed s)'llable, the primary cue for identi4'ing the word (Grosjean and cee 1987,Benratrah iggT, Boncl 1999). This mlkes strcss J \ crt- important p(ongnciationtopic. ln xddition. because tlte chamcteristics of stressed ancl unstressetl sl Uables insingle words are mirrored in rhltl]m, tcachinli word stre ss primes students for workwith suprase gmentals. Dalton altd Seidlhofcr describe worcl stress as acomnunicativcly impoftant and teachable pronunciation ropic, bridging thecontinuum between segmcntals (consonants and vorvels), which are consideredrclatively easy to teach. and suprasegmentals (rhythm and intonation). rvhich arcconsiclcrccl more difficult to reach (199,1.7J).

LE\rEI"S OF STRNSS IN WORDS

In every En€ilish worcl Of more than ()nc svllable, One s,vllable, the stresseds)llable, is the most prominent. This promincncc is also callcd pdrnar_v stress, majorstress, heaq'strcss, of simpl_y the stfesscd s,yllable/\,.owel. (Thc tetms (ul1)strcssetluou'el and (utl)stlessed syllable are otten used interchangeabh'.) 1he remainin€js,vllables may be unstressed or have secondary (niinoo stress. ln the woral sJlfa, tlnclifst syllable (so-) has prirnarl stress and the second (-y'l) is rntstfesscd.In the wordJapdnesa, the last syllable has primlrrv stress, rhe lirst syllable has secondary stress,and the midclle syllablc is unstrcssed.

'17

1B olAPftR I w.nd stess

In languages, stressecl atrd unstressed syllablesdiffcrences in length, pitch, loudness, or vowel clualiryrEnglish makes use of all these distjnctions.

can be distinguished b_v

As the chart below shows.

STRESS PI-A.CEMENT

Learning to lengthcn stressed vorl-els and shorten/reduce unstressed vowels

is challenging for most students. EquallY challenging is knowing which s-Yllable to

stress in a word.'fi'lte n lcarners are f:rced witll a ncw word they have never heard

befbre, they basc strcss placcment on many of tlle same strategies that native' speakefs do: analogv to phonologically sitrrilar words. strcss patterns associated

witl1 classes of words or cndings, or s,vllable structurc (DaYis and Kelly l997,Guionet aI.200J. (;uion ef aI.2004).

Misplacccl stress-stfessing the wrotlg sYllable-can make a wrlrdnnrecognizable and co[rplctel,v clisftrpt the speakcr's message (Benrabal] 1997,

Fieltl 2005). Not all errors inYoh'ing misplaced stress arc equally serious. Field

(2005) reports that rightward misplacements of strcss in two-s-Yllablc worcls (c !a.,

stre ssinli the se cond syllable of a,ozrdr: I\'oMAN) impaire d intelliSibility morc than

leftward misplacemcnts (c.g., stressing the first svllable of enlof'ENjo)-). My

stndcnt's n.rispronunciation of consumln(Ite, descriLted at the beginninti of this

chapter, is an e'x:rmple o1 riglrtward strcss misplacementThe rules for English stress placement are con.tplex becar.rse English has

borrowed many words from other languages, cspecially Frcnch, Latin' Spanish, and

Grcek, with clifferent rules for assigning strcss (Jufis l99O) There arc, hower.cq

some general, teachablc principles which help students at all lcvels to predict the

stressed syllable. Teachcrs can also help students avoid misplaccd stless by workingwith stress in reading and vocabnlar-v lessons.

t Nol all l"uguages use str.ss to s\sl€ntdicitllt dilleruntiaft dre slllebles lf x \rold

/l/ is rhc lo{'el ir /l Scc dso \b\\els. CenLml\brtls. /a/ lLIrd/l/. |r)llL \b{'cls.

t.HAPTER I Wor.l Slress 19

NOTATIONS FOR STRESS AND SYLIABLES

There are yarious notations for stress, cach witl] advantages and disadvantages(Celce-Murcia et el. 1996).

Vls t

VIS it

visit

v sit

vtsit

dthlete

'ath, ete

Capitals and bold letters are yisuall_y strong and can be easily added by acomputef. It is difficult, however, to show mofe than two levels of stfess withouteither changing tlpe size or combining bold ancl caps (tbr example, bold c:rpscoulcl be used lbr pfimary stress, plain caps for second:rry stfess and lower case fbrunstressed). Cifcles afe also yisuallv strong but not as eas), to acld by computef.Underlining is visually strong and exsy ro do bl. compute! but in somepronunciation s'ork the teachef ma,\- want to use undedincs to show linking ofwords of to indicate syllables. dcute and g.ave marks and verticals can be visuallystrong when handwritten but are less notice:rblc when adclecl by conputer. Theteacher should not feel bound ro oltc tr?e of notation.When the meaning of thenotation is made clear, students are not tl.ouble d by mixecl notations. In my ownteaching, I choose the notatior which will nake the stressed s_vllablc mosr salientto m)' students. In typed mater.ials, for example, I use capital lettcrs for tlte stressedsyllable because they are visually more salient than a typed acute mark; on theboard,I usually place a large acute mark over the stressed syllable, since switchinlibetween capit:rls and lower case within a word slows clown my writing.

Curved undedincs are uselul f<rr showing the syllables in a word. They arepreferzble to slashes or hyphens within words (e.g., vilsit, vi sit) because they don,tcommit the teaclter to exact locations of syllable bounclaries, which are sometimesdifficult to determine.

Stressed sy lable in capita s

Circles above syllables

Stressed sylla ble bo ded

Stressed sy labie u nderlined

Line over stressed syllable

Acute marks (') over stressed sy lables;grave marks (') over secondary stress

Vert ca s (dictionary markings)

visitUU listened

In addition, dictionaries do not alwa,ys agfee on syllable b ()tlndafics. AmericanHeritage Dictionar!, for example, scgments .sofl,-)., as,.sof-eJ,' wltilc lte&stert has"sor-re." It is more important tltat students know how many syllables a word hasrhln t xactly $ herc , )nc s1 llablc ends lntl r he ncrr hegins.

20 ]HAPTER 1 ward stress

STI]DENT PROBLEMS WITTI WORD STRESS

Students ha\.e two general difficulties with English word stress. C)ne involveslearning how different le\,-els of word st|ess are realized in English, in particular thelength of stressed r.owcls and thc shortness and reduction of unsressed vowels.There is considerable evidence that the length distinction betwecn stressed and

unstressed syllables can bc lcarned, thefe is less evidence tltat vowel reduction is

learned (Flege and Bohn 1989. Anderson Hsich and venkata€iiri 199'1, Ngul'cn ;urd

Ingran 2005, Lee et al. 2006).The second difficult,v inyoh'cs kno$'in€i which syllable to stress in a word.

Althougli there are no simple, general rules that will allow students to predictwhich syllable is stressed, there are classes of words, such as compound nouns(.e.g., airPort).with regular stress patterns that can be taugllt. As students becomemore proficient, they also becone better able to predict which s.vllable in a $.ordis stressed.

TIPS FOR TEACHING WORD STRESS

The sk tips listed below ptovide some general suggestions for helpingstudents to create clear diif'erences between stressed and unstressed vowcls and tobetter predict which s-vllable is stressed. The tips are based on the characteristics ofEnglish word stress and on problems students haYe with word stress.

r, 1. Emphasize the leflgth of stressed vowels.

2. Presenl sets of words with the same stress patterns.

3. Pfonounce new vocabulary so studerts call hear which syllables are stressed.

4. Use pronunciation spellings to develop stlrdents' awareness of how unstresscd

vowels are pronounced.

5. Point out that unstressed ]rowels have a short, indistinct sound regardless ofspellirg.

5. Teach classes of words ahat have predictable stress patterns.

The remainder of this chrpter presents specific features of worcl stfess as

listed below' 'l-he tips are further explained in thc context of these leaturcs

ffi rrps

CHAPTER I Word Stress 21

@FWoRDsTREss1. Primaf),/Hea\T stress

2. Unstresscd svllables and yowel rcduction

3. Secondary stress

4. Stfess with two-syllable nouns antl verbs

5. Stress witlt compounds

6. Stress with verbs ancl nouns with prepositional prefixes

7. Stress with abbreviations

8. Stress with sulfi-\es

9, More on unstressed s)-llablcs

10. Stress switching

\ffe discuss I'hat the teachef should know about each of these topics andprovide sulillestions fbr teaching them.

ffi r*narylHearT stress

What the Teachef Should KnowVowels with primary stress are longer and louder than unstressed vowels. In

citation fbrm (the word pronounced in isolation), the stressed yowel is alsopronounced on a higher pitch; in connected speech, high pirch may be down-stepped (lowered) if the word do€s not present new or important information in amessage. Because the long duration of English stressed vowels is ufl[amiliar to manystudents, it is this aspect of stress that should be emphasized in the classroom (seealso Rhlthm, page 50).

In a stud)' con.lparing the length of stressed and unstressed vowels, it wasfound that natiye-English speakers' stressed syllables were about four rimes longerthan their unstressed slllables, a large difference (Anderson Hsieh and Venkatagiri,199'1,809). High-pfoficienq. Chinese speakefs of English sho\a'ed the same fatio as

the nativc spcakers, but intermediate learners' stressed and unstresscd syllables didnot differ lireatly in lenlith. Research involving leafners from other natiye-languagebackgrounds also supports the claim tltat lengtlt of stresscd syllables is learnedgraduallv (Flege ancl Bohn 1989, Ngul'cn and Ingram 2005, Lee et aI.2006).

Matclring or comparing the stress-s).l1ablc pattcrns of words (e.g..SepTEMbefOcTObe4 NoVEMbeti DeCEMber) is effecti\.c for building sensitiviq' to patterns ofstfessed and unstresscd s.l/llables. Field descfibes thesc analogy cxercises as haying"stron€i psychological validit,v" (2OO5, 42O). Kenworthy (1987, 60,63) alsorecomrlends "odd one out" exercises. in which students decide which of sevcrelwords lras a diffefent srcss pattern (e.g.,repeat, trauel, explqin, belieue).

22 C/tAPrtR 1 \4/dd sttcss

Activity 1.1 P nary stress: fravel season trivia

level Low lntermed iate

Worksheet Page 202

Tips Emphasize the length of stressed vowels,

Present sets of words with the same stress patterns.

Descr:ption This activity practices the stress patterns in the names of months

and seasons and in travel-related terms.

1 Brlng rubber bands to class to demonstrate the length of stressed vowels.

2. Elicit from students the months of the year and the names of the seasons

Write the words on the board. Use a rubber band to demonstrate the length of

the stressed sy lable as you model the words: Stretch the rubber band as you

say the stressed syllable. Pass the rubber bands out to students. lr4odel thewords again, us ng the rubber band. Students repeat the words and stretch therubber band to reinforce vowel length.

3. Elicit the number of syllables n each month, tapping out the syllables.Underline the syllables on the board. Students may misidentify "January" and

"February" as three-syllable words, mistaking the vowel-vowel sequence (the

sounds represented by the letters ua in both month names) as one syllableExplain that these are really two sy lables, separated by an unwritten /w/ ("wa")

sound. Add a smal Lv between the two vowe s to show their pronunciation("Janu*ary, Febru*ary"). Underline the syl ables n all the words. Then elicitthe stressed syllab e from students and mark lt on the board.

Jdnuary Fdbluary Mdlch April Mriy Jrine

ug uqt :ee€eg g'gg useg STegugly trys s:ltg u/u'g

4. Ask studentsl

. Which words have a stress pattern like September? (answet I October,

November, December)

. Which word has a stress pattern l!ke January? (answer: February\

. Which words have a stress pattern like April? (answer: August, Winter,

Summer, Autumn)

. How many words have a stress pattern l)ke July? (answer: just July)

. Which words have only one syllable? \answer March, May, June, Spring, Fall)

5. Erase the words on the board. lVodel the month names again, stretching therubber band as you say the stressed vowels. Have the class say the names ofthe months in order and in reverse order, student by student.

CHAPITR 1 Worcl Stress 23

ALllDity l.l cantin cd

@ 6. Travel Trivia quiz. Pass the trivia quiz out to the class. Explain the meaning of"trivia" if necessary, unimportant facts or pieces of information that mostpeople don't know. Most people guess the answers to trivia questions. Askstudents to read the trivia quiz. Answer questions about vocabulary. playthe aud io.

7. Studenis work in pairs to complete the activity as if traveling from the UnjtedStates. Tell students to guess when they don't know the answer. When the pa rshave finished, ask them about their answers. Remind them to make thestressed voweis long.

8. Write some questions about trave on the board:

r Where would you like to travel?

o When would you like to go?

. What's the best time to travel? Why?

In pairs, students ask and answer these questions.

9. When the pair work is finrshed, ask individuals to report their answers to theclass. lVonitor the pronunclation of stressed vowels.

Activity 1,2 Pfinary stress: lntegating sttess, vocabulary, and rcading

level All levels

Worksheet Page 203

Tip Pronounce new vocabulary so students can hear which syllableis stressed.

Descliption This activity focuses students' attention on the stress patterns of newvocabulary. The vocabulary sample is from "Imeline of Lindbergh'sLife" in Northstar Reading and Witing: lntroducto,:y (Beaumont 2009,135), a reading text for beginning students. The procedure describedbelow can be used at any level to integrate stress with any reading.

1. Before class, follow this procedure:

a. Select several polysyllabic words from the reading (or vocabulary exercise) totarget for stress/syllable work.

welcome president receive kidnap invent

artiticial protect media factory cancer

animal environmentalist(..tttinued on n$;t paRe)

24 ]HAPTER 1 worcl strcss

A ctiui ty l. 2 cotttinue.l

b. Count the syl ables in the selected words and mark the stressed syllable; ignore

secondary stress, Determine the syllable-stress patterns (the number of syllablesand the location of the stressed syllable) in the selected words. lt does not matter

if some stress-syllable patterns are represented by only one word. In the wordsbelow, syllables are underlined and stress is marked with an acute accent (').

{9{re eryg{gI ggv S€s u€ry

?,tilis4 Qry€g regs egu s's

Stress patterns:

r.l_ 2. t__ 3. _l 4. *l- 5. ---l--welcome president ' receive artilicial environmentalist

kidnap media invent

cancer factory

animal

2. tn class, make sure students understand the new words before they read Write

the preselected words on the board. Write the sy lable patterns as columnheadings on the board and number them. Ask students to copy the words and

syllable patterns onto a piece of paper. Explain the notatlon: / represents a

stressed syllable; - represents a syllab e without heavy stress.

3. IVlodel the words, lengthening stressed syllables. (To reinforce vowel length, use

the rubber band technique described in the Activity 1.1.) Students repeat

4. Draw students'attention to the first word on the list and model it again. Ask

students to count syllables in the word. Underline the syllables on the board. Ask

students which syllable is stressed and mark it on the board (e.g., w6lcome)

5. Ask students which pattern the first word should be written under and write ltunder that pattern. Repeat with another word.

6. Students continue the activity in pairs, underlining syllables, marking thestressed syllable, and writing each word under one of the patterns. Circulate,modeling words and helping students count syllables, as necessary.

7, When the class has finished, elicit from students the words that belong in each

column and add them to the board.

8. When all the words are in their appropriate columns, students practice saying

them, column by column. Students should notlce that words in the same

column have the same stress pattern.

6nimal environm6ntalist\JW\-/\-',\'/\-',

CHAPTER 1 Word Stress 25

Actlxity 1.2 @ntlnued

9. To practice these words in context, the teacher can ask students to makesentences about the reading from which the words were taken.

ffi tt"o."""d Syllables and yowel Reduction

\Xhat the Teacher Should KnowUnstressed vowels are shortet softer (less loud), and pronounced at a lower

pitch than stressed vowels. Most vowels in unsressed syrlabres are reduced to acentralized^vowel, usually /a,/ (the underlined vowel in qgo; fot /a/,see also Vowels,page 180).3 For example, the undedined vovrels in qgai, natian, and euidence ateunstressed and pronounced the same. Because of its role in unstressed syllables, 7a,lis the most common vowel sound in English (Avery and Ehrlich 1992,31).

Jenftins (2002) maintains rhat students who will communicate primarily withnonnative speakers need not learn vowel reduction (or reduced words; see Rhythm,page 72). Dauer, on the other hand, argues that it is dificult to speak English at a naturalspeed without reducing either the length or quality of unstressed yowels (2005).

There is eyidence that ESL learners gradually learn to pfonounce more English-like unstressed vowels, with shorter lengths,lower levels of pitch, and less loudness.vowel reduction, however, seems to be more difficult. The ability to reduce vowelsmay depend on the presence of vowel reduction in the native language and/or onan early age of learning Engish (Flege and Bohn 1989, Nguyen and Ingram 2005, Leeet al.2OO6, Zuraiq and Sereno 2007). Flege and Bohn suggest that learning to makea length difference between stressed and unstressed vowels is " ,ra".rruryprecursor to \'owel reduction (1999).

Students whose native languages lack vowel reduction, spell worclsphonetically and share many cognate words with English (for example, Spanish orItalian) may haye an especiany difficult time reducing unstressed vowers.It is usefurto emphasize and remind them that unstressed vowels can be spelled with anyletter in English but are still prono\nced /a/ ot /r/.

Research has not investigated the effect of teaching students to reduce vowelqualit)4 My own experience suggests that some intermediate and advanced studentscan and do learn to reduce unstressecl yowels to /a/ in normal speaking, althoughperhaps on a word-by-word basis. rJ(/hen I began teaching promrnciation, I was on a"crusade" against the pronunciati<in of todLtl, tonigtJt and, tomotrou) as ,,tooday,,,

"toonight," and "toomoffow.', In my first attempt at teaching vowel reduction, after

I The vowevt (lhe !'owel in /1/) may also be used in unstressed syliables, €s!€cially those spelled with the let tes e (u in clectle) or i (u

in di,uide) rheprctise qrality of rcduc€d vowels is inlluencerl by tlie sunouniiing soundr (Biownan and Gol*t"in iD2l ftr .naing"?and -0,, in words likep,'el4'atird lrintlau) e ;iitsir.es$ed but not reduceri to /a/. ihe vorvel in the -r'zg ending is uruAiy p.noun..O ir.'

26 ]HAPTER 1 worcl stress

explaining it and modeling reduced vowels in several words, I wrote the wordtotnoffot! on the board and told my stuclents I would pronounce it itl two differentways. Tlrey were to tcll me which wa-v was coffect. I pronounced totrTonou flrst ls"toolnorrow" and then with thc vowel correctly reduced When I asked the class

which pronunciation was correct. no one said ar])'thing. I repeated the dcmonstmtion

ancl agnin got no response.I triecl once lnorc, extremely nervous by this time, ,!rld was

relicved to see one student timidl-l/ raise her hancl. She said, "'ifas the /f/ different?" Ilearned two thinlas that day: first, that nl-v studcnts were very conccrned with thepronunciation of /r/; ;!nd second, that students do not rlotice reduced vowels, even

when they are constantly modeled in the native English spoken around them. This

lack of awareness should not, pedraps, havc been surprising to me (although it was),

gi\.en the fact that reduced vowels are short, indistinct, and not reflected in spefling.

A fust step to learning to pronouncc reduced vowels, then, may be to devebp an

aw;Lreness for how they sound. Awareness is addfessed in the san.Iple actiYity below'

Activity 1.3

Level

Worksheet

Tips

lJnstressed vowels and vowel reduction: Ioday, tonight, and tomorlow

I ntermed late/Advanced

Page 204

Use pronunciation spellings to develop students'awareness of how

unstressed vowe s are Pronounced.Point out that unstressed vowels have a short, indistinct sound

regardless of spelling.

This activity uses pronunciatlon spelllngs to direct students' attention

to the reduction of unstressed vowels, The second part of the activity,

an information gap, uses TV schedules to praciice the reduced vowels

in today, tonight, and tomorrow. Other types of schedules (e g., train

schedules, movie schedules) can be substituted for the TV schedules

Description

1. Present vowel reduction. On the board, wrlte words in which unstressed vowels

are spelled with each of the vowel letters (a, e, i, a, u, y), underlining the

unstressed vowels. Below the normal spelling of the words' write thepronunciatlon spelling (respellings of words that reflect pronunciation better

than the normal spellings do). lvlark the stress on each word.

?C6 5vldgnce bScqn f5rtqne

ac6 6vadans b6kan l6rchan

physician

lazishan

2. Direct students' attention to the under ined vowels. N4odel each word,

pronouncing the underllned vowel letters as /a/ Be sure to reduce the unstressed

vowels to /a/; when you read words from a list, you rnay give more prominence to

unstressed vowels than you would in norrnal speaking lmagine how each word

CHAPTTR 1 Word Strcss 27

Actiultr t.3 Lontinuc.t

sounds toward the end of a sentence, spoken naturally (e.g., Ior physician,"There's a job available as a physician,s assjstant.,') Use this pronunciation whenyou model the words. Djrect students, attention to the pronunciation spellingsbelow the words and model them again. Have students repeat.

3. Ask the following questions:

. What letters in the normal spellings are underlined?

. Are these vowels stressed or unstressed?

. Do the underlined letters have different pronunciations?

Explain that unstressed vowels are pronounced /ai, regardless of spelling. pointout that the underlined letters represent all the vowel letters used in English,but they are all pronounced the same, as /a/.

4. Add pronunciation spellings of several familiar words to the board. with a blankbelow eac6 word. lvlodel the words.

tantr6l mash6en fdshan prafdshanal

pal6es palitakal ddnjaras s6kand

Ask volunteers to come to the board and write thein the blanks. Students practice saying the words,spellings as gu ides.

lnformation gap. On the board write today, followed

normal spelling of the wordsusing the pron u nciation

by its pronunclation spelling:

8.

9.

6.

7.

5.

today taday

Say the word twjce, once correctly, using a reduced vowel (taday), and againincorrectly, using a full vowel (tooday) in the first syllable. Ask studentswhether your first or sejcond pronunciation was correct.

Add tonight and tomorrow Io the board, with their respellings: tanEht,tamorrow. lvlodel the words, reducing the first vowels. Ask each student to saytoday, tomorrow, tonight, reducing the first vowel.

Put students in pairs, giving each member of the pair a different TV schedule.Tell students not to show each other their schedules.

Students complete the information missing in their schedules by askingquestions like What's on today at 1:00? Remind students to reduce the firstsyllable of today, tonight, and tomorrow.

10.

28 cHAPrtR 1 watd stress

lFl secondary stress

what the Teacher Should KnowIn the word rl€mocriit. the last Yowel has secondar-Y stress Volvels in s-Yllables

$'ith secondary stress (markecl with ' ) haYe ful| vowels (i e , not reduced)' length'

ancl loutlness. The major cliftbrence bet*-een secondary stress and primar,Y/lleav-Y

stress is pitcll:Vowcls with seconclary sress are pronounced at a lower pitch than

vowels with primary stre ss. Say ddm o.ru)l slowt-Y and liste n to how the Pitch of Your

voice changes; it starts high ovcr the first s1'llablc (with primar-v strcss)' then falls

over the seconcl unstressed syllablc ancl remains low t>ver thc last syllable with

secondarv stress.

Secondary stress is often predictable:

Compounds. Seconclary stress occurs on the second word of compounds:

5 irpdrt office biilding

Numbers: "teefls"' N'.rtive speakers use t\\() pattefns of stress with numbers

endin!! in -teen. Beforc a pause' ancl without special empllasis on dle number

(e .g., He\ sixtden), primarv stress usually falls ot7-teen ancl secondary stress on the

number (s/D. Sefore a worcl whose flrst syllable is stressed (e g ' t'l/tien cdndles)'

the reverse pattern is used;-/ee, receives secondarl' stress' and tlle number' primary

stfess. The number, rather f:nan -teen' also fecei]'es pfimary stress in counting:

thirtCen, J6urfuen, flftden, and so on

Numbers: "tens". With -ttl nun]bers, primary stress is always on the number (e g '

s/xfy) and the -/if ending is unstressecl Another difference bet$'een -tee ^nd

-ty

,-r.,-b..l' is thc pronunciation of the lctter t In -ry numbers' t is a flap (1 fast d'' see

Consonants, page 129): sixD! In -teet? numbers, I is a /t/: sixteen

Studentsaresometimesmisrrnderstoodwhentheyuse-teenaf'd.t!numbers;intcndecl -teen numbefs are heard as Jt flumbers, and vice versa lf students stfess

-leer numbers on the second slllable' there *'ill bc less confusion as to whether

they have said, sixtden or slxty

Verbs with Prepositionaf Prefixes. Seconclar-v stress occurs on the preposition

in most verbs witll prepositional prefixes:

dvell6ok ilnderst6nd

Suffixes. Seconclary stress ,Llso occurs on some suffi-res: r4alize' cblldhdod'

atltititde, pictuftsque. when worcls ending with -'7te are used as Yerbs' the -ale

encling has secondary stress and a full \'1)wel (/e-Yt,f :'o grdduiite rwhenthese words

"a..rr".l as flouns or adjectives, the -tJle ending is unsffesse(l and the vowel is

rcclnced: /zJLr ass'cidle /at/, grdduate /at/ students

CHAPTER I WoId Stress 29

Polysyllabic Words with prirna"ry Stress tovrard. the End of the Word.Polysyllabic words with primary stress toward the end of the word often havesecondary stress two syllables in front of the primary stress. This use of secondarystress creates a more even alternadon of stresses:

e4ftAs a pronunciation topic, secondary stfess is less important than pfimary

stress. Fof beginning students, the teaching of secondary stfess can be limired tocertain types of words, like compounds anr| -teen worcls.

If a beginning student's lack of secondary stress makes a word difficult tounderstand (this sometimes happens withpdlitlcian, wlnere secondary stress is onthe first syllable), the teacher can address the error by instructing the student tolengthen the first syllable of the word.

$i/ith intemediate and advanced str.ldents, secondary stress can be addressedwhen working with the stress patt€fns of compounds, verbs with prepositionalprefixes, or suffixed words (see below).

, Activity 1.4 Secondary stress in nunberc; How nany people tive at /t4 Main S|rleet?

level Beginn ing

Worksheet Page 2O5

lip Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns,

Description This information gap provides practice with -teen and -fy numbers.Students have a map with boxes representing apartment buildings atdifferent locations. Each student has the number of occupants inhalf of ihe bu itdings.

1 On the board, write all the -teen numbers in one column and the -fy numbersin a second colu m n:

13 30

14 40

15 50

16 60

17 70

l8 80

19 90

2, lVodel the tee, words first, stressing -teen. Students repeat. Ask studentswhich syllable is stressed. Repeat with the -fy words.

(continuetl o next page)

cbntribition

30 IHAPTLR I word stress

Actittly 1.4 t:ontin ed

3. Ask students to listen again, this time paying attention to how the fs in sixteen

and sixty sound (the f in sxteen will be a true l; the i in s/xiy will be a flapped l)'

You can explain the flapped fas a "fast d' (see Flapped lIl and ldl, page 129)

4. lVodel the numbers across the rows Students repeat'

5, Say one of the numbers on the board. Ask students to write the number you

said and check their answers with partners Then select students to choose a

number and say it to the class. The class writes the number they heard and

then checks with the speaker'

6. lnformation gap. lVlodel the information gap Draw a box on the board to

represent a OuitOlng on a local street Write the address below the box Below

the address write the question "How many people live at 232 lvlain Street?"

tl232 lvlain Street

How many people liue aI 232 Main Street?

Ask the question and choose a student to guess the answer, using a -ty or -teen

number. ilave the student write the number in the box, Repeat with a different

student and a different address

7. Put students in pairs and hand out a different rnap to each member of the pair'

Read the instructions on the maps to the class During the pair work, monitor

pronunciarton of the nu'nbers.

8. After the pair work, ask students how many people live in the buildings at

the various addresses. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of -feen and

ty n umbers.

K tat."" with Two-Syllable Nouns and Verbs

V/hat the Teacher Should KnowO\.er 90 percent of two-syllable nouns are stressed on the first,llable' motbe\

kitcben'husbdncl'tdble.About60percentoftwo-syllableverbsarestressedonthesecond syllable: repeat, occLff' ct(lmit, announce (Avery anrl Eh ich 1992 67) 1 As

1lho sylLable edjectnes $'hich are Geflnmic \Lot& (e E l'eltau h ngJ', l/,itstl) ae strcssed on the ii$t s'\'ilable of fie loot;hvo

(, lrhle ,rlrectrves lronowed fic,n other Lanlua::,es (e.g.', patite. tfnirl,' ttwf1 raay be slrcssed on either the lirst oL second s,vlLabLe

i'i.i.. ,i""i".iri. i,,gol. inr"' 'iLr"lr,

uorr]..,.,,iualli sireiserLon the fint or sccond syLlable 6Ttrar[t, 6Jiict't pisible .lr't)

AJtrl.," uttrtr,rr,.Ltr the lirsi s,rllabLe. lbl/0. ag irnettl ttptirhwnl tuid t?'/'i'b]r 1tle slrcssed ol thc second svll$Le

CHA?TER I Word Stress 31

the percentages suggest, stfess placement is far more reglrlaf for two_syllable nounsthan for two-syllable yerbs.

Dauer presents ari altemative de for two-syllable verbs and adjectives: Stressis placed on the root syllabte (1993,6D. This is a useftrl rule proyided thar studentscan recognize the foot. syllable structure also influences stfess on two-syllable verbsand may help students identis' the root. The last syllable of the verb is stressed if itcontains a long vowel (e.g.,repe.1t, decide, contain) or ends in a consonant clustef(two or more consonants; e.g., elect, disturb). These rypes of syllables are hear,ysyllables, which attfact stress.While students cannot be expected to anatyze syllablestructure, hear.y syllables are olten graphically longer (i.e., have more letters) thanlight syllables.

Noun-Vefb Pairs: a REcord-to feCORD. Noun-yerb pairs are two-syllable wordswhose grammatical function determines stress.r#/hen sfessed on the f[.st syllable,the word functions as a noun (e.g., a pdrmit)iwhen sttessed on the second syllable,the word functions as a verb (e.g., to permit). These word pairs reflect the generaltendency for two-syllable nouns to be stressed on the first syllable and two-sdlableverbs on the second.

Depending on both the speaker and the word, the stress slijt is not alwaysmandatory Some speakers, for example, pronounce lly'crease with the noun pattenlwhethef it is used as a noun or verb.

Group Ar Different stress patterns for nouns and verbs are mandatory formost speakers.

record, conduct, addict, progress, perrnit, conflict, desert, object, convict, present,produce, rebel, project, suspect

Group B: The noun pattern can be used for nouns or verbs.

increase, contract (business/legal agreement), protest, research, subiect, detail,defect, insult

Group C; Nouns and verbs are stressed only on the first syllable.

ACcent, COMfort, PURchase, PROm se, REscue

Group D: Nouns and verbs are stressed only on the second syllable (many wordswith the prefixes de-, dis-, and re- fall into this group).

conTROL, surPRlSE, deSlRE, deMAND, aRREST, reVlEW

When used as nouns,the words in Groups A and B often have secondary stresson the second syllable;the verb forms have reduced vowels in the fust syllable: tbePr6jact, to projdct /pfejtkt/ .

Because of the anount of new yocabulary this topic is better suited tointemediate and advanced students.

32 aH \PrE^ / l4ordsre(r

Activity 1.5 Stress with two-syllahle nouns: Classroon obiects

Level Begin ners

Worksheet None

Tip Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns'

Description This activity familiarizes students with stress in two-syllable nouns. It

ends with pair work in which each member of the pair tries to guess

five items that the partner has in her backpack (purse, bag)'

1. On the board, write three column headings: Things in the room, Things in your

pocket, and Things in your backpack or purse Explain "pocket" and "purse"

if necessary.

2. Ask students to work together and wrlte down as many things as they can for

each column. Help students by p0inting at obiects and by taking things out

of your pocket or backpack/purse. Examples of things !n the room include a

table, a chair, a blackboard, chalk, eraser, a door, a computer, a window, and

books. Examples of things in your pockets lnclude a wallet, keys, a cell

phone, tissues, and change. Examples of things n backpacks or purses

include books, papers, pencils, pens' iPods, laptops, water, sandwiches,

and notebooks.

3. When the lists are finished, ask students to volunteer words Write the words

on the board, circling two-syllable nouns Ask students to count the syllables in

the circled words. Ask students if the circled words are nouns (names of

things) or verbs (names of actions). lvlodel the words, exaggerating the length

of the stressed vowel (ignore secondary stress in words ltke backpack or

blackboard). Students repeat. lvlodel the words again Ask students what

syllable is stressed and mark stress. Ask students if most two-syllable nouns

are stressed on the first syllable or the second syllable'

4. Add some unfamiliar, two syllable nouns to the board which can be easily

polnted out. Point to the objects without saying them Examples might include

(depending on the room or the contents of your pockets or bag):

ceiling outlet carpet scrss0ls

Tell students the words are nouns Ask students what syllables they think are

stressed and add stress marks N4odel the words Students repeat'

5. lvlodel the pair work, Choose five ltems from the coLumn Things in your

backpack, including some two-syLlable words Choose a student and ask her'

"Sue, do you have a

-

in Your backPack?"

6. Put students in pairs. Explain that each student will guess five things that his

partner has in his backpack, using the quest on "Do you have a

-

in

loldel

]HAPTER 1 Word Sttess 33

AdlDiA 1.5 .ontinued

your backpack?" The students can choose words from the board or words forother things they know.

7. After the pair work, ask several students to report on the contents of thejrpartners' backpacks. Provide feedback on word stress.

IF s*."" with Cornpounds

What the Teacher Should KmrwCompour.rd nouns and adiective-noun compounds have primary stress on the

frst word and secofldary stress on the second: air:pdtt, grdduate st dents, tbeIYV:ite Hduse.'fhe first word is pronoutced on a higher pitch:

This is a topic appropriate for beginning through adyanced students and is coveredin most pronunciation textbooks.

Mispronunciations of compounds usually occur because students have used ahigher pitch on the second word or on both words. Most intemediate andadvanced students use the correct stress-pitch pattern on compounds Bke airportot subu)ay, written as one word (although Spanish students often misstressboyfriend and girlfriend). They have more difficulty with compounds written astwo words, which are harder to fecognize (e.g., graduate students, post ofrice,oflice bailding).Nouns and adiectives fomed from phrasal verbs (e.g.,tbe tAke\frmy mdkeiq), have the same stress-pitch pattefn as compounds. phrasal \'erbs arediscussed in Rhlthm, page 69.

Activity 1.6 Conpounds: Which came figt?

Level lntermeQiate/Advanced\

Worksheet Page ?06

Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.

This activity practices compounds in the context of a trivia activityand can be integrated with other work on discoveries/inve?tions ortechnolo$/. Students see pairs of compounds (e.g., cell phones,iPods) and decide which came first.

Ldog

"tLroad

(continue.l on next page)

34 cHAPtR 1 \\lorcl strcss

Actll,iry t.6 continucd

1. D rect students'attentlon to the compound pairs. Go over meaning lfnecessary.

2. Select 0ne of the compounds and wrlte it on the board. Write the f rst word

higher than the second, to illustrate the pitch pattern. IVodel the compound

and the isolated stress pltch pattern (DA

da). Ask the class whether the flrst or

second word is pronounced on a higher pitch.

phones

@ 3. Students listen to the compounds and repeat them.

4.

5.

In pairs, students decide which came first, guessing as needed. For example,

cell phones were in use before iPods.

After the pair work, ask students to report wh ch came first Provide feedback

on the stress pitch pattern of the compounds-make sLlre students pronounce

the first word on a higher pitch.

Fl so.tt with Verbs and Nouns with Prepositional Prefixes

What the Teacher Should KnowMost verbs with trlrepositiollal pretixcs have prinary stress on the Yerb and

scconclary stress on the prcfix: dtttliue, dueridL inderstdnd, ilps't Atew arc morc

often stressccl on the prepositio n: 6uer ddse, a)utage, 6u ALu. Thcse are not fixed

rules, horvel-er, aud speakers nlay strcss either the prcposition or the Yerb in ordefto mnintain a more equal alternation of strcsses:

You rea y upsdt Mary. or You rea y 0pset [/]ary.

Ilecausc of the new r.ocabulary involvecl with these I'erbs. this topic is bctter suitcd

to intermediate and advancetl students.Nouns and acljcctives can be formed frottt some verbs with prepositionxl

prefixes. These constructions are stressed on the preposition, following the general

pattern for two-syllable nouns: 4 Positirc 6utldok' an psrLting in prices' 4n

6utbriqk of Jtu.The adjective outstanding can bc stressed either on the prefk or

on the root: vrhen the mcaning is 'exceptionally good," outstandirlS usually has

primary strcss on sland;when the meaning is "unpaidi' as h an outstanding bill'stress is usu:rlly on out Note that witll outdoor(s), indoor(s)' outside' a\d inside,

stress can be on either syllable.

Activity 1.7 Verbs and nouns with prcpositional prefixes: Why do wonenoutlive nen?

level Advanced/intermed iate

Worksheet Page 206

Tip Teach classes of words that have predjctable stress patterns.

oescliption This activity uses paired dictations to practice the stress patterns ofnouns and verbs with prepositional prefixes, in the context of genderdifferences. The activiiy can be integrated with work on longevity,aging, or gender issues. This is also an opportunjty to practice thepronunciation of the plural women, using the vowel hl (h/ is lhevowel in drd; see Front Vowels, page 169).

1. On the board, write some verbs with prepositional prefixes. Go over meaning ifnecessary. Students may ask whether whelm is a verb. Explain that it comesfrom a verb meaning "capsize" used in Old and lViddle English (it is listed byitself in the American Heritage Dictionary with the meaning,,overwhelm',).

outlive oveldo undertake overtake

withhold overwhelm outweigh withdraw

2. Model the words, stressing the verb. Students repeat. Ask students whether thewords are nouns or verbs and which part of the word is stressed (verb orpreposition). l\4ark stress on the words. Explain that most verbs withprepositional prefixes are stressed on the verb.

3. Add nouns with prepositional prefixes to the board.

income outgo 0vervtew outline

]HAPTER 1 Wotd Stress 35

l\4odel the words, stressing the prepositions. Students repeat. Ask studentswhich part of the words is stressed. Explain that nouns with preposittonalprefixes are stressed on the preposition.

Paired dictations. Model the activity. Dictate the sentence below to the class.Tell students to mark the stress on the word with the prepositional prefix.

Elderly women outnumber elderly men.

Put students in pairs and give each member of the pair a different set ofsentences for dictation. Students decide where stress should fall in theunderlined words in their sentences and drctate the sentences to a partner whowrites them. Students should speak as clearly as possible and not show thedictation sentences to the partner until the activity is finished.

After the activity, ask individuals to read the sentences. Ask the class tocomment on the dictation statements: Are the statements true, false, or par ytrue? Ask students if they think there are other reasons that women ou|ive men.

4.

5.

7.

6.

36 :HAPTER 1 word Stress

Hh Abbreviations

V/hat the Teacher Should KnowThe last letter of an abbreviation has heaviest stress and highest pitch:e.g.,

ATI\4 (automated teller machlne).

Activity 1.8

Ievel

Worksheet

Tip

Description

Ahhreviations: Integruti ng pnnunciation antl grannar

lntermedlate

Page 207

Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.

This activity combines practice with the stress pattern of common

abbreviations and the use of premodifiers (articles and possessives)

with abbreviations. Students maich abbreviations 1o definitions and

supply a modifier in front of the abbreviation.

5,

6.

& 1. Students listen to the abbreviations on Worksheet 1.8 and repeat them

2. Ask students which letter of the abbreviation has the heaviest stress and whichhas the highest pitch. (The last letter has the heaviest stress and the highestpitch, which then falls.) Ask individuals to read some of the abbreviations.Provide feedback on stress and pitch.

3. Explain the use of articles and possessive adjective premodifiers if necessary 5

4. Students work in pairs to match the abbreviations with definitions and write a

modifier in the blank before the abbreviation.

After the pair work, ask students to explain what each abbreviation stands for(e.g,, the U/V stands for the United Nations), monitoring stress on theabbreviation, as weli as premodifier use.

Abbreviated phrases such as IGIF (thank God it's Friday), AS,4P (as soon as

possible), and FYI (for your information), and texting abbreviations such as BFF(best friend foidver), IOL (lots of laughs or laughjng out loud, also little old

lady), and /DK (l don't know) can also be presented. These abbreviations are

used more in writing than speaking.

t The artlcLe /re is used when the abbreviation refels tc a specific (or kno$n) rcferenl (e g.,lbe Ul\), a\d4 a is usedwith a

nonspeclfic (or unknown) relercnt (e.g., an ATlti): no article is used when lhe abbrevialion is a prcler nalne (e.g., IBtr{). Possessives arc

used when re rcferent "be1ongs" to an individual (e.g., ll'r D0B, date of bitlh)

aHAPTER 1 Ward Stress 37

Actiuiry 1.8 continued

7. Group work (3 4 students). Instruct each student to give additionalinformation about one of the places or organizations in the matchjng activity:US, UK, UN, FBl, ClA. The informatlon can be of anytype: an opinion, a fact,or a personal experience. Remind students to stress the abbreviation correc|yand to use modif iers.

8. After the group work, ask students what other abbreviations they are familiarwith (e.g., local abbreviations).

ffi to."" with suffixes

Vhat the Teacher Should KnowSome suffixes require that stress fall on a particular syllable in a word and may

cause stress to shift from its regular bosition in the base word,.For exafiple, defineis stressed on the second syllable; when -tion/-sion is added, stress shifts to thesyllable before the suffix definltion (also uacAtion, conuersdtion, communicAfion.identificAtion, decision, profession). WittL -eer, on the other hand, pfimary stressshi.fts to the suffix ltsef, the last syllable: enginder, uoluntAet; pionder

FamiliaritF q/ith the stress pattems associated with suffixes takes some of theguesswork out of stress assignment, especially in longer words where mostmisplacements of stress occur (Fokes and Bond 1989). Since advanced students willhave picked up the stress pattems associated with some of these suffixes, the topiccan also be used to work with vowel reduction. a feature of stress which is notacquired quickly.

Because of the level of vocabulary, this topic is not suited to beginningstudents. There are, however, some yery common stress-changing sufflres, such as-tion/-sion, that occur in words appropriate to a high beginner's lr'o cab\l^ry..nation,decision, information, professlon. Stress on word forms inyolvingpDoto shoultl als<rbe taught to beginners:These words are misstressed by many students ar all leyels:

phr6to phot6grapher phot6graphy photogriiphic

Many suffixes do not cause stress to change from its position in the basewor<l: -zess OrAppiness-bAppy), -! (sldepiness-srcel4l), -ment (g6uernment-g6uern, tndasurement mdasure), -ful (b€au ful-bdau4), mAsterfut-mAster). SeeAppendix C for a more complete list of suffixes with associated srress patternsand exceptions.

3B CHAPTER 1

Activity 1.9 Strcss with suffixes: What's presidential?

Level Advanced/intermediate

Worksheet Page 208

Tip Teach classes of words that have predictable stress patterns.

Desclipt:on This activity practices stress associated with suffixes used in words

that describe leadersh ip qualities.

@ 1. Students listen to the words on Worksheet 1.9 and repeat them. Ask studentsto identify the stressed syl ables and mark them (for all of these suffixes,primary stress is on the syllable before the suffix: presid6ntial, intell6ctual,controv6rsial, politician, muslcian, academician, l6gical, identical, ecol6gical,idealistic, realistic, energetic, responsibllity, integrity, passivity, luxirlous,ambitious, couriigeous).

2. Students volunteer other words they know with these endings. Add the words tothe board, marking the stressed syllables.

5.

0n the board, write the question "What's presidential?"

Group work (3-4 students). Ask students to discuss the qualities ihat a good

president or leader should have. Students can use words from the board or

choose other words.

After the group work, ask a member of each group to report t0 the class.Provide feedback on word stress.

3.

4.

Fk to"" on Unstressed Syllables

what the Teacher Should KnowNative speakefs drop internal unstressed vowels in some common words:

Famil!, f$ example, is pronounced "farnly," and erery is pronounced "evry." Thedropped vowel is often followed by /r/ ot /l/.

Loss of the unsressed vowel has the effect of making the word one syllable

shorter than its written form suggests. It also has the effect of bringing consonantstogether and creatinfa more closed (and difficult) syllables: Fa-mi-l!, with rhteeopen syllables, becomes fam-ly, with a closed and open syllable (closed syllables

cncl in consonants; open syllables end in vowels; see Consonants, page 118).Whilethcse reductions are charactefistic of fluenl American speech, they are not a highpriority pronunciation topic. With advanced students, who have covered wordstress but still neecl more work, these worcls can add a new element, thoughstudents may already be using reduced pronunciations in some of them (e 9.,"intresting" for interesting).

CHAPTER 1 Wotd Stess 39

All students should be aware_of one word from this gtoup, comJbr.table, stjrce:l:,

word is:ommon and rhe spelling does ,ro, ..p...*i.oTrrnciadon well. Mostnative speakers pronounced this word Zfamfiar_SalZ.'ifre pronunciarion ofcom'fortabre shourd be taught when the word t nrst in*oouc!-o to students.In the asterisked words below, the dropped syllable almost atways,,disappears.,,accidentally

*aspirin

awfu lly

beverage

*chocolate

*comfonable

deliberate (adiective)

different

elementary

*evening

*every

*family

favolite, favorable

*federal

general, *generally

*interest, interesting

*laboratory

miserable

naturally

*practically

restaurant

*separate (adjective)

*several

*temperature

*vegetable

(accidently)

(asprin)

(awfly)

(bevrage)

(choclate)

/kamftarbay - notice that the o.tlet ol M and ht isswitched in spelling and pronunciation,

(delibrate)

(diffrent)

(elementry)

(evning)

(evry)

(famly)

(favrite, lavrable)

(fedral)

(genral, genrally)

(intrest, intresting)

(labratory)

(misrable)

(natchra y)

(practicly)

(restrant)

(seprate)

(sevral)

(temprature)

(vegtabte)

40 ]HAPTER I word Strcss

Incorrectly Dropped Syllables (ex'cise for exercise). Although manystudents pronounce unstressed syllables with too much pfominence, somestudents, especially Chinese students, may drop them or pronounce them toowc.LkJy Exercise, for example, $/hich is a three-syllable word, may sound like"excise;' a two-syllable wotd; actiuitl, a four-syllable word, may sound like "acti\ty."The unstressed syllables that are commonly dropped are internal -er- syllables(together with r-dropping, see Vowels, page 192), internal syllables spelled with-i- (e.9., euidence may sound like "evdence"), and final -y endings (e.9., uery gootlmay sound like "ver' good"). These are reductiye errors, errors in which phoneticmaterial that should be present is missing; they are distracting and can have a

negative impact on comprehensibility.The words below are ones in which my Chinese international teaching

assistants (ITAS) frequently drop syllables.

art c e pronounced like "a(r)tko(l)"6

c ass cai pronounced like "clasko(l)"

economics pronounced like "ecnorn ics"

exerclse-pronounced like "excise"

energy pronounced Ike "engy"

tec h n ologica l-pronou nced like "tech(n) og co(l)"

understanding pronounced Like "u nstanding"

un iversity-pronou nced like "unvast(y)"

opportun ty-pronounced like "optunty"

evldence pronounced like "evdence"

activity-pronounced like "aktivt(y)"

In classrooms with mlxed native languages, this error is best dealt withthfough effor coffection.

5 Parentheses arcund a letter for exampLe, a(r)tko(l)-indicate fiat the sound corrcspondirg to lhe lett€r mal not be prcnounced or

ma-v be pronounced very weakly

|:ItAPTER 1 Word Sttess 4"1

Activity 1.1 0 Disappea ng syllables: Gane

level Advanced/intermed iate

Worksheets Pages208,209

Tip Use pronunciation spellings to develop students' awareness of howunstressed vowels are pronounced.

Description Thls activity presents dr0pped syllables in the c0ntext of aguessing game.

1. Give each student a copy of the list of words on Worksheet 1.10A. Explain ihatnative speakers of English often drop one of the unstressed syllab es in thesewords.

@2. Students listen and draw a line through the unpronounced vowel. Then theyand repeat.

asp/tin

temp/rature

int/rest

laby'ratory

nat/rally

chocy'late

vegfable

5.

Collect the handouts.

Divide the class into two teams. Give Team I the questions in Set 1 and Team2 the questions in Set 2 of Worksheet 1.108.

Explain the game. Each team has a d fferent set of questions; the two teamstake iurns asking the opposing team their questlons. First, a member fromTeam 1 asks a member from Team 2 a question. Encourage readers to say thequestions as clearly as possible so the opposing tearn understands what's beingasked. The Team 2 player must answer with a dropped syllable word. ThenTeam 2 asks Team l a question.

listen again

lAnswers:

m is/ra ble

bevfrages

pracric/lly

ev/ning tur/ly

led/ral gen/ral

sep/rate (adj) eufry

lavfrite comlort/ble

accident/lly awt/ltyl

3.

4.

El t,"."" switching

What the Teacher Should KnowThe strcsscd syllable is fixed in most worcls. Howeveq in some rvords where

secondary stress is followccl b-v rvord-final primar'!' stre ss, the two stresses canswitch syllables. For example, in citation form (the word in isolation), TdnneS.9EEhas primxr_y stress on the last s)'llable and scconclary stress on the first syllable.

42 ]HAPTER I word strcss

Howevet in TEnnessAe RIae4 native speakers switch primary and secondary stresson knnessee in order to avoid the two adiacent, heavily stressed syllables thatwould result in TbnnessEE Rlrer (a stress clash). Stress switching creates a moreeyen alternation of stresses and a more eurhythmic (rhlthmically pleasant) phrase(Liberman and Prince 1977, Selkirk 1984). Stress switching also occurs in thepl.rases on the right, below.T

Primary stress on lasi sy lablel'm slxTEEN.

Ndw YORK

Primary stress shifts backin 1610 (Slxtden TEN)

NEW York Clty

Natiye speakers may also adtust timing or lengthen final sounds to separateadjacent stressed syllables (Selkirk i984). For example, the rhlthm of 'Jine singsw6ll" sounds slower than the rh)'thm of "The w6man is singing beautifully.'In bothsentences there are three stressed s]4lables. However, in the first sentence, all threestressed syllables are adjacent, causing speakers to slow down to put space betweenthe stresses. In the second sentence, there are unstfessed syllables which preventadjacent stresses, and therefore there is no need to slow down.

Stress switching is not a high-priority pronunciation topic but can be added towork on stress with advanced students as something new

Activity 1.1 1 Stess switching: What happened in the l99h?

level Advanced

Worksheet Page 210

fip Teach classes ol words that have predictable stress patterns.

Bescription This trivia activiiy practices the stress patterns in -teen numbersused in years. lt can also be used to reinforce the use of the andplurals with names of decades (e.g., the 1990s). Students guess

the decade in which historical events occurred-

On the board, write:

He was 19 (nineteen) in the 1990s (nineteen nineties).

l\4odel the sentence. For the two occurrences of 19, stress -feen when it refersto age; stress the number nine-when it refers to the century. Elicit fromstudents the stress on the two -teen words (or explain it): feen numbers are

' slre$ s$jfhing is onl,! a bacxw-ards" process: a finaL primary strcss exchdges pLace with x preceding s€condary stress. T]rus, lor

exenple, stress s$jtchirg does not occlr r $ith compound! a conpound like /i/Rphre (wllh pdmary slRss on lhe lint noun) never

bccom€s,ri?l4rw Strcss s\\'lrhing ls ar oflionaL rule and occum mo$ hequen ) in "lightlr bound" phm-\es Like 761r. Sxtie. TEN,

at NllW 1l), Cij, (.Li'betman md Pince l gl7, 320).

2.

1.

1HAPTER 1 Wotd Sttess 43

stressed on the number in years (this is a more general tendency which occurswhen the next word is stressed on the first syllable). Otherwise, studentsshould stress -teen.8

Elicit from students the names of the decades of the twentieth century. (Thereis no agreed on name for the decade 1900 1909; it is sometimes called thenineteen aughts or the 19-lowzl; the decade 1910-1919 is called the nineteentens.) Write the names on the board, including the article fhe and the pluralending. Model the decade names. Students repeat.

Pass out Worksheet 1.11. Students work in pairs to identify the decade whenthe event occurred. Ask students to guess if necessary.

Following the pair work, ask students when they think the events occurred.Provide feedback on their pronunciation of numbers and the use of fhe and theplural with decade names (e.g.,. the 1920s\.

CONCLUSION

When students leam to lengthen vowels in stressed syllables and shortenvowels in unstressed syllables, they not only pronounce individual words morecleafly, but also are primed for one of the keys to natural English rhythm-thealtemation of long (stressed) and short (unsffessed) words.

In addition, appfoaching the teaching of word stress through specific classesof words like compor:nds, where stress is predictuble, helps students avoid one ofthe single most serious pronunciation effors-misplaced wofd stress.

8 Natilr speaken may also stres the number (rather than -/aara), even when fhe number is followed by a pause, ai in 1 rz19 (ninetren).

CHAPTER

I ovefheard the following col.tvcfsatioll bctween thc owncr of x localne\vsstand (a Pakistani who speaks verv good English) and a Kofe'tlt cLlstomcr whowas I less pfoficient English speaker. The Korean man had dropped off a roll of filmto bc devek)pcd iu]d wanted to know $.hcn to pick it up. The pakistani ownerans!\.'ered that it would be ready "two da)'s later, (thar is, on Saturclay). The Kofeanman wasn t sufe srhethcr the Pakistani ltaal said ,,todal', later,,or.,two days later.'.

Korea n: Today later, right?

Owner: Two days later.

Korean (po nt ng with his index f nger to the counter): Todav ater?

Owner: No, two days ater.

l\4e: Proba lt y Saturday.

This misunderstanding rel]ects a problcm with both rl]1.thm and word stfess.two closcll' relatcd areas of English pronuncialion. English rhlthm is characterizedb.v an eltcrnation of meaningful words (like lu)o ot tlq.!),wt.\ch are long in dlu.ationand stresscd, and grammatical words (likc the preposition to, or the lrtrticlc ttJe),which ale short and unstressed. The same altcrnation of long-stressed :rnd shortunstressed is found within words; f<rr example. the sccond s,vllable of todaJ), thestfessed syllable, is lol.rger than the first syllable (tocl.q),111e unstressed svllable..l.heKofean customer was apparently unaware of the diffcrcnce berween strcssed andLnstressed rvords and si4lablcs.In Enlilish, the first svllablc of today does not soundlike lz,o; becausc it is unstressed, the \.owel is reduced and pronounced likc the firstvon'el in algo. In the Korcan's speech, todat- sovnded like tun cla1t. The Koreanappilfently also did not notice the Pakistani's use of the plurul da-trs. The fact that thencsrsstand owner was not a native speakef of English may also have contributed tothc conftrsion, although the Pakistani's Englislt was vcry good. Ir is inpossible tokno$- wltether the Korean was generall]. unaware of thc clift'efent pfonunciations oflod.t)t ancl tun daJ,6), or n4tether he clidn't expect anotltef nonnative speakef tomake this distinction.

45

46 cHAt'rLR 2 Rhythnl

Natural English rh,vthm requires the use of length and loudness to distilr€luishmorc promincnt worcls liom lcss prominent wortls, as wcll as thc abilitv to linkwords together smoothly and pronounce thcn in meatingftll units.\tronli calls thclength-loudness distinction "the ke,v to the rhlthnic s)stem of English" (19U7, 2l);the ability to link words together and group thcm effectivel_y into units of meaningis no lcss ifilpoftant.

PROFICIENCY AND RIIYTHM

Knowlcdgc of vocabuletl anci grammtr has an inpact on rhlthm.A studentwhose speech is halting because she is scarching lor words is unlikel,v to hxve theplanning time to link the final end beginnin[a sounds of adjacent wotds (e.9.. dotcom) app()piatcly; the abilit]' to group words into appropriate phrases dsorequires quick access to lexicnl items and grammar. Lt a comparison of the cffcctof prosodic (intonational) features and fluenc,v (pausing) features on accentedness,fluenc-v-bascd problems like frequent, long. or inappropriate pauses were moreimportant contributors to accent than intonation (ltofimovich and Bakef 2006).Lower-proficiency learners tend to pausc more liequently and inappr-opriate ly thanl.righ-proficie nc-v lcarners (Anderson-Hsieh and Venkatagiri, 1994).'lhese findingsdo not mean that tcachers should avoid tcaching rh,vthm to beginning stt-tdents. onthe contrar]', rhlthm should be taught. but the topics and approach shottld belinked to students'proliciency Chel:r-Flores, for example. rccommends thatbegil.ming students learn the rhlthmic patterns of tlte language they are able touse, suclr as the lalrliualac of lareetings ancl infortnatjon questions like WJat\ )nlrrnculle? (20O1,).

Students are better ible to hear thc fhlthm pattern of a sentence or phrase

rvhen the pattern is isolatcd. For example, the rhvthnr of a phrase like ut IIOME orin SCHOOL is casicr for stlrdents to hear s.hetr tlte phrase ar.rcl its isolatecl rhlthmpatterr are modclcd togethef: at HOME-da DA.

Students also find it easier to hcar the rhl-thm of a phrase or short sentencewhen it is paired with a familiar wor.l that has thc snme pattern (for example.engineer and Ann uvts here). A relaled technique can be used to teach awarcncssof reduced pronunciations. Students notice thc |ecluced pronunciations of be ancl

ber in WlJat did he do or 'lvhctt's ber nante when the) see the questions re spclledas "what diddy do?" and "\Whatscr name?'

One of the clifficr-rlties studcnts and tc'.rchers fhce $'hen workin€! \i'ith rhlthmin longer uttcrances is rhxt there are as mtny dilfcrcnt rh,\tl]m pattcrns xs there are

difTerent utterenccs. The fhythm of a giYen lltterance dcPcnds on the stfess patternsof lexical items, their ordering, and the relation of the utterance to the largerdiscourse;when lexical content. orclcr, and discourse contcxt differ, r'lrythm dift-ers.'Working with shorter phr:rses with relativel]' predictable pattcrns sinplilies thepronunciation task for teachets ancl students. Chela-Florcs atlvoctttcs a similar

CHAPTER 2 tlllvthn 47

appfoach, basing pronunciation work for beginning students on,,chunks,, of speechthat students can process as units of meaning and rh\thm (2O01).

Rh1tl]m churks are granmatical phfases with a predictable corc rhythmpattern.'lhey exprcss Llnits of meaning and ma,y constitutc thought groups (seepagc 52). The corc rhythm partern of a pfeposition?rl phrase, for cxamplc, is a weakbcat (short, unstrcssed), thc preposition, followed b1. a strong bear (lonla, stressed),thc tlolln at HOMF

The core rhl.thm pattcrn of a phrase type, for cxanplc, the weak-strongpattcrn of prepositional phrases, ma_l' be idcntical to tlre rhlthm of an xctual phrase(e.9., at HOXIE) or part of the fhlthm of an actual phrase.A k)nger prepositionalphrasc (e.g., dt the IJLINking RED LIGHT) may h;rvc additional bears (s]4lables),both strong and weak.

TTPS FOR TEACHING RITYTHNT

The seven tips listed below proviclc some gcneral sulagcstions for helpingstudents to speak English with a clearer, nore natural rhlthm. The tips are basedon the characteristics of Englislt dtythm and on the problems studcnts encountcrwith rh\-thm.

tnps'1.

?.

3.

4.

5.

6..7

Model phrases using nonsense syllables to make rhe dlthm partern easier to hearTeach beginning students the rh).tltm patterns of communicatively uscftlllanguage at their level.

To help students distinguish meaningful groups of words, teach them tolelgthen the end of one group before saying the following group.

Teach students to link the final consonant ofa word smoothly to the beginningsound of the next word.

Teach stlrdents predictable rhltlxn patterns of phrases.

Teach students lo recognize the reduced pronunciations of gramrrrar wor<ls.

Teach the reduced pronunciltion of can to help studerts pronounce thedifference between can and. can't,

Thc rcmaindef of this chaptcr prcscnts spe cific featt-tres of rh_\-thm. l'he seventips above are explained lifiher in the contcxr of the followinla fcarures.

48 .HAPrtR 2 Rhvthm

It sprctrtc rrnrunrs or nnYrnvt

1. Stress-timed rhlthm2. Content and fuilction words

3. Thought groups

4. l-inking adiacent words

5. Prepositional phrases and infinitives

6. Articlc + noun

7. Pcrsonal Pronouns8. Pltrasal verbs

9. Coniunctions

10. Reductions of ftinction words

11. Fast-speech recluctions of function rvords

we disclrss what the teacher shoul.l know about each of these topics and

pfovide suggestions for teaching them ln some cases, the sullgestion is a classroom-activinr

In other cases, it is efror correctioll. Suggestions for error corrcction are

short enor,rgh to use when studen$ are engaged in nonpronunciation actiYities'

They are also useflil fbr adclressing pronunciadon problems that only one or two

students in a class experience

Fh stress-Tirned Rhlthn

What the Teacher Should KnowEnglish rhlthm is described as stress-timed rh)-thm, one of several broad

types oidrl-thm. Other stress-timecl languages includc I)utch, German' Mandarin'

ancl Arabic. The cllaracteristics found in languages with stress-timed rhlthm

include the presence of a large Yariety of syllable qvpes-both open syllables

(encling in vowels) and closed syllables of various types (syllables endiflg in

consonants). Stress-timed languages may also have hean- and light syllables;healy

syllables, which attract stress, are those that have long vowels andlor end in

consonant clusters. In aclclition, in stress-timed languages' unstressed syllables are

shorter than stressed syllables, and vowels in unstressed syllables may be reduced'

The more of these characteristics a langualle has' tlle nlore stress'timed its rhlthm(Ramus et al. 1999).

Strcsstimed rh)-thm contrasts with sf/llable-timed rh)-tlm, forurd in tanguages like

Spanish, Ita[an, Korean anct Cantonese ln syllable-tined languages stressed and

cHAprER 2 Rhythm 49

unstressed syllables axe of approximately equal length; the variety of syllable typesis more limited; and vowel reduction in unstressed syllables is unlikely. r Lloyd Jameslikens stress-timed rhlthm to Morse code signals (long dashes and short dots) andsfllable-timed rhlthm to "machine gun" or staccato pattems (1940). Learners whosenative language is syllable-timed have difficulty learning English rh)'thm, but withexposure and increasing proficiency, they will acquire some of the characteristics ofstress timing.

Infomation about the stress-timed nature of English rhlthm is included inmany pronunciation textbooks and helps students understand and become aware ofthe genefal nature of English rhlthm. It is presented here in a similar spirit, as"rh1'thm appreciation" and as an introduction to more focused work on specificfe atures of rhlthm.

Activity 2.1 Prcsenting stessi/ined rhythn: Linericks

level lntermed iate and Advanced

Worksheet See page 211.

lip

2,

1. Direct students' attention to the pictures of the two tree lines on Worksheet 2.1.Ask students to compare the tree size and spacing of the two tree lines.

Model the sentences below the tree lines. Ask students which words are longerand louder. Ask students if the rhythm of English is more like the natural treeline or the apple orchard.

lvlodel the sentences again, following each with its isolated rhythm pattern: Ihebirds abandoned the forestAa DA da DA da da DA da; They built their nestsin the orchard 4a DA da DA da da DA da, Students repeat the sentences andrhythm patterns.

(continued on next page)

I inslrumenlal bsdng hrs failed to confinn some of lie perceptuai charact€ristics of strcss-ti.oed languages (Dauer 1983, Ramus et al.

: ll9) . In $rcss timed languag€s, slrcsses arc heard as occuring at equal inl€Nals in lime (isochrony) ; in syllable{imed larguages, the

=e befteen $resses is more variable. llowever, instrumental measur€ments rcveal that stre$ses in English (e $ress-tined language)

= n0 more rcgular than those in syllable{imed Languages (Dauer 1983).

J.

50 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythm

ActiuiU' 2.1 conttnued

4. Ask students to read the limerick silently and then go over questions

about vocabu lary.

@ 5. StuCents listen to the limerick and repeat. Ask students which words are

stressed (i,e., longer, louder). lStressed words: once, man, beard; said, just,

feared; owls, hen; larks, wren; build(tng), nests, beardl

6. In pairs, students practice the limerick. Then, on the bottom half of thehandout, the pairs write a new third and fourth line; lines 3 and 4 need nOt

rhyme but the rhythm (i.e., the number of syllables and location of stressed

syllables) should be the same as in the 0riginal. Each pair presents its limerickto the class, alternating the lines.

Etl con..n and Function words

What the Teacher Should KnowContent words are words with clear meaning (e.g.,run, coffe4 bot) Fl]nctiott

words lrave abstract or grammatical meantrlg (e.g.,tbe, to, at).In connected speech,

content words are usually stressed and function words are usually unstressed.

Content words: Stlessed Function Words: Unstressed

Nouns (table, dog) Atticles (a, an, the)

Ueths (watk, eat) Auxiliary verbs (an, is, has, can, will)

Adiectives (big, beautifut) Short preposilions (to, at, in, for, with)3

AdueJbs (quickty, vety) Coniunctions (and, ot, that, when, if)

Demonstratives (this, those)2 Relative pronouns (who, wnon, that, which)

ouestion words (Who? How?) Personal pronouns and possessive adjectives

Negatives (inctuding contractions) 0' you' he' them' our' their)

(not, don't, isn't)

2 Inng prepositions Like d&?e/t or undemeath h,we cleNer mexning (comp'lred to /0 or d/) and ,.lre often strcssed

3 Celce ]lurciaet al. list demonstrative adjectiles (e.g , that nan, lhue bctohs) ts functior Notds alid denorstrative Ponouns aj

content words (e g , lDr, r/ /rpre) 0 996, I 53) .

)HAPTER 2 Rhythm 51

Activity 2.2 Content and lunction wods: Shopping

level Beginn ing

Worksheet None

Tips Model phrases using nonsense syllables io make the rhythm patterneasier to hear.Teach beginning students the rhythm patterns of communicativelyuseful language at their level.

Description This activity links the stress patterns of familiar words to the rhythmpattern of phrases" The sample is a short dialogue about shoppjng.Reprinted lrom Top Notch: English for Today's World, Fundamentalsby Joan Saslow and Allen Ascher, Pearson Longman, page 49.Used with permission. The activity in Top Notch taryets shoppinglanguage, including clothing and color vocabulary.

Q 1. Students listen to the dialogue oir the Audio CD, track 8, and repeat the lines.

T, LET'S GO S HOpping.

H: OK. WHAT do you NEED?

T: I NEED a TIE and a NEW SUIT.

H: IS THAT ALL?

T: YES, jt lS. OH, Actually, I NEED SHOES, T0Ol

2. Copy the dialogue on the board, capitaiizing the stressed syllables of contentwords. Below each line, write the isolated rhythm pattern,

T: LET'S G0 SHopping.DA DA DA da

H: OK WHAT do you NEED?DAda DA da da DA

T: I NEED a TIE and a NEW SUIT.da DA da DA da da DA DA

H: IS THAT ALL?da DA DA

T: YES, it lS. OH, Actually, I NEED SH0ES, T0O!DA da DA. DA, DAdada, da DA DA DA

(c()ntinued on next l)age)

52 ]HAPTER 2 Rhytl)m

Actiri Dt 2. 2 co, ttinaed

3. lVode each line, followed by its isolated rhythrn pattern. Emphasize thestressed syllables. Students repeat the dralogue lines and the rhythm patterns.

4. Ask students which words are longest and loudest (the cap talized words).

5. Select pairs of students to perform the dialogue for the class. Provtde feedbackon rhythm: The capitalized words should be long and loud.

6. 0n the board, list related questions from the textbook un t (or from unitspreviously covered) n one column and possible answers in another column,with whlch students can create new dialogues. Capitalize the stressed syllab es

of content words.

Ft] rhought croups

what the Teach€r Should KnowVords within an uttemnce are broken into shorter, meaningflil groups of

words called thought groups. A thought group includes at least one content(stresse(D word and often corresponds to a gfammatical stfuctufe (e.g., a verbphrase, prepositional phrase, or short clausc).In the sentence below,thonght groups

ale underlined.

It's not too late to f nd a r6om at a natjona park this season.

Most students understand the notion of a thought group and arc able to dividca written sentencc into appropriate liroups. They may not, however, know how theyoice conveys this information. In English, both rhlthm and intonation provide cues

for the Lstener The rhlthmic cue is a lengtlleninti or holding of the end of a thonglttgroup betbre the ncxt begins (Selkirk 1984,Wightman et al. 1992).The lengthenir.rg

may be heard as a pause, although within an utterance, the !-oice "lingers" ratherthan stops irt a thought group boundary In addition, words within a thought groupare linked more closely than words across thouliht gror-lp boundaries.

Thought groups also have thcir own intonation patterns.* At thc cnd of an

internal (nonJinal) thought liror-lp, intonation usually rises a little, a signal that thespeaker has more to sa)', but may also fall a little. The sentence above is repeated

below, showit.tg the drlthmic and intonational cues that mark its thought groups.

It's not toitate to f nd a ro66 at a nationa 6il tni. .*--)nloo,"rg .1 tO'O e18 ^ OO o drLat

a Thought groqts are dso cxLled inlor)ation units (Gilhefl 1981, Cclce NlrLcie et el 1996). int0nnti(Dal lhrdes or inteDnedilte

intoretional phm-ses (Pierehun )efi 19t0, Picrchlmbert xlld HiNchbeql 1990). and k)lle Lrnils (Bnzil 1994a)

.H^prrR 2 Rhvthn 53

Because thcse nonfind intonirtion changes are difficult for students and teachers tohea! the main tcacltinla focus should be on the rhrthmic cues, the lengtheninla orpalrsinli at the encl of a thought group.

'l'hcre are no fixed rules for determining in adyance what tlte thougltt groupsin a given sentence should be. Me:rninli is a factor, but so, too, are rate of speakinli(ftwcr thought groups ;uc used in fastcr speech) and stvle of speaking (morcthoulaht gfoups are used in public speakin€!). The senrcnce above, for example,coultl also be broken into two of thfee thought laroups:

It's not too late to f nd a room at a fattona oarkthsseason

Appropriate thought groupinll bcnefits the student in two wa,vs. Organizedinto sl.rofter, meaningful units, thc student's message is more comprehensible. Inaddition, the brief pause or holcling of the end of a thought tiroup slows the studentdown, gir.ing him more time to make lexical, larammatical, and pronunciationchoices (Gilbcrt 1994, Lcvis and Grant 2001).

Thought groups arc both teachable and learnable. Anderson-Hsich andVenkatagiri found that ntore proficient Chinese learners used pausing moreappropriatel_y than less proficient learners (1994). Ueyama lbund that aclranccclJapanese learncrs lengthened the ends of thought groups more eppropriately thanbcginning learners (1996).In this book, thoulaht laroups are atldressed below as I'ellas in activities that focus on rhe rh,vthm patterns of specific phflrse tvpes (c.g.,prepositional phrases).

Activity 2.3

Ievel

Worksheel

Tip

Description

Thoaght groups: Exercise

High Beginning/Low Intermed iate

N one

To help students distinguish meaningful groups of words, teach themto iengthen the end of one group before saying the following group.

This activity practices thought groups in the context of exercise andfitness and can be iniegrated with topics on health, nutrition orsports and with the grammar of the present tense third-person sin-gular ending. Students interview their classmates about a) how oftenthey exercise, b) what they do, c) where they exercise, and d) withwhom they exercise. Each piece of information is a potential thoughtgroup. Once the information is gathered, each student reports to theclass about another classmaie, using the present tense.

It's not too ate to flnd a room at a nationa oark this season

(coittilllecl ot1 1rci page)

54 otAPrF.R 2 Rhythm

Actixily 2.3 continue.l

1. Introduce the activity by asking students what kind of exercise they do. lvlake alist on the board (e.g., walk, run, work out at the gym, play soccer).

2. Wrile a sentence about yourself on the board, including frequency (e.g., once

in a blue moon), the activity (e.9., I walk), place (e.g., around the block), andwith whom (e.9., wlth my dog).

Once in a blue moon, I walk around the block wrth my dog.

3. l\4odel the sentence, ho ding/lengthening the ends 0f thought groups. With your

hand, rnake sweeplng underlines corresponding to your thought groups (move

your hand from right to left, which will be your students' left to right).

4. Ask students which words you grouped together. Underline the groups. I\4odel

the sentence again, holding/lengthenlng the end of each thought group.

Students repeat. Explain that the end of a thought group is held briefly andlengthened a little before the next group starts.

5. On the board, write four headings: "How often," "What," "Where," and "Wlthwhom." Ask one or two students to describe their exercises, providing the fourpleces of information.

6. Elicit from the class questions for each of the four pieces of information, and

write the questions on the board ("How often do you exercise?" "What do you

do?" "Where do you exercise?" and "Who do you exercise with?").

7. Elicit expressions for each iype of information (e.g., for "How often," ellcit"every day," "once a week," "occasionaLly," "maybe once a month," and so

on). For the last category, "With whom," add "by myself" if students don'tknow the expression.

8. Students interview another classmate, take notes, and then report to the class

about their partners. Instruct students to group words clearly and provide

feedback on grouping.

E rinkins eo;acent words

What the Teacher Should KnowIn connected speech, sounds at word boundaries join closely togethe! in some

cases creating blends;this linking of words is also referred to as word-to-word timing(Zsiga 2003, ,i00).

Inappropriate linking of words contributes to accentedness and

unintelligibility and can disrupt rhlthm as sh.rdents struggle with final sounds. Many

problems with word-to-word linking occur when a word ending in a consonant isfollowed by a word beginning with a consonant (e.g.,Web slte). Depending on thenatiye language of the learneq these difficulties ma] reflect difficulty with final

C//,lfrER 2 Rhydrrr 55

consonants in laeneral (that is, with English sl'llable fi,pes), difficulty with rhe wa,\.sin which wofd final consonants are linked to following words. or with both.

Learners whose natiye langualies limit of do not allow final consonants useseveral strategies to deal with them (see also Final Consonants, page 153). The finalconsonant may be deleted (e.g., "re color" for "red cokrr',); it may be changed (e.g.,''pockctboot" lbr "pocketbook"); or a vowel may be adclcd to separate it fi.onl thefollowing word (e.g., "redr colof) (Weinbergef 1987; Maior 1987, 1996; Hansen2001). Chinese learners may substitute a glorral stop (phonetic s),mbol ,/?/, a soundfound in the warning Uh Oh /?a?ow/ and in Cockney English): too& a ualk, forexample, ma1, sountl like "too? a walk."

Specific final consonants mav also have distracting, odd-soundingpronunciations. One example is the pronunciation by Korcan students of linal /4/ esin ubich). /(13/ @s ln agg), [/ (as in catlO, a1:.d B/ (^s tn Derge). In connected speech,these wofds may sound as though the bpe.Jker hlLs rrd.led r short J/ ending to theword: nhichy one. a1cy limit. r.ashr pa1 nrenr. r

Difficulties may also arise because English and tl.re learncr's natir.e language linkwords in different ways. In English, final consonimts are not strongly rcleased unlessthe following word begins with a vowel (Catfbrd 1987, Ladefoged 1993). The lack ofrelease makes final consonants less audible than when the)r occur a1 the beginningof a word or syllable. In contrasr, in Russian, a langualae wl]ich also allows a largenumber of Rnal consonants and final consonant clusters, final consonants are audiblyreleased, and Russian ESL learners carry this pattern into English (Zsiga, Z0Ol). AnEnglish listener may hear the released llnal consonant as an added vowel or.syllablc.

The way in which worcls are linked in English depends on the nature of the finaland beginning sounds. The information below describcs dilferent tlpes of linting.

Linking Final Consonants to Beghrniflg Vowels. The final consonant joinsclosely to the following r-owel, almost as if it were part of the following s,'ord.ln thiscontext, the final consonant is easily hcard.

both_apples fix it black out other animals

Linking Final Consonants to Different Beginning Coflsonants.1. Final Stop Consonant + Ditferent Consonanr

When a word ending in a stop consonant (/p, b, t, d. k, g,f is fbllowcd by a wordbeginning with a different consonant. the final stop is pronounced but not audiblyreleased Oronounced strongly), and the nc'xt word is said immediarelv. In theexamples bclow, the superscripted right parcnthesis indicates the unrelcasecl sto1.r.

keep)trying big)storm black)bird

cold)spelljob)lair white) coat

': c atLc]ltion 0l a Koreen studelL, he srid he $?s not xddirg x ro\cl

56 (HAPTER 2 Rhythnl

Unreleased stop consonallts are short, altd students have ditTiculty ltearing them.Acue to their presence is the cutoff sound of the Yowel preceding the final stop.Consider the differcnce betwe en tl.te vowels in rzaAe and rla./ in the phrctses makedinners and May dinnersBxamples like this help "convince" students that the hard-

to-hear final consonant is inde€d present.

2. Other Final Consonants + Different ConsonantIn general, other final consonants are kept short when fbllowed by a diffetent

consonant. Ilecause the air is not completely cut olf with n()nstop consonants, theyare easier fbr students to hear even though they are short.6

beige) pants both) carsgive) money

watch) Tv

nose) job

some) people one) day mail)man

Linking Final Consoflants to the Same Consonant. rwhen a word ends in a

final consonant and the next word bcgins with the same consonant, one longconsonant links the words.T The consonant is not pronounced twice Linking is

represented as _.hottl_ihings

0n e_nepn ew

\Vlren a word e nd ing it1 /L[/ (e .g., u)bi94 uatg!4 cburcb) is folktwed by a wordbeginning with [/ (e .g., shop, sboe, sheeqt), tl1e words ioin together as if the finaland beginning consonants were tlle samet Luhlcb s/:oe. This occurs because the last

part of /I[/ nfid the sound /t are the same sounds.

Linking Final Vowels to Beginnirrg Vowels. ri/hen words ending with the

vowels ,/iy, eyr ow, uw aw, av, o1',/ are followed by a word beginning with a vowel(e.g.. see Ann, sa! it, go in, ckt ouer, bout eas\, my uncle, to! engine). the glide

ending (/)'/ or /w,/) of the final vowel links to the following vowel, creating the nextsyllable (see also pages 170, 183, and 191). The glide souncl is not always written.

blac(_ca r

smal0amps

live-_vans

lresh shellfish

c{!n do "over

toy_engine

a following \.owel occurs inside words:

seetlAnn

how_easy

say_it

my_un c le

The same hlking of a glide cnding touide ro, ponetr!.

and voiceLess ftlcalives requires uoLe knowledge ofphonetrcs fian studerrls hal'c or need ?urd s|orld nolbe laught.

7 Slntilar final and begin|ing consonants aft dso linked as onc long sormd: Drg.?r The tonguc p0sition 0i the bold consonants in &tg

./l/ h fie sanlei tlle hvo soulds dill€r in ioicifg (see Consonants, f4e 1i9).

cHAprER 2 Rhythm 57

When a word ends in a vowel without a glicle endjng (e.g.,l.tto, sp.t, sof., and.the next word begins with a vowel, the two vos/els link smootl y togither-

law_of nature spa_entrance sofa_arrangement

Pronunciation work on the linking of words in connected speech is impoftantat all levels. The topic can be divided into two lessons, a lesson on linkingconsonants to consonants (e.9., dot com), whete many effors occut and one onlinking consonants to vowels (e.g., fresb 4lr). Vowel-ro-\.owel linking is discussedon page 191. Unking can also be addressed in pronunciation of the past tenseendings (see Consonants, page 159). Simplifications of final consonants made bynative speakers iLre covered in Final Consonants, page 155.

Pfesefrting Linktng Rules to Students. The rules above are too complex topresent to students. The following rules are simpler alternatives.

1. A word ends in a consonant; the llext word begits s/ith a vowe l:fresb .tirJoin the consonant clearly to lhe vowel:fresb a.h pickJtp.

2. A word ends in a consonant;the next word starts with a different consonant:cloN 9om.

Say the final consonant but keep it \-ery short. Say the next word inmediately:doP com, Wel) site.

3. A word ends in a consonant; the next word starts with the same consonanr:big_girl.

Say one long consonant. Do not say the consonant twice: bi{girt, nic{'smile.

Fast-Speech Blends. Word blends result from rhe very close ioining of final andbeginning sounds in adiacent sounds.

thisheer (this year)

lascheer (last year)

wouldja (would you)

They won't letcheMlhey won't letcha 0et you).

impart (in part)

I dombelieve it. (l don't belleve it)

58 IHAPTER 2 RhYthm

Blends like tbislreer (this year) and dMia (did you) xe palatalizations,

assimilations of one sound to a following palatal sound. In the examples aboYe, thepalatal sound is /y/.8 The palatal soutTd /y/ i7 lear attacts the final /s,/ of tbis to the

/y/ position, producing /[/ (the first sound of sl:zp).

s + /- becomes 4/

-l + y- becomes /t/

-fs+/ becomes /t/

-d+ybecomes/d3l

I /grJa/ (guess you) know.

Nice to meetchew (meet you).

I wancha (want you) to know.

Thatcher book. (That's your book.)Whatcher name? (What's your name?)

Didla? (D d you?) Wouldja? (Would you?)

The nasal consonant ,/n/ also assimilates to the place of articulation of some

following consonants (Avery and EhrlicF. 1992,4-D.

I I karl I go. (l can go.)

I camp believe you. (l can't believe you.)

Many students learn words in their citation (word list) pronunciation and

expect to hear them pronounced in the same wa1'. They need to be aware of how

words sound when blended together, especially blends involving pllatalizatiorrs,

which are common.It is not necessary to teach blends for production (i.e., for students to use in

ordinary speaking). Like fast-speech reductions of function words (discussed

below), blends are associated with high levels of fluency and accur:rcy (i e., withnative English). Less proficient students may sound less clear if they use these

blends than they would if they had used the unblended forms. For a recognitionactiyity involving blentls, see the Activity section for Fast-Speech Reductions ofFunction words, page 84.

3 Palanl sounds, such as the lirsl sounds in j,01l end srf, arc produced $ hen the frcnt of the ton il e approachs the h ard laLate Mosl

palataLizations involve assimilations of aheolarsounds likc /yor/s/ to the palatalsound (for alveolar consonants, see page 129)

.HAPTER 2 Rhythm 59

level Intermediate

Wo*sheet Page 272.

Tp Teach students to link the final consonant of a word to ihe beginningsound of the next word smoothly.

Description This activity reviews compounds and practices linking final conso-nants to words starting with different consonants. The activity canprovide a pronunciation focus for other lessons on jobs or employ-ment. ln the sample matching exercise on page 212, all of the finalconsonants are stop consonants (/p; b, t, d, k, el), a group of conso-nants that is among the most difficult for students to link in con-nected speech. This pronunciation topic can also be added to anactivity on the stress patterns of compounds (see page 33).

1. lntroduce linking. On the board, write a work-related compound (e.g., workplace, job seekers, job growth, job benefits, unemployment /lnes), underliningthe final consonant of the first word.

wort place iob seekers

2. Model the compounds. Students repeat. Direct students, attention to the finalunderlined consonants. Explain that final consonants must be pronounced butthey are short. The next word follows immediately.

@ 3. Students listen to the compounds in the matching exercise on Worksheet 2.4and repeat them, paytng attention to the pronunciation of the final consonant.

Select several students to say one or two of the compounds individually, andprovide feedback on the fjnal consonant; make sure that students pronouncethe final consonants but keep them short. lf students separate the words with avowel sound, tell them to say the second word immediately after the first.lVlodel the correct and incorrect pronunciations.

ln pairs, students match the phrases to the definitions. Then they create shortdialogues using the model below.

4.

6.

7.

5.

A: What's a

B: IS

ln pairs or small groups, students answer the discussion questions on thehandout. Students should focus on pronouncing final consonants but keepthem short (not release them strongly).

After the pairlgroup work, ask several students to report on their group,sdiscussion. Provide feedback on final consonants.

60 aHAPTER 2 Rhvtllnl

ffi Prepositional Phrases and rnfinitives

What the Teacher Should KnowThe core rhl.thm pattern of a prepositional phrase is a weak (unstressed) beat

on the preposition (e g., to, dt, in, on,.l-ot u'ith, ht, of, from) followed b-v a strong(stfessecl) beat on the noun. Infinitives havc the same pattern: unstressed ,o is

follo$'ed by a stressed ve|b. The phrases below illustrxte the core Pattern. Therhythm pattern is isolated below each phrase.

to scHoot at HoME in t0vE for JoHN from SPAIN

dA DA dA DA dA DA dA DA dA DA

The noun object of the preposition may be separatcd from tlle preposition by

other words, some stressed (strong), some unstressed (weak).

in JUST a Mlnute on a Sultry, SUMmer DAY

Although n.)alry prepositional phrases are themseh-es thought groups, shortprepositional phrases like at bome might be part of a lar€ier thought 8roup, and longprepositional phrases like on a sultry, summer da!- mzy consist of more than one

thought group.Prepositio al phrases consistin[i of a preposition followed by a personal

pronoun, (e.g., to her) have no content words ln such cases, one of the twoconstituents receives more stress tllan the other (though neither receives healry

stress); alternati\''el)', one constituent is reduced while tlle other is not. The decision

to stress the pfeposition or pronoun more heavily may clepend on the speaker's

meanin€! or on the overall rhythm pattefn of the sentence.

gave the book to her.lluwarl : to rece ves rnore stress than her

'gd/p h6 boo. Lo I - .

/tahar/ : her rece ves nlore stress than 10

\vhen pfepositions have clear meaning (e g, behteen, undenleatb, ouer),

both the preposition and the noun rcceive sress:

beTWEEN the LINES underNEATH the TAble

Some sholt plepositions are reduced as well as unstressecl in connected speech:

C tation pronunc ation Reduced pronunc atjon

aI lall /aV I think he's /aV home.

for lforl /farl John bought the ring /far/ N4ary.

Tlre prepositions in /h't/?Lnd on /on/ arc sometines reduced to /arl/ (Celce-Murcia

er al. t996.177).

:HAPTER 2 Rhythm 61

The prepositions of e;nd, to have two promrnciations, depending on whetherthe following word begins with a yowel or consonant. Students sometimes noticeand ask about tlte two pronunciations of to. If the word following of or to beglnswith a vowel, the final consonanr (the final /y/ of of /e-"/, the fin l /w/ of to /t\wf)links the two words togethef:

a bag /avlapples (of apptes) nuM a movie (to 1-,a movie)'When the following word begins with a consonant, ojf is pronounced /eyl or /a,/:

a cup /av/ coflee a /kaper' coflee

Before a consonant, to is pronounced /la/ (or may eyenbe reduced to an aspirated [th]:e

Today l'm driving /ta/ school.

When prepositions end a sentence (or are ,'stranded,,'not followed by a noun),they are unstressed but not reduced:

Whar are you loo,rrng /el,/?

The store I took my cornputer /tuM is on 4th Street.

'When teaching the rhl.thm pattern of prepositional phrases, choose phraseswith short prepositions (e.g., to, at, in, on, ol by, fot uitlr, fron) followed by nouns(rather than pronouns). This pronunciation topic can be taught at all levels andincluded with the grammar of prepositions. The pedagogical focus should be thelack of stress ofl the preposition. The consonant and vowel reductions ofprepositions can be taught for recognition. I

Aclivity 2.5

level

Wotksheet

Iip

Description

Prc p os iti o n a I ph ras es ; Sh o plp i n g

High Begin ning

N oneI

Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.

This activity practices the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases, inthe context of shopping. The activity can be easily changed to reviewother kinds of vocabulary and to reflect local businesses and shop-ping habits (e.g., on QVC, at Amazon.com, onLlNE, on Ebay).

(contlnued on nact page)

'\atiye sp€alre$ sometimes use the morc ftduceilfom s ol of Va\/) Md to (hel) even when fie following word begjns witli a yowel.

62 CHAPTER 2 Rhythm

Actiai4) 2.5 contlnued

1. 0n the board, write a list of items the students in your class might need io buy

and businesses where they can buy them. Write the preposition for in front of

each item. Write the preposition to in front of the businesses, The items should

be ones that fit naturally in the sentence f'ame l'm looking for a. . . . Head thelist of items with "l'm looking . . ."; head the list of stores with "Go . . . ."

2. Add to the board a short dialogue, capitalizing the stressed syllables of

mean ingfu I words.

A: WHERE are you Going?

B: SHOpping. l'm Looking for a DlCtionary.

(l NEED to BUY some GROceries)

A. GO to BARNES and NObIe.

3. Ask students to volunteer things they buy and stores where they shop and add

them to the board. Write fot in front of items that fit naturally in the model

dialogue frame l'm looking for . . . , capilaLzing the stressed syllable (these are

usually singular count nouns). Your students may volunteer items that do noi

sound natural in the sentence frame I'm looking for. . . in the model dialogueFor example, I'm looking for food. fhe teacher can add a more natural-sounding sentence frame for these items (l need to buy [someJ food. Your

students may also volunteer things that are not found in shops, such as a

doctor or apartment. You can add other phrases to the board like Look on thelnternet, Look in the newspaper, and Ask the teacher, as these arise.

l'm looking... l needtobuy... Go...for a SWEAter some FOOD to BARNES and NOBLE

for a Dlctionary some FuRniture to BEST Buy

for a comPUter some GRoceries to MAcy's

for SHOES to lKEa

for a TAble

for JEANS

for a JAcket

for

to

Model the lists on the board. Students repeat. Ask students whether the noun

or preposition is stressed strongly in the forand lo phrases. Ask students what

each store sells.

4.

:HAPTER 2 Rhythn 63

Actiuity 2.5 conttnued

5. lVodel the dialogue on the board, lengthening stressed words and groupingwords. Students repeat and then practjce the dialogues in pairs.

6. ln pairs, students create their own dialogues, replacing the underlined wordson the handout with other words. Students read their dialogues to the class.

Activity 2.6 Prepositional phrases: Good nanners

level lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet Page 2I3tip Teach students predictable rh!.thm patterns of phrases"

Descripfion This activity practjces the rhythm pattern of prepositional phrases. and infinitives in the contexl of manners and courtesy.

1. Establish the context. Ask students to read the paragraph on table manners onWorksheet 2.6 to themselves and underline prepositronal phrases andinfinitives. Students check their underlining with a classmate and then withthe teacher,

I2. Students listen to the paragraph, paying attention to the pronunciation of theprepositional phrases and infinitives.

3. Elicit from students and/or explain the pronunciation: The preposition is notstressed; the followrng noun (verb in infinitives) is stressed. The words in thephrase are grouped together.

84. Students listen to the prepositional phrases in the matchjng activity onWorksheel 2.6 and repeat them.

Ask students how they learned table manners-who taught them, how old theywere. Ask students to give some examples of table manners that they learned(e.g., don't talk with your mouth full).

Paired matching activity. Direct students' attention to the matching activity onthe worksheet. ln pairs, students create a list of table manners by matchingdo's/don'ts with an appropriate prepositional phrase.

Ask individual students to report some of the tabie manners to the class, givingfeedback on prepositions that are pronounced too strongly.

To extend the activity, the class can also discuss which manners they think areuniversal and which are specifrc to a particular country or culture.

5.

6.:

I

:

| 7.

8.

64 :HAPTER 2 Rhythm

ffi a"ti.r. + No'n

What th€ Teacher Should KnowThe core rhlthm pattern of an article + noun is identical to that of a

prepositional phrase:a weak beat (the article) followed by a strong beat (the noun)

The article and noun are grouped together

an EGG

da DA

The definite afiicle tbe has two pronunciations, depending on the first sound

of the following word. It is usually pronounced /6V before a vowel, and the glide

en<hng /y/ linki the article closely to the following word lt is pronounced /da/before a consonant.l o

a B00K

da 0A

thE GIFT

da DA

6iy_air 6iy authol 6a3log 6a sun

The indefinite article 4, pronounced /a/, is used before words beg rning witha consonant so lfird an, pronounced /3n/, is used before words beginning with a

vowel sound.Students may choose the wrong form of the indefinite article before words

beginning with the letter 4 or lr. In unit, unique, uniuersity, ^nd

union, fot

example, the first letter of ttre wotd is a Yowel, but the first so'lnl is the consoflant

tyt G.5., unit /\'uwnetD. The article a is used before these words because they

begin with a consonant sound Strldents need to understand that the choice

betweenaandazdependsonthefirstsorrldoftheword,nottfi.]firstletterTheopposite problem occurs with words that begin with silent lJ (e g,honest, bono4

niir hour). Students often choose the article 4 rather than '7'?

because the first

letter of the word is a consonant tetter (b). The correct ?rticle, however, is at',

because the first sound of the word is a vowel (e.g., honor /onet/)'Teaching the rh''thm pattern of articles not only addresses rhlthm and

reviews a very difficult area of English grammar, it is also an opportunity to reYiew

the rlJ pronunciation (as in tbe) ^nd

ttle joining of final consonants to Yowels (e g '

an-appIe).

r0 Native speakers sometimes use /de/ b€forc words b€giiningwith voweLs ot consonants'

CHAPTER 2 Rhythn 65

Activity 2.7 Atticles: Food

Level Beginn ing

Worksheet Pages2l4-ZI5

Tip Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.

Description This information gap reviews food vocabulary and the use of the

1. 0n the board, draw two numbered boxes. Wrjte the question ,,What,s jn Box1 ?" on the board.

A

Mft v

2.

"What's in Box 1 ?

Choose a student to ask you about Box 1. Answer the question with ',anapple," and write the answer on the board, underlining the joining between"an" and "apple"; mark stress on ,,apple." Students repeat.

aLiippte

Ask a student to come to the board and draw an apple in Box 1.

Cioose another student to ask you about Box 2. Answer the question with"There's a c6rton of milk on the left. There's a p6ar on the right.,, Write theanswer on the board, underlining noun phrases with a and marking thestressed syllables of "cadon" and ,,milk.',

Elicit (or explain) pron unciation:

. The article is unstressed and the noun is stressed.

. ,4n is used before a vowel sound. ,4n joins closely to the noun. 4 is usedbefore a consonant.

article a with first-mentioned singular count nouns. The activityreviews countable food nouns, container expressions (e-g., a box of\and utensil/d ish ware nouns (e.g., a gtass of). Students should befamiliar with this vocabulary as well as with the expressions on theright and on the left.

3.

4.

5.

(continued on next page)

66 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythn

AcIiriA 2.7 conlinue.l

6. Put students in pairs. Give one member of each pair Grid A and the other

member Grid B of Worksheet 2.7. Students ask each other about their empty

boxes and draw the missing pictures. When their grids are complete, they

compare them (and laugh at each other's drawings).

7. After the pair work, choose students to describe the pictures in the grid. Give

leedback on p'onunc,ation.

8. Alternate versions. For high beginners or low intermediates, prepare two

completely filled in grids, with some cells identical in both grids and some

different (e.g., five identical cells and five different cells) For example, in Grid

A, the first cell might have a banana on the righi and an apple on the left; in

Grid B's first cell, the banana is on the left and the apple on the right.

Students describe their grids to each other to find the different cells.

E] r.tsontl rronouns

what the Teacher Should KnowPersonal pronouns (1, mq J/ou, be, sbe, it, bim' beti ute' us, tbe!, tbem) alf'd

possessive adiectives (?tl.Jt, louf IJis, hef its, ou4 their) are usually unstressed in

connected speech.

v€rb + Obiect Pronoun. Verbs and obiect pronouns are almost always grouped

together. The verb is stressed, and the object pronoun is unstressed Native speakers

link pronouns very closely to the Yerb, pronouncing them as if they were an ending

to the Yerb.

!!ADj EtLIg UlgDth'ry

Reductions of b Pronouns and Possessives. In connected speech, native

speakers often drop f]ne /h/ of be, him, bis, and her ancl closely link wlrat remains

of the pronoun to the preceding word.

Whatser name? (What's her name?)

Thatsrz otfice/ Thatsaz office. (That's his offlce )

I toldrm. (l told him.)

What diddy do? (What did he do?)

The same type of reduction occurs in the auxiliary verb s haue, IJas, and had (see

pagc /b ).

Jackad (lack had) already gone home.

]HAPTER 2 Rhythm 67

rJfhen , pfonouns begin a sentence or afe pfeceded by a pause, the /h/ isnot dropped.

He carne. (nol 'E came)

Her sister is in Dallas. (not'Er sister is in Dal as)

Reduction of Them. In connected speech, native speakers reduce tbem to either/6am/ or /am/.

Let's ask /dam/. (Let's ask them.)

l'lsendam the papers tomorrow. (l'll send them the papers tomorrow.)

Reduction of fou. In connecte d speech, you is often pronounced /ya,/.

Seeye tomorrow. (See you tomorrow.)

Areya free tonight? (Are you free tonight?)

V/tren common words encling in /t/ or /d/ (e.g., ubat, did) are followed byJ)ou, the final /t/ or ,/d/ combines with the /y/ of you to produce a blended sound/t[/ ot /d3/ (.see also Fast-speech Reductions of Funcrion words, below).

I'll leiJa know. (l'll lei you know)

Did3a see the movie last night? (Did you see the movie last night?)

Reductions of Pronoun Vowels befote 're and'll The contractions 're arrd 'll canalter the vowel quality of I /^y/, be /f]jii/, she / jy/, lou /]ruw/,ue /wiy/, and ttrey /6ey/.All of these pronouns end in a glide somd (/w/ ot /yD. When '/e or 7/ follows thesepfonouns, they weaken the glide ending and the vowel (see also pages ss, tt, and uu).

I think l'l go. (/7i sounds very close to "all.")

We'll call you when we're ready. (14le7l sounds very close to "will" or/wall: we're sourds like /Mr/ orlwar/.)

Pronoun vowel weakening before 're and 'll i.s of minor pedagogical importance,but native-English-speaking teachers should be aware that they may be using thesereduced pronouns.

Students should be aware of the reductions of 11 pronouns because they willencountef them in the connected speech of native speakers. Even beginners enjoyleaming about these reductions in common, leyel-appropriate contexts, forexample, in questions like "What diddy (did he) do?" or "Where diddy (did he) go?"Indeed, through exposure to English, some students pick up these reductions inhigh-frequency expressions.

Because the joining of ,less pronouns (lge, lsim, +is, +er) to the precedingword is mandatory, studcnts who lack the proficiency to join words together easilyand smoothly are unlikely to be able to use these reductions in spontaneous speech.

68 cuAPr[R 2 Rhythm

The teaching focus should be the de-sressing of pronouns, not their ,-lesspronunciations. Taylor found that nonnatiYe speakers judged to have goodpronunciation and rhlthm made appropriate length and stress distinctions betweenstressed and unstressed words but used few redr.rced pronunciations (1981).

Activity 2.8 Verb + qbject Prcnouns: Spofts

Level Low lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tip Teach students predictable rh)'thm paiterns of phrases

Description This activity praciices the rhythm pattern of verbs followed by ll in

the context of sports. Student pairs lalk about what players are allowed

to do with a ball in different sports (e.9., kick it, pass it, dribble it'head it, carry it). The activity can also be used to review the reduction

' of canj What can you do with a ball in basketball? You can pass it or

dribble it, but you can't carry it. 0ptional: Before class, gather pictures

from the lnternet of the sports you include in this activity.

1. On the board (or in a handout), write the question "What can you do with aball?" Elicit answers from students, write them on the board, and add other

verbs. Verbs like pitch or bounce are likely to be new vocabulary but are easily

demonstrated. The verbs bel0w cover ball handling ln baseball, soccer,

basketball, and American football. Write the pronoun ltafter the verb, mark

stress on the verb, and underline the joining of the verb and lf. Ask the class ifthey know how to play any of these sports. Those who do can help demonstrate

new vocabulary and serve as experts on the rules.

Whai can you do wilh a ball?

rhr6w lt

c6rry it

kick it p6ss it

ciitch it h6ad it

hit it dribble it

sh6oi it bfnt it

h6ld it br6unce it dl6pkick ii dlink it pitch it

Basketball Baseball Soccer Amelican lootball

3. Add the phrase "in ?" to the question on the board.

?What can you do with a ball in

2. Explain or demonstrate new vocabulary (pictures can help; so can students who

know the sports). Ivlodel the verb phrases, lengthening the stressed syllables of the

verbs and pronouncing lias an endlng to the verbs. Siudents repeat Tell students

that pronouns like lt are unstressed and are pronounced like endings to the verbs.

Explain the use of "you" to mean "people" if necessary

:HAPTER 2 Rhythn 69

Tctioi\t 2.8 coninued

4. Demonstrate the activity. Choose two students. One selects a sport, and asksthe other the question on the board. Repeat with another pair of students.

5. Students work in pairs. Each student chooses a sport and asks, ,,What can youdo with a ball in (sport)?" The partner answers the question with one of theverb phrases. The partners should make a list of legal and illegal ball actionsfor the sport. Note that for some sports a ball action might be illegal for someplayers, but not for others. For example, in soccer, the goalie can carry theball, but other players can't. Circulate around the room and make sure thequestjon includes the word "ball" so that the student answering the questioncan use it. Give feedback on pronunciation and help students with vocabulary.

ffi rhrasal verbs

What the Teacher Should KnowIn phrasal verbs like come on, figure out, ot pick r4A the preposition (also

called the particle) has adverbial meanin€i and receives either primary of secondarystress (Celce-Murcia et

^1. 1996,112).

Phrasal verbs can be transitiye (separable), as lnpick it up, tut"n it on, and. trytbem on, or intransitive (inseparable), as in come on, utatcb out, and get in.l t Whenseparable verbs have pronoun objects and end a sentence, the preposition/particleis usually more heavily stressed than the verb. The same is true for intransilivephrasal verbs.

try them 6n look it fp Watch 6ut! get in

Native speakers link the words in phrasal verb phrases ll1tre pick it up closely.In many cases, the linking is between a final consonant and a beginning vowel.Pfonunciation wofk with phrasal verbs then also provides practice with consonant-yowel linking.

picak i!_up try them on ask herJut (askef out)

Phrasal verbs are grammatically more complex than single-word sy,nonyms andmay not be semantically transparent (e.g., the meaning of put off as,,postpone ', offigure out as "sol\.e"). Several studies have shown that students avoid plrrasal verbsin favor of simpler and clearer one-word synonyms (e.g., leaae instead of goout/aua!; enter instead. of come in; confuse instead of mix up). Howe\ler, natiyespeakers in large numbers pfefer phfasal yerbs over their one-wofd synonyms@agut and Laufer 1985, Hulstiin and Marchena 1989). pronunciation practice ofphfasal verbs, therefore, also promotes the use of more natural, idiomatic English.

rl Trarlsil.ilt !t$s hale dircct ohjects; s€pxrable !€rbs arc trlursitilc phra5alve s Intrensitive vebs do not have dircct obiecb.

70 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythm

Phrasal Verbs + Prepositions: Get au)aJ) lritb. Some phflsal Yerbs are followedby a true preposition that is unstressed. The true preposition has a noun obiect.

He gr6t awSy with murdel! G6t 6ut of the taxi.

Nouns Formed from Phrasal Verbs: a takeoff' Nouns and adjectives formedfrom phrasal verbs have primary stress on the flrst word and secondary stress on thesecond, the same stress-pitch pattem as compounds (e.g.,tlre tAkedfr, my md.keiQ).They can be included in a lesson on the word stress of compounds or as a contrastto phrasal verbs in a lesson on rhlthm.

Activity 2,9 Phrasal verhs: Don't put off until tonortow what you can do today

Level Advanced/High lntermed iate

Worksheet Page 216

Tip Teach students predictable rhythm patterns of phrases.

Description This activity practices phrasal verbs in the context of procrastination,

1. Direct students' attention to the dialogue on Worksheet 2 9. Ask students tofirst read the dialogue silently. Then go over vocabulary as needed.

&2. Students listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the pronunciation of the- underlined phrasal verbs. Elicit pronunciation from students or explain it:

Words in phrasal verbs are grouped together; prepositions receive stress.

Students listen to the dialogue again and repeat it.

3. ln pairs, students practice the dialogue.

4. Write the phrasal verbs from the dialogue on the board. Tell the class

something that you put off, the reason you put it off, and what theconsequences arelwere; for example, "l put off calling my parents because I

don't have time. Then I end up/wind up feeling guilty." Choose two or threestudents and ask them what they put off, why they put those things off, and

what the consequences arelwere. Encourage students to use phrasal verbs. Add

other phrasal verbs to the board to describe the situations.

5. In small groups, students talk about things they put off, using phrasal verbs.

6. Afier the group work, ask several students to report on what their group said

Provide feedback on stress and grouping words in phrasal verbs.

cHAPrtR 2 Rhvthn 71

ffi conjunctions

What the Teacher Should KnowIn connected speech, conjunctions are not stressed, and some are also reduced.

The coninnctions and ^nd

or arc discussed below in Reductions of Function W'ords,page 72. Conrunctions are usually grouped with the words they introduce.

Ca I me w'en t-e package arr ves.

Lee said that he's sick.._7->

We'll reschedule if it rains..---->-

Exercise rs as impodant as a healthy d et.

Exerclse is more mportant than a healthy d et.

Students may not group coniunctions in the same way that native speakers do.Bada found that Turkish ESL students gtouped tlrat more closely with the wordspreceding the coniunction than with the words following it, whereas the pattern fornative speakers was the reverse (2006).

Reduced (connected speech)

/wan/ Did someone come /wan/ you calLed? (someone

and come when rhyme)

l6all, l6aDl12 | don't belreve /6aV Tom would do that. I

don'i belreve /daD/ Alan would do that.

lfl(lafl) | don't know /lfl (/af/) I can go.

lazl )o^n. 'azl h Jng(y lazl a bear.

/6an/ The subway rs faster /6an/ a bus.

Like other reductions, reduced conjunctions must be linked closely tosurrounding words in order to sound natural. Students should be aware of thesereductions but should not be expected to use them in speaking. Learning to groupand de-stress conjunctions propedy is more important.

Since some conjunctions represent more advanced grammatical strllctures(e.g., conditionals, some noun clauses with tbat), the lcvel of grammar that studentsare able to use in connected speech should affect which con,unctions are chosenas pronunciation topics.

rr The svmboi D represents the flapped sound of / in z,4ler flapjng of a final I belbrc r,o$eh occuN in comnon \\,ords like a.'/ial and

u| as in trlhuddt thel uant? (Whdl da lhel tlant?). See page 129 lor flals.

Citation form

when /wrn/

lhal l6eIl

if hft

as l7zl

lhan l6anl

72 1HAPTER 2 Rhythm

Activity 2.10 Noticing unstessed conjunctionst Medical ethics

level Advanced/lntermediate

Worksheet Page 277

Tip Teach students to recognize the reduced pronunciations ofgrammar words.

Description This activity provides practice noticing unstressed conjunctions. lnthe example below, students listen to a passage on medical ethics,fill in blanks with conjunctions, and then answer the questions posed

in the passage.

$ 1. Pass out Worksheet 2.10 to students. Students listen to the passage once ortwice and fill in the blanks. They check their answers with classmates and thenwith the teacher.

2. Elicit or explain the pronunciation 0f conjunctions by modeling one of thesentences from the passage and directing students' attention to theconjunction. ls the conjunction grouped with preceding or following words? ls itstressed or unstressed?

3. Ask students to read the passage again, breaking longer sentences intothought groups.

4. Students read the passage to a partner. The partner checks for unstressedconjunctions and clear grouping of words.

5. The discussion questions can be answered as a whole class activity or ingroups. Students' pronunciation focus for the discussion should be speaking as

clearly as possible and grouping words together clearly and smoothly. lt ts

difficult (if not impossible) for the teacher (or students) to monitorpronunciation of a potentially large sei of words like conjunctions. lf theteacher notices a heavily stressed or inappropriately grouped conjunction, shecan give feedback on that. But she should explain that sometimes a speaker'smeaning requires that a conjunction be stressed (for example, "l think ihedoctor should tell the patient-lF the patient's family agrees").

ffi n"d.r.ttons of Function words

what the Teach€r Should KnowIn natively spoken English, function words Grammar words lile t/re or at) arc

unstressed. Some function words are also reduced: The function word Yowel ispfonounced /a/, and consonants may be lost. In the sentence 1 cdn slrim, said as a

neutral statement about abilittl, can is pronounced /ken/ , so that I can rhymes withliken.Because of teductions of z/lll and he4 your logic u)ill persuade ber can soundalmost the same 7s lour logical persuader

clIAPTER 2 Rhythm 73

The reductions covercd in this section are not colloquial; they are used informal as well as inlbrmal speaking. Reductions r4rich are more colloqui.al orinformal (e.g., pfonouncing the question Wbat did lou do?

^s ,WhaJe do?',) are

discussed below, in Fast-Speech Rcducriol.ts of Function Words.When students learn about the reductions and blen(ls used by native speakers,

they may try to speak faster than they are able to in order to sound more Englishlike (Rine)', Takegi, and Inutsuka 2005). Teachers should advise sh.rdents not to racethrou€ih the weak words, but rather to €iroup words and lengthen the stresseds)4lables of the strong word(s) in each group.

There haye been few studies of nonnative speakers' abilities to reducefunction words. They suggest that while proficient learners are able to pronounceftrnction words with shorter length than content words (Trofimoyich and Baker2006, Setter 2006), they rarely use reduced yowels in function words (Taflor 1981,Setter 2006).

Studies of the reduction of unstressed vowels within words reveal similarfindings. Proficient lcarners are able to make an appropriatc length distinctionbetwecn stressed and unstressed vowels, but vowel reduction to schwa is unlikely,especially for those who haYe learned English as adults and whose natiye languagedoes not have vowel reduction (Tlege and Bohn 1989;Lee, Guion, and Handa 2006).Although these studies have not looked at the effect that pronunciation teachingmi€iht l.lave on students' abilities to pronounce rcductions, they suggest thatfunction word reductions should be talrght primarily for recognition, as an aid tounderstanding natively spoken English, mther than as a goal for pronunciation.

ESL teachers, however, would disagree with this conclusion for at least somefunction words. rwhen students fail to pronounce can with a reduced yowel, theyare often misunderstood as having said "can't " In addition, some students "pick up"reductions of ancl and o/ in l.fgh-frequency phrases (such as "milk'n sugar," and"onear two," for one or h.uo , evcn at low le\.cls of proficienc_v13

'When new grammar is taught, function words are introduced in their citationform (fcw teachefs will introduce a grammar lesson on czrx by saying,"Today we 'regoing to stud)' /kn/"). Thus, the first prollunciation rhat classroom students hear isthe full, unrecluced fbrm. It is understandable that tltis is the pronunciation theycontinue to usc.

In addition, although thc reduced form is modeled in the speech of nativespeakefs, it is difficult for students to notice how these short, unstressed words arepronounced.v4ren Iistenirrli to English, students pl'ocess speech semantically; theypick out the mcaningful (content) words,which are also acousticnlly salient becausethey are stressed (Swain 1!85). Using these words, they are able to undersand themessage without attending to tlte le ss meaningful, less clear ftlnction words, whichare difficr t to notice (Van Patten 1990). At lower levels of proficiency,understanding is effortftll, and students have little time to notice the subtlermeanings and modalities that function words carry when listening for meaning.As

rr Thcsc urightbe learned er |hythm idio[]s, $herc dre pronunci^tim ol th€ phmse as a \r,hole is hx red

74 ]HAPTER 2 Rhythm

proficiency increases, understanding becomes easief, and more adyanced studentsare better able to notice some of the "details" they missed earlier

Special efforts are often necessary to help students notice reductions. Pairingsingle words that students can pronounce (for example, bacon) with a phrasecontaifliflg the reduced flrnction word (for example, Mr Bay can cook bacon) is an

effective way of helping students notice how the reduction sounds. Lane refers topairs like Bea can ligbt 'ttrd bedcon liglrt as "l.romophrases" and uses them inawareness actiyities (2005b, 2005c).

The sections below discuss the reduced pronunciations ot and, or:, alfd can,followed by contractions and reductions of auxiliary verbs. Reductions ofprepositions, pronouns, and some conjunctions are coYered on pages 60,66, and 71.

And, or Reductions of and and or can be taught to beginning level students forcomprehension. Some students may already be using them in common phrases.

Reduced lorm Noticing

lanl black 'n white(blacken white)

larl -el endings(big or small = bigger small)

Cary C&n't. In connected speech, can is reduced to Aanl when a verb follows.

Sue can /kan/ come.

It is not reduced when a verb does not follow.

Yes, I can /kan/.

f can / kan/, I'l come.

The negative can't, like other negatives, is stressed and pronounced with a fullvowel: /krnt/.

I can't /kanv come.

The reduction of can should be taught at the beginning level, simply because

there is so much confusion as to whether a student has said can ot cdn't.The natiYe

listener's most important cue for detemining whether the positive or negatiYe has

been said is the vowel. lf the vowel is reducetl Ua/),lhe listener hears can; tf theyowel is ,/r/, the listener hears can 7 Thus, when students pronounce caz with thefull vowel /rl the listener is likely to hear can't; the negatiYe Ycrb, however, doesn'tmake sense in the context, and the listener may ask,"Did you satt can ot can't?"-aquestion all too familiar to students. Because of this con{ilsion, students sometimesuse the lrncontracted cannot ]l]-f'te dof can't. The use of cannot does not solve theproblem, howe!'er, because the problem lies with the pronunciation of &zz.

Aftef teaching the reduction of can, students may not be able to use it at firstin connected speech, but they will be better able to understand sentences where it

Citation lorm

AND lendl

loOR

, d \t tt R 2 Rh,,thrr' 75

is reduced, the teacher will have an easier time drawing attention to confusingpronunciations, and students will be better able to self-cofrect.

Citation form Connected speech form Noticing

CAN lkanl /kan/, (even /kn,

CAN'T lkanv lkanV (no reduction)

May can cook !A!!!.

Cofltractions and Reductions of Auxiliary Vertrs. Contractions are extremecases of feductions and are especially common after pronouns. Contracted verbsare reduced to a consonant (e g., I'm, He's, WdD. Contractions of not (n't) Tepronounced as a final consonant cluster (e.g., don't, uon'' aren't) or a.s a

separate syllable /ent/ (e.9., doesn't, basn't, sbouldn't).In negatiye auxiliaries,the anxiliary yerb is stressed (e.g., [sn't, bAsn't), caftylng the stress that thenegative normally does.

Students should be encouraged to use contractions after pronouns in thetenses they know and are accustomed to using. Contractions may be avoidedbecause they creaie difficult final consonant clusters, or because students think theywill sound clearer if the full forms are used (and sometimes they do). Students whohave been taught not to use contractions in writing may extend this admonition tospeaking. Howeve! contractions are important in casual spoken English. Nativespeakers may fesort to uncontracted fofms when they want to cfeate clistance in a

convefsation, to asseft authoriry of to show displeasure. Considef the diffefence intone between the two sentences below. The use of uncontracted r/o ,1ot sounds likean order or warning.

Don't come late.

Do not come late.

After nouns, some auxiliary verbs lose their initial consonants and are reducedto a syllable, which is pronounced like an ending on the preceding noun. Forexarnple, tn I think Nick tuill go, the underlincd words are likely to be pronouncedlike "nickel." The auxiliary u)ill has lost the initial /W, its yowel has been reduced to/a/, and what remains ioins closely to the preceding word, like the -el ending innickelIn Tbe land bad been used as a park, the \nde ined words are likely to bepronounced like "Ianded": bad loses the i tial /h/ and is pronouncecl like zn -ed

enrJing on land.

Be

I'm He'YShe's lt's You're

layml lhiyzll[iyzl fttY lyvrl

We're They're

lwhl l6trl

The contractions I'm and be's/she's,/it's are used eady by students, includingbeginning level students. Contractions of are (you're, Lue're, thq)'re) are avoided,possibly because /r/ is a difficult sound.

76 .HAt'rtR 2 Rhythm

Native speakers contfact ls after nouns, just as they do after pronouns. If a

noun ends in a sibilant (see page 131),like/osr, rose, or judge, r's is pronounced likea long plural:

Josh's here. The rose is beautiful. The judge is wise.

Joshaz roses judges

After nouns ending in consonants, ,1re is pronounced like an -er ending.

Hate

He's She's lt's I've

lhiyzl ftyzt lxsl layYl

Studcnts avoid contracting the present perfect auxiliary verbs baue and has.

This may reflect the grammatical difficulty of the present pcrfect tense as well as itsrelative infrequency, compared to the pfesent tenses. Howevef, students should be

encouraged to use the contracted forms of baue ?.nd rds witll pronouns.Natiye speakers contract r,rs after nouns iust as they do after pronouns After

nouns ending in sibilants (s-like sounds, see Coflsonants) like Josb, rotgr or judge,

,ds is pronounced like a long plural:The initial /h,/ is dropped, the vowel is reducedto /a/, and what remains joins to the preceding noun:

You've We've They've

lyuwvl lwiyvl lleyul

Josh has gone. The rcSg-h3! glown a lot.

Joshaz ]osez

Tbe a\xiliary baue is also reduced after nouns: The iflitial /h/ is dropped, thevowel is reduced to /a,/, and what remains joins closely to the preceding word. Thereduced pronunc iatiot]' of baue sounds identical to the Pronunciation of of /aY/.

Bill and John are here.

"Johner"

The students have linished.

"studentsav"

Some !!U&l!S_aIC absent.

"studentser"

The iudge has left.

judgaz

Stndents should be aware of the reduced pronunciltlon of baue after nouns

In modal perfect constructions, natiYe speakers almost never prono\tace baue

in its full form. It is re duced to /av/ and ioins Yery closely to the preceding word.

Where have you been?

"wherav"

You could have come.

"couldav"

I gh!U[L!i!g known.

"shouldav"

The reduction of baae may be caffied even ftlrther with the loss of fi|Lal /v/.This pronunciation is sometimes written, " shoulda, coulda, wouldal'

lshould have known.

"shoulda known"

You could have come.

"could3 come"

4"Ptt.R 2 Rh\|hm 77

Because the reduced pronunciation is virtually always used in speaking, it isthe only natural pronunciatiott of haue in this construction. Furthermore, withmodal perfects, students can linl< the reduced pronunciation of baue to a smallnumber of preceding words-tDould, could, sbould, ,nustr and might-Lnd, ttrereduction can be learned as a unit with the modal Learning to reduce ,l, aue after thissmall set of words is easier than learning to reduce it in the present perfect, whetethe possible number of words preceding baue is yast. Advanced students who usemodal perfects spontaneously and have practiced the reduction are able ro use thereduced pronunciation spontaneously with some modals, especially in sbould baue(possibly because sbould haue is practiced extcnsively, in the context of regrets orseconcl thoughts).

The same feductiofi of baae occurs aftef negative modals.

Students should be aware of the reduction of baue after negative modals but shouldnot be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking.

Hacl, Would The past perfect auxiliary rad and the modal ulould are contractedto

^ fin l /d./

^ft.ff pronouns:

I'd already done it. I'd like coffee. You'd better study.

Because the past perfect is a difficult and advanced terise, students do not makemuch use of it and rafely use contfactions when they do. ln the expression ,I:adbette4 which is used spontaneously by some students ,lr.td Is also ruely contractecl.Part of the reluctance to contmct ,a d in bad better may be the difficr t cluster thatarises at the boundary of the rwo wotds (baAl^effer). Alrhough this cluster willbe present whether bad is contracted or not, students might feel their speech willbe clearer if they use the full form of bad.

In the expression utould. like, common at all levels, students also avoidcontfacting uould. Again, as with. bad betteli a difficult cluster arises at theboundary of uoukl and, like (/d/ + M. I3ecause uould like is a cofirmonconyefsational form, students should be encouraged to use the contraction with 1in Id like, for example. Students will need practice linking the final /d/ to thefollowing word.

The negative contractions lJadn't and xuouldn't are not used frequently bystudents. Higher priority should be giyen to the contmction of utould, especiallyafter the pronoun 1, than to hadn't ancl, ttouldn't.

After nouns ending in consonants, Edd is pronounced as a syllable,like the ,edending in started. The if:'iti^l th/ is dropped, the vowel is reduced to /a/, and whatreo]' ins of bad joins closely to the preceding word:

Rick had already graduated.

"Rickad already graduated"

lshouldn't have done it.

"sh6uldantev"

He couldn't have seen it.

"c6uldantav"

Ed had edited it.

"Edad" edited it.

78 )HAPTER 2 Rhythm

Students should be aware of this reduction but not expected to use it inspontaneous speaking.

wiry Won't Students are reluctant to use contracted //, perhaps because they donot hear it cleady. In English,t}j'e frnal A/ of 1rll/ is a "dark l" (see page 741) an<l maysound unfamiliar to students. In connected speech, the dark I of contllcted u)illalters the vowel of the preceding pronoun, weakening the glide ending of thevowels in pronouns. Consider the pronunciation of the contractions in the followingsentences, spoken normally:

Cal me and ljl come.

(sounds close to "all")

Te I me if he'l be there.

(sounds close to "hii ")

Let me know when they ll come.

' (rhymes with "shell")

It is not necessary to teach these pronoun alterations to students.The contraction taon't is also avoided by students. Students may use a Yery

similar pfonunciarion for uon't and u)ant, which can be confrrsing to a listenerStudents should be taught to round their lips tightly fot uon't and to use the voweli7 fatber fot uant.

It is important for students to use the contractions of ll ^fld

uon'L because ofthe forceful meaning that uncontracted uill and u.till nol can haYe. Consider the twosentences below;the second sentence has the feel of an emphatic refusal.

I won't go. I will not go.

Students should be aware that they may sound imperious or rude when they use

uncontracted forms of loill a1J.d uill not.After nouns endiflg in consonants, z/i// is reduced to the syllable /ay, $/hich

joins closely to the preceding word; it is pronounced like an -al, -le, or -el ending onthe preceding wofd. Native speakers pronounce the two sentences below neadythe same.

The cat will drink water. = The cattle drink water.

Students should be aware ofthe reduced pronunciation of ?r/// after nouns, butshould not be expected to use it in spontaneous speaking.

Like other negatiyes, the negative contractions d6n't, d6esn't, and dldn't are

stressed. The contracted forms don't and didn't are more common in studentspeech than doesn '/, perhaps because ofthe third-person singular present -s ending,which is frequently omitted by students. Students shottld be encouraged to use

negative contractions of the simple present and past tenses.

cHAPrtR 2 Rhythm 79

Activily 2. 1 1 Reduction of and: Foods that go together

level H igh Beginning/Low lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tip Teach students to recognize the reduced pronunciations ofgrammar words.

Descriplion This activity is from Focus on pronunciation I (Lane 2OO5a,12L-122).lt provides practice noiicing and pronouncing the reducedpronunciation of and

1. Read aloud these words for some foods that often go together. Repeat thephrases. Pronounce and as [an]. Join it to the first word.

a. surf and turf f. salt and pepper

b. turkey_and stuffing g. cake and ice cream

c. cookjes_and mjik h. chipq,and dip

d. bacon and eggs i. fish and chips

e. bread_and water j. rice and beans

2. Choose three phrases from Part 1 and write them on the lines.

Your phrases:

3. Work with a partner. Read your phrases to your partner. your partner will writewhat you say. Then listen to your partner's phrases. Wrjte them on the lines.

Partner's phrases:

4. Work in small groups. The foods in Part 1 are eaten by different groups of peopleor in different situations. Complete the sentences with ihe foods in part l.a. ln the caribbean, it's rice and beans

b. For breakfast, it's

.. In priso4 ir tl-e o'o days, il was

d. At beach restaurants, it's

e. For a children's snack, it's

f. For dessert, it's

g. At a party, it's

(cortinue.l on next page)

B0 cHAPr[R 2 Rhythnl

Actiuit! 2.1 1 cuttinued

h. For Thanksgiving, it's

i. These spices make food taste better:

1. ln England, it's

5. Write down other foods that go together. Then te I your group about foods thaioften go together ln your country.

We eat a lot of shrimp and vegetables.

Activity 2.12 Can and can'|. What difference can an individaal nake?

level Intermed iale/Advanced

Worksheet None

Tip Teach the reduced pronunciation of can to help students pronounce

the difference between can and can't.

Descliption This activity can be integrated with other materials on environmentalproblems. lt praciices the unstressed pronunciation of can and thestressed pronuncialion ot can't, in the coniext of how an individualcan help the environment.

1. Introduce the topic of environmental problems. Ask students whatenvironmental problems they are concerned about. l\4ake a list on the board.

2. lntroduce the pronunciation oI can and can't. Wrile the J.EK. quote, beiow, on

the board, leavlng out can.1a Read the quote and ask students to listen to how

the words in the blanks are pronounced. Ask students whether can is stressedor unstressed.

lVy fellow Americans, ask not what your country do for you.

Ask what you do for your coLntry.

3, Show the reduced pronunciation of canon the board: Dlrectly after "country"and "you," write "kan," in the blanks, leaving no space between "kan" and thepreceding word (this shows that can is pronounced like an ending). lvlark thestressed syllable of "country," and put a stress mark over "you." Modelcduntrykan and y1ukan seuen tlmes. Students repeat,

4. Ask several students to read the J.F.K. quote. Give feedback on thepronunciation of can. Ask students to paraphrase J.F.K.'s quote,

ra lhis quote is fron John n Kennedl s iraugural add.css ir Jarllrari i961.

CHAPTER 2 Rhythn 81

ActiuiU' 2. I 2 co.ntinued

5. Write the sentence below on the board. Ask students how they think J.F.K.would complete this quote. Ask students how they would complete the quote.Each student should say the quote so that it reflects his own opjnjon. Explainthat the negattve can'f is always stressed.

An Individual do a lot to help the envjronment.

(can/"an l)

6. Ask students what an individuai can do to help the environment. Elicit a fewanswers with can and monitor pronunciation (e.g., you can walk to school orwork, you can use a fan instead of an air conditioner). Write the suggestions onthe board as verb phrases (e.g., walk to work, use a fan instead of an aircond itioner).

7. Students work in pairs, continuing the list of things a person can do to helpthe environment. Ask students to write sentences starting with ,,you

can.,,Circulate among the pairs, helping them with vocabulary or giving suggestions(e.g., recycle, vote for "green" candidates, reuse empty coniainers).

8. When students have written several sentences on their lists, ask the pairs toread their sentences and add new ones io the list on the board. Help studentswith pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

9. Choose a suggestion from the list on the board (e.g., ,,walk to school") and aska student, "Sonia, can you walk to school?,' Sonia should answer for herse'f,"No I can't because I live too far away.,' provjde feedback on the pronunciationof can and can't. lf students use short positjve answers (e.g., ,,yes, I can',),write the short answer on the board and tell students that can isn,t reduced inshort answers.

ERROR C0RRECTI0I{: Your sJudents pfonorLrce can $ke canl.After students have learned the feduced promrnciation of can, provide feedback onmispronutciations: Ask,,Can or Can't?,,

ffi n^t-sp"ech Reductions of Function words

What the Teacher Should KnowThe reductions described aboye reflect pfonunciations that occur in fofmal as

well as infomal speech. Other reductions,like Wy'rajd do? for wbat did you do? orWbatcba been doing? fot WlJat baue you been doing? are associated with fast,casual speech. A natiye speaker deliyering a fomal presentation at a conferencewould be unlikely to use these forms. Since native speakers speak informally far

82 .HAPTLR 2 Rhythm

more often than they do formally, our students should be aware of the informalreductions they will undoubtedly hear.

Fast-speech reductions should be taught for recognition rather thanproduction. Indeed, there may be a "style clash" if students attemPt to use fast-

speech reductions when they lack fluency: The use of gor1r1a, for example, by a

student with little fluency, can sound incongruous. In addition, less proficientstudents who use gonna m?y 2:dd to (.e .g.,I'm gonna to do it) or \rse utanna whenthe subiect is rels be/it (e.g.,She utanna do /t), errors that heighten the style clash.

On the other hand, through exposure to spoken English, some students do pick up

some fast-speech reductions on their own and use them accumtely. If the reductionsounds natural, the student should not be discouraged from using it.

Some fast-speech reductions should probably be viewecl as a continuum ofreductions, rather than as discrete fixed forms; the continuum involves a blendingtogether of more and ntore wotds and a loss of phonetic material that can be

extreme. Reductio trs of be Soing to are an example Years ago, my father planted the

seeds that later set me to listening for these reductions when he chided me forsaying "Imanal"'Imana?" he asked."Whafs Imane?l" Since then,I have heard the fullrange of reductions shown below, in my own speech, in my father's speech, and inthe speech of other native speakers.

l'm going to go to the bookstore after class today.

I'm gonna go to the bookstore after class today.

lmana go to the bookstore after class today.

lrnna go to the bookstore after class today.

lma go to the bookstore after class today.

Althougtr native speakers may not be aware tllat they are making these extreme

reductions, they all occur in the informal English of educated native spcakers

The following fast-speech reducdons are presented in many pronunciation

textbooks (Dauer 1993, Hewings and Goldstein 1998, Lane 2005c).\feinstein (2000),

1n wlJaful.aya sd.l1r, has developed nonstandard spellings of these reductions, whichalso appear in dialogue in novels and plays. Although the first two entries in the listbelow, baue tonJas to afld used to, are usually presented as fast-speech reductions'

the reducecl or blended pronunciation is used in formal as well as informal English.

Citation form Fast-speech spellings and pronunciation

hafta lhaftal, hasta Aastey'

/yuwsta /yuwstuMl5

gonna /ganJ

have to, has to

used to

going to

lt The last vo$el ol mel lo (/a/ or /u\t), depends on the iint sound of the following $ord. Thc /ury' pronunciation occuN beforc

\o\\, d ^eo

to pnjq ,'"' lrp 0 '. .s'.010. r ahu ' pag' (l

1HAPTER 2 Rhythn 83

have got to

want to

ought to

don't know

out of

could have

would have

should have

must iave

gotta /goDe/6

wanna /tvoney'

ought to 6Der'

dunno /den6v

outta /awDd

coulda /kuDey'

woulda AvuDey'

shoulda 4uDoy'

musta /mesta/

The reduction of going to to goww occurs only when going to is used as thefutufe auxiliary, not s/hen it is the main verb of a sentence alrd to is follov/ed by a noun.

l'm gonna study. (l'm going to study.)

NOT: l'm gonna school. (l'm going to school.)

The reduction zr)anna. is .used, with the subject pronouns I, you, ue, ot tbq) rcrepl ce uant to or uant a, b1ot not u,ant tbe,

I wanna study. (l want to study.)

I wanna book. (l want a book.)

NOT: I wanna book(s). (l want the bookls].)

Other fast-speech feductions arise when certain sounds come in contact,producing blended sounds (e.g.,"Whaia" for "What did you"). Fast-speech blends arediscussed in Linking Adiacent Words, above.

The auxiliaries d.o md d.id. and the pronoun Wu undergo some extfemereductions, especially in questions. The vowel in da is ofien feduced to /a/ Z;nd |drenitial /d/ naybe flapped (phonetic symbolD) aftet Wbat? (see Consonaffs,page 129).

Whaddaya /waDaya/ think? (What do you think?)

Howdaya /hawDaya/ know? (How do you know?)

The atx:hary did may be reduced to a single consonant /d/ .lI you follows did.,the sing]e consonant is /dy.

Wherd they go? (Where did they go?)

Whaja do? (What did you do?)

16'lhe synrbol D repruents the flapped sound of /, ,s i n water (w page 129).

84 LHAPTER 2 Rhvthm

Aclivity 2.13

Level

Worksheet

Tip

0escription

Reductions, Recognizing do and did

I ntermed iate/Advanced

Page 218

Teach students lo recognize the reduced pronunciations ofgrammar words.

This activity helps students recognize da, did, and you in their fast-

speech pronunciations. Students listen to sentences and wriie ihefull forms of the sentences in the blanks.

3.

G 1. Students listen to the sentences on the handout.

2. Students work together to write the standard spellings of the questions

and sentences.

4.

Tell students that they do not need to use these reductions ln their own

speaking but ihey shou d be abLe to recognize them.

Ask students to share their experiences with "fast English" other reductlons

they've heard or difficulties they have had understandlng colloquial or

dialectal English.

CONCLUSION

Most classroom topics involving Englisli dlthm larget the linking or grouping

of worcls or the dillerence in length and loudness between stressed (content) words

and unstressed (function) words. Research shows that these aspects of English

pronunciation can be learned by students. It also sl]ows that native listeners ofEnglish rely as heavil]', and possibly morc heavil]', on rhlthmic cues as they do on

appropriately pronounced consonants and vowcls Therefbre, as students gain skillwith the lbatures of r\thm, they inProve thc conlpre he nsibiliry of their ownspeech.At the same time, their comprehension of native speakers impfoves as the]-

gain familiarity with how words are altcrcd or emphasized in connected speech.

CHAPTER

INTONATION

Ncar the cnd of class, in response to lny request fol a par;rphrase of what aspeakcr hacl just said in an inte fview. mv Kore an stuclent ans'we red..He said that,,He se emed to bc finishe d:His voice rose on lldr, which was stresse d. anal then fellto a low note. I asked (too soon. I now believc),,,yes. but u)b.tt didhc say? In r_ourowlt $.ords." The srudent looked anno;.ed at my question. After[.,ards i thor-lghrabout the cxchange and his reaction.I concluded that his intonation had led me tcrbelicve his answer was finishcd-rltat he had said,.He saicl that.,, rather rhan ,,llesaid that ...'

Intonatiot], the meaningf]. use ofpitch on a word or phrase, contributes to theinterpretation of discoursc mcaning, grammatical meanini, ,,rnd affectir.e meaning.In discourse. intonation identifies intportant infbrmation fbr tlte Iistencr. shoI!.s ltowditlerent picces of informati.n rclxte ro cach othcr, est,rblislres a levcl ofengagement betwcen the speaker and listener ancl manages conversattonal tuLns.Ingranmal particular intonation patterns are common with particular structurcs,hclping to distinlauish statements (e.g.. 1t,s ralnirg.) from questions (e.g., Z:rraining) or direcr obiecr nouns (e.g.,I knou) Uat1,.) trom direcr adclress nouns(c g ' I knotu' Mqry.) rn its afitctive ftlnctior.r, into.ation r-eflects the attitudes and

cmotiol-ls 0f speakers.

DEFINITIONS

Pitch on a word. Ever1. s,vllablc is spoken with a particular leyel of pllcD (a note).I)ut onh. pitches thar are noticeably highcl or lox.cr than o,fr... ir= in for,r"r.'fhese occur on dte stre.ssed sy,llables of w.or.tls that the speaker wants to mekeprominent and highliglrt l In the dialog'e berorq most speakirs wourcr highright thcwo(l "doctor" as the most import;rnt information in a stiaightf<rrward answer to the

it cfut^/ltde. sttt!.t. tt)ttic st lloble. .tenlet tLi slras aid tr;lrzr'.vr,,i

B5

86 ]HAPTER 3 lntonation

question "If/hat's your day Like?" High pitch,length, and loudness combine to drawthe listener's attention to this word.

Ar What's your day I ke?

B: L'm going to the DOQtor this afternoon.

In the example aboye, pitch "steps down" from the srressed syllable of"doctor" to the following unstressed syllable. Pitch "glides down" on single-syllable

stressed words and in words stressed on the last syllable. Glide patterns are moredifficult for learners to hear than step patterns because the pitch change occursover a single syllable.

aGREE.

Low pitch on an important word is also sometimes used to make it salientIn the exchange below, "don't" is pronounced with low pitch. In this case, thespeakef is correcting or contradicting preYious information (Pierrehumberl and

Hirschberg 1990).

Ar I thought you wanted steak.

B: I DON'T want stdak.\_ ,,---'/English intonation is traditionally presented as having three or four levels of

pitch: low, mid, high, and a fourth level of extra high pitch, used to shoY/ strongemotions such as disbelief or

'oy

(?ike 1972, Prator and Robinett 1985,]ifong 1987'

Beisbier 1995, Celce-Murcia et al. 1996). Following Levis's suggestion (.1999), a

simpler two-term system for describing pitch leYel, ltiglt/higber or lou,4oLuer' is

recornrnended.z In pmctice, classroom teachers often end up with a two-levelsystem an)'way, using terms like /,€her or lou)er eYen if the textbook presents thfeeor four levels of pitch.

Ifltoflation cofltoufs. (]tterances are stretches of speech set off by silence. In a

quick exchange, they can be as short as a word; in extended discourse, they can be

several sentences long. Longer utterances are broken into shorter units ofinformation (thought groups), each of which has its own intonation contour(melody or tune). Most speakers would break the sentence below into two thoughtgroups, shown by underlines.

ryTIgAfrorn the start

2 The two-tenn rysten also rcfl€ch llnguistic descdltions olinlonation (Pienchumbert 1980,0ha1a 1983, Boling€r 1998, Cusshoven

2004) . In addition, higli or Low pitch is not a lixed level A pitch is heard ,i h jgh or low onlr in rclation t0 local adjdcent pitches, not in

rcLation to ,rn xbsoiute.

It's H0T.

CHA?TER 3 lltonati)n 87

These units of information are referred to by vafious n ames.. intonation units,intonational pbrases, inteftnediate phfases, tone group' tone units, tlJougbtgroups, cbunks, and,pbrase groups.3 In this book the term',thought groups,,is us;d.Each unit contains at least one prominent word, has its own intonation contour, andoften constitutes a grammatical pl

"se (for example, a short clause or prepositional

phrase). In the dialogue below, the sentence',I think it went well,,' consists of twothought groups, each with its own intonation contour, At the end of the fust clause,intonation does not fall to a low note, signaling that,,I think,, is not the end of theutterance and should be understood with \shat follows. In the second thoughtgoup, pitch rises o\'er the highlighted word "well" and then falls to the bottom ofthe speaker's range, showing that the utterance is complete.

A: How was your interview?

=- _ =4B: In rot sL,e. athink ,1 6n, *"N

RESEARCH ON INTONAIION

Final Intonation Patterns and PitchFinal falling and final rising intonation patterns in English are traditionally

linked with diflerent rypes of sentences: Declamtive sentences and informationquestions tlpically end with falling intonation, yes-no questions end with risingintonation. The dialogue below illustrates the three sentence types and theirtypical intonations.

A: What are you doing tonight? (information question, fall ng intonatlon)

(dec arative statrnent, falling intonation)

(yes no question, ristng intonation)

The same intonation patterns are used with the same sentence types in mostlanguages (Cruttenden 1986). Because of this similariry Kenworthy maintains that"teachers can assume faidy safely that in many cases learners will use intonation inEnglish appropriately" (1987, 85). The use of salient pitch to make informationprominent is also found in many languages.

J In Pienehumbefi and Hi$chberg, mtonational phrdJes corcspond rou$ll to sentence length ultermces; thought groups $ithin theintonational phrases arc refeffed t0 as "intennediate phrases' (1!!0,277).

B: I thlnk l'll just watch TV.

---',.Do you want to see a movie?

88 aHAPTER 3 lntonation

On the other hand, languages also djffer in the ways in which pitch andintonation are used, ancl these differences can be difficult fof students to learn. Forexample, although both English and Portugnese use pitcl.t to highlight importantinformation, in Portuguese, the prominent word occupies the fi11al position in an

intonation phrase. In English, the prominent word is usually the last content word(stressed word) in an intonation phrase but can also occupy nonlinal positions, as

in the following example (Cruz-Ferreim l9tl7, 105):

(She gave dog brscuits to someone.)

(She gave brscuits to her dog.)

In Portuguese, the differcnce between tltese two sentences would not beexpressed through pitch but through difTerent grammatical constructions or lex-ical items.

Gumperz reports on a misunderstanding befween Inclian cafeteria workersand their British customers that involvcd intonatior.r patterns with Ps-n o questions(1982).Vhen the Indian workers oflered grary to their customers, they used fallingintonation, their native language pattern, rathef than the risin€i intonation expectedin English.

Gravy?

Their British customers interpreted this intonation as rudeness, an indication thatthe workers didn't care if the customers wanted gravy or not.

Pitch Range and IevelRange of Pitclr, the difference between the highest and lowest notes produced

in ilrl lrttennce, can also dillbr from language to language. Stlrdies of l)utch and Spanish

learners of English showed tl.nt the lezLrnels used a narrower pitch range compared tonative English speakers, closer to that of thejr native languages @ackman 1979,

Willems 1982). The transfer of a narrower pitch range into Eng.lish could contribute tothe "flat" intonation used by many ESL students (as could lack of confidence).

It is not always easy to convince students to use a wider range of pitch. In myown classrooms. when I ask "flat talkers" to "use their voices more," the results

usually sound good to me (sometimes students use a range of intonation tllat is oYel

the top and we all have a good laugh). Some students welcome my comments and

make clear efforts to apply them in speaking. Other students, howevet say they feelfoolish or silly. While textbooks that encourage students to sound "enthusiastic" inEnglish have been criticized (Ranalli 2002), we owe it to students who use patternsthat make them sound rude or uninterested to inform them of the impression they

She gave her dog

a HApIER 3 tntonation 89

may be creating The fact that some students $ ill not take our advice does not mcanthat we shor d not make tlte effort.

In othcr cases, speakers of languages \vith a wider pitch range than En1;lish, torexample, Sweclish learners, ma1. speak English with a sinEi_song intonarion (Cclcc_Murcie et al. 1996, 185).

Langua€ies differ not oni. in rnn€ie of pitch bur also in average leuet (t pitch.Natiyc Geman speakcrs of English, for exaLmple. arc regartlccl as speaking wirh arather low flat intonation that mal' souncl ot erly serious or pedantic to a Nortl.lAmerican English listener; the rangc of pitch in German is also nafrower than inEnglish (Trinrm 1988, as quoted in Mennen 2006). A study of the level ancl range ofpitch used bv aclvancecl Gernnn spcakers of Englisl] showed that while most

'sed a

higher average level of pitch in Engrisl] (closer to the Engrish nomr), rhey continuedto use a narrower rxnge of pitch, (closer to the nom for Gernun), sufiElesting thatlevel ofpitch ma)' be more casily learned than range ofpitch (Mennen 2006).

Studies of Second Language (L2) Learners, IntonationTherc haye been few stlldies of how L2 learncfs t-lse it.rtonation in Enlalish. Most

have looked at the intonation of intemecliate to aclr'ancccl learners and show that. aswith other areas of pronunciation, intonation is inf'luenced b,y tlte nadve languagesystem. They :rlso reveal problcnntic areas of English intonation lbf learners: the uscof pitch to make important words pronlinent, in pafticulaf, the use of contrastivestress (e.9., This is YOtlRS. not MINE); a difficuln usinli rising intonarion withuttefances othef than :le.s-r?o questions, antl a corresponding oYeruse of fallin€lintonatioll. Most studies that include lcarners at dirlerent proficiency le,,els reportthat morc proficient learners use intonation more accurately than less,proficientlearners, evidencc that featurcs of intonation are learnable

Cruz-Ferreira strr(lie.l h()q/ Poftuliuese learners of English interpreted Englishintonation, ancl how English learners of portuguese interprctecl portugueseintonation (1987). Shc found that whcn both languagcs used rhe same inronationpattcrn to expfess the same meaning, the lcarners intelpreted intonation tlte sameway that nntive listeners do. \Vhen both lang,ages usccl the same intonation featurebut used it to express diflerent rncanings, learners intcrpretcd intonation as the.I.would in their nati\.e languages. Finallv, when a target language intonation patterndid not have a counterpart in the nati\.e language, learners either ignorcclintonation, basing interpretations on the lexical content of the Lltterance. orintcrpreted mcaninla randomly.

Pennington and Ellis studied the ability of aclr.anced Cantonese EFL learners todistinguish pairs of sentences which diflbrecl only in prosody (rh1,thm anclintonation): for examplc,ls be driuing tbe BUS vs.Is HE (lriulng tlre bus;TtJe fightis ouer lired vs. Tlte fight is oter Fred (2000). Thel fbund that with explicir traininti,learners were bener able to notice prosodic difTerences, especially diffcrences inthe placement of highlighted words.'Ihcy conclutlecl that there is a need for cxplicitinstftrction in thc form of intonational features and their functions.

90 ]HAPTER 3 ,Intonation

ln a study of intermediatc Spanish, Japanese, and Thai ESI- learners,

wennerstrom (1994) found that learners did i.Iot always use pitch to signal contrasts

where native speakers would.wennerstrom (1998) compared the use of four intonational features b-v

Mandarin Chinese international teaching assistants (I'IAs) and native-Enlilish

teaching assistants (TAs).'I'he ITAs ranged from intermediate to low-adYanced levels

of proficiency. Ms.Irennerstrom found dlat all learners, including those with lowerproficiency, were able to use hitaher pitch with new content words (stressed words)

ancl lower pitch with function words (unstressed words; ' Lower-proticiency

learners had difficulty producing an appropriate contrast between words

presenting new information ancl words referring to old information She also tbund

that ITAS unclerused paratone, the wiclening of pitch range when a new topic is

introcluced. In general, her study showed that hillher-proficiency ITAS usecl

intonation more lppfopriately thnn lower-proficiency ITAS. Since all ofthe iTAs had

had some instrlrction in pronunciation, she concludetl that at least some aspects ofintonation can be taught and learned, although, as in most stLldies of pronunciadon

learning, there was indiviclual variationPickering studied the use of falling and risirlg intonation by Chinese lTAs

(2001). She found that rhe ITAS undefuscd fising intonation at utterance boundaries

comparecl to natiye-English TAs. The preponderance of falling and level intonation

usedbythelTAscreated..aflatmonotonicpitchstructufeunfamiliartoflativehearers" (2001,249).

Ueyama andJun studied the intonation of;les-zo questions in E1.I€ilish by native

speakers of Korean and Japanese (1998) In all three langualies' intonation typically

rises at the end of 7es-n o questions. However, in English, the rise :rfter the focus

(highlighted) worcl is continuoLts, whereas in Korean and Japanese, it is not The

intonation used by the more-pfoficient lelfncfs was nlofe Englishlike than that ofless-proficient learncrs.

CONCERNS ABOUT TT,ACHING INTONATION

Dalton and Seidlhofer describe intonation as the "problem child" ofpronurciation teaching (1994,73). Teachers cxpress a variety of concerns about

teaching intonation: One concern is that intonetion is hard to "pin down"; a giYen

sentence can be pronounced with different intonation patterns, sometimes,

but not always, creating a clear diflerence in meaning' This problen can usually

be avoicled by presenting and practicing intonation in context, rather than

in isolated sentences (Bolinger, 199{3). Context sharply redlrces the number ofintonation choices.

slftrss el]clitics (unstressed larticles thet join closelr to surtoutlding 'ronls).

(HA?TER 3 lntonation 9"1

Another difficutty is that intonation is hard to hear, and even trainedtranscribers disagree on how certain examples should be transcdbed (Brazil 1994a,6). This difficulty can be avoide<l by focusing classroom work on features ofintonation like the use of pitch to make information prominent or the use of pitchat the ends of utterances (final intonation patterns). prominent words are notdifficult to hear, and the pause at the end of an utterance makes final intonationeasier to hear Minimal dialogues (one-word exchanges), lite the one below, areuseftil for focusing students' attention on final intonation patterns (.\(/ong 19g7,62).Minimal dialogues are also natural: In casual conversations especially, we do notalways speak in complete sentences.

'''.-A: Finished?

A: Five m inutes?

B: No.

A: When?

B: Later.

The difficulty of hearing whether the yoice is rising or falling can also bereduced by replacing words with nonsense syllables to isolate the tune. Forexample, in the dialogue above, students may have difficulty hearing the fallingintonation on "When?" because the fall is rapid, occurring over a single syllable.(Students may also be confused by the question mark.) However, when a nonsensesllable is used in place of"When?" the fall in inronation is much easier to hear.

Speech visualization technology can also be an aid to teaching intonation (Chun1998, Levis and Pickering 200|. The technology allows learners to see their orlmintonation and tlnt of models, displayed as a waye pattern, which helps compensatefor some of the difficulty in hearing intonation. Some speech yisualization proglirmscan be downloaded ftee: WASP (Iluckvale 2OO7) .and PR4,4T (Boersma and Weenick2009). Others are available commercially: for example , Visi-pitclJ 1Il (KayElemetfics2004). Both Chun and I.el.is and Pickering fecofirmend using visual clisplays of

B: Almost.

H

92 ]HAPTER 3 lntonatian

authentic discourse as models, wl.rich are a better feflection of actual intonation use

than scripted, isolated sentences.To reduce the complexity of intonation, teachers can combine both geneml

and specific approaches. Ta-vlor suggests that teachers shoultl focus on "broadgeneml principles, mastery of which will have a high pay-off for leerners and

teachers" (7993, 2). For example, a general rneaning of final rising intonation is

uncertainty or lack of finality or completeness. This explains its common lrse in JLle.t-

no questions (uncertainty), its use in "holding the floor" in conversation (lack offinality-the speaker is not finished yet), its use in lists of infomation (lack offinality-there's more to follow in the list;see Listing Intonetion, below), and its use

in discourse to signal that what came before is to be interpreted with what follows(the preceding is unfinished).' Each of these rtses of final rising intonation can be

practiced in separate lessons with a specific communicative fuflction.

APPROACHES TO TEACHING INTONAIION

TraditionalIn many textbooks, intonation patterns are linked to different types of

sentences or phrases. yes-zo questions, for example, end in risin!! intonation, whiledeclarative statements and inforrnation questions end in falling intonation.

A: Did yo- wa., h lto 1ci{ tor gnll (},es no qJesl o.li

B: I wasn't hoib. (declarativel wfrat r,fien-dl (inforrnat on question)

Another rule states that items occurrinfa in the beginning of a list are

pronounced with rising intonation;the last item ofthe list is pronounced with fallingintonation if the list is complete, or with rising intonation if the list could continue.

---'/J

red, white, and b ue.-'-/._--...-/._-/red, wh te, b ue, green (. . .)

General meanings ofintonation patterns are usually presented. Rising intonation, forexample, indicates uncertalltF or lack of finality/completeness.

The association of intonation patterns with grammatical structllres (sentence

types, phrase rypes) is both teachable and learnable. The intonation-structureassociations reflect the intuitions of natiYe speakers and may also reflect the mostfrequent intonation pattern used with a particulaf structure (e.g , falling intonationwith declaratives).

The traditional approach to teaching intonation, however, has been criticizedas overly simplistic and inadequate because the rules it presents are not always

5 The nreanings of "uncefainq and " lack ol cotnplcteness are xrgueblv rclabd. Il a spelker ols a co rvorket lor extuDpl€, 'tut the

(HAprER 3 tntonation 93

reflected in natural speech (see, for example, Cauldwell and Hewings 1996, Levisand Pickering 20o1)-rn addition, the use of isolated sentences does not reveal thecoffmunicatiye role that intonation plavs in connected speech. Levis and pickeringconpared natiye speakers' intonation on sentences fead first in isolation. ordered sothe sentences were unrelated to each other (200,1). The final intonation on thesesentences, mostly declamtives, was falling, conforminli to the tmditional rules (i.c.,most declaratives end in falling intonation). Howevef, wlten the same scntenceswere reordercd to cfeate a coherent paragraph, the native speakers used more risingintonation, even where the rules would predict falling intonation. pickering (2001,cliscussed above) found sinflar results in her comparison of the intonation used bynatiye-English TAs and ITAS when deliverinFi a lecture. pickering sug€iests that rhenative-English lAs'use of rising intonation when deliyering new inlbrmation (wherethe expected pattem would be falling intonation) allowed them to ayoid soundingas if they were alwa)'s infofming rheir students (2001).

Discourse IntoflatiofrA more recent alternadve for teachin[i intonation is discourse intonation.

Discourse intonation has irs roots in the work of Halliday (1973) and, as apedaliogical approach, is most associated with the work of Brazil (1991a,7994b).Brazil's framework was developed to introduce advancecl students to the role ofintonation in structuring discourse. The outline that follows is a simpliJication ofdiscourse intonation; interested readers should see Brazil 1994a,1991b.

The basic building block of discourse is rhe ton€ unit (an intonational phraseor thought group). There are three malor features ofintonation that speakers choosewithin tone units: prominence, proclaiming/referring tones (final intonationpatterns), and high and low key (changes in pitch level at tlte first pfominent wordof a tone unit).6 In the example below the tone units of a message are indicated bythc s) mbol //.

//the bus stopped//we'd got to the termlnus//and everyone got ouvl

Tone units have at least one ptomineitt word (shown below in capitals), andthe last prominent word (underlined) is defined as having tonic stress. Speakersdecide which words to highlighr (make prominent) as a means of guiding thelistener to the most important information.

//WC'd GOT tO thE TERN4INUS/i

Intonation patterns (tones) that end a rone unit (thought gror-rp) are chosenaccordinli to wherher the speaker believes the information in the tone unit is newor shared.T When tlte speaker believes the information is shared, a rising tone

' rredke$ nlake lrolher piLh leveL choice, cnlled tennin ation. at the begin njn g or e d ol a tone Llnit wh ich rcLafts t0 ke! choices ol-...1r.''np ib,ro \,al llo, D-r/ ,cou^pLou(coerlrorco,pt tr't. i .,rt.o D.. l(\(.rl^r a- lrliels about shared information rlepend on sharerJ a$arcr€\s,rj t rc Jng!age, nf$hxi hxs bcensaidbefore, antlolprll and locaL

: .rrs (Chapman 2001).

94 .HAPTER 3 lntonation

(referring tone) is used s Rising tones also indicate that the speaker holds the

.to-ir,*i position in tl.re discoiirse (has more to say) or is offering help to the

listener Speakers choose falling tones (proclaiming tones) to introduce new

information into cliscourse.In thi example below, B uses a falling tone on the new

infofmation.,,bills. " The intonation change occurs on the last prominent word in the

tone unit and extends to the end of the tone unit'

A: Was there

B, //a LOT of

any mall?

BILLS//

Leyel tones are used when the speaker is using language that is formulaic or needs

to !!ive himself time to think (fbr exarnple' lelt see )'-- '- fn. ,p.ut . also chooses a level ofpitch'the key Qrigh' miLl' or low)'for the tone

unit, which occurs on the tirst prominent word of a tor]e unit The pitch on this word

indicates whether the speaker feeb the information in the tone unit is expected (a fall

a fn.nl o. r,.r."pectecl (a rise in pitch) In the sentence-'Our last class' next Friday'

*iil U. "

p""y,' shQwn below, the irst prominent word of.the tone unit "next Friday"

irln ":t]ift. ,p.uker's pitch fa11s ot.t "ltt*t" to show that the information in this tone

,,r-rit l, ."p..t.a 6recause the listencrs know that the last class is next Friday)'

Our last class//NEXT FRIDAY//wlll be a party

--- l--L-In the example below, B's correction of A' the first prominent word in the tone

uflit is"fifth" B savs tllis tone liroup on a higher-than-usual level ofpitch (a high key)

to show thxt this infofmation is inexpectecl. High key is comflron when the tone

group presents a contrast or coffection'

A: The fourth daY?

B: //the FIFTH of MAY//

Bnzil's approach to teaching discourse intonation involves listening to and

repeadng authentic sptech s"mflt"; identirying tone units' prominent words'

and pitch changes; discussing why speakers made the irtonation choices drey did;

and preclicting intonation 'Although there is wide agreement dlat discourse

intonation offers Yaluable insights in; Ilow rtonation is usecl in (liscourse' studies of

classroom use su€lgest that iniorporatirg the full fi'amework is challenging (Hadley

1996,Ranx i 2002,Cnapman 2ottil Participants in these studies reportecl difficulty in

hearing whether a tone was rising or falling and indcciding-whether hformation was

sharecl or new. cauldweu and Heiings (1t9(') and Ranelli (2002) suggest that' mther

than adopting a complete cliscourse intonadon orientation' teachers supplement

raditional materials fbr teaching intonation with elements from discourse intonatiofl

that are easily taught ancl serve iclear communicative funcdon Examples include the

s Then: are hvo othet comple{ tones:The lall Lise tone is efolher rcl€rdng toneilhe rist hlLlone is xioth€r lloclainillg tone'

aHAPTER 3 lntonation 95

use of rishg intonation on comprehension checks (e.g.,Rigtnn and the use of risingintonation to hold the floor some of these are addressed in nondiscourse intonationtextbooks. chapman also recorimends that students listen for tone units (thoughtgroups) and prominent words in recordinlas of natural discourse in order to developa "realistic and generalized view', of the communicative use of intonation (2OO7, rct.

TIPS FOR TEACHING INTONATION

The tips described in this chapter are listed below They provide some specificsuggestions for how to help students improve their intonation.

ffi rtps

The remainder of this chapter presents specific features of intonation. The tipsare further explained in the context of these features and activities suggested topractice them.

SPECIFIC FEATURES OF INTONATION

1. Highlighting

2. Contrastiye stress

3. Final intonation patterns

4. Comprehension checks and tag questions

5. Intonation with lists, choice questions, nonfinal intonation pattems6. Appositives and parentheticals

7. Intonation, emotions, and attitudes

We discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics andproyide suEigestions for teaching them.

96 cIAPTER 3 lntonation

El "isr'righ.i"gV/hat the Teacher Should Know

The following conversation between my claughter and me took place in ourliving room, as I was reading the newspaper:

Son a (walkine n, exasperated, accusing): can't find my GLASSeS.

lvlom (not I stening, still reading), What about your g asses?

Sonia (bitterly, since t's l\4orn's fau t): 've LOST them.

Even though I wasn't paying attentioll to what my daughter said,I was able topick out the word "glasses" because shc made that word prominent. She replied tomy abscntminded question, highlighting "lost," the information she wanted me toknow about her glasses. After tl.rat, wc got up, did a searcll of the apartment, and, as

usual, I found her glasses.

Highliglrting involves the use of salient pitch (usually high, but not always),

together with length and loudness (drlthmic prominence), on the stressed syllable ofa word that the speaker considers to be more important than surroLrnding words.

Highl.ighting is also referred to as informatioll tbcus, sentence stress, primary stress,

pitch accent, nuclear stress, and toric stress.'l'his usc of pitch (as well as length and

loudness) provides "a funning conmentary on the newswofthiness of the various

items of infomation" (Maidme nt 1990,22).Daltofl and Seidlhofer describe prominence(highlighting) as "the most important function of intonation, and alnost certainly the

most teachable one" (1994, 81; see also W'ennerstrom 1998,Jenkins 2000, Hahn 2004).

Highlighted words are often the last content word of a sentence, where newinformation is wpically pfi: I bougbt a neut CAR, I'd like some COFFEE. Indiscourse, highlighted words prcsent new, foregroundcd, or contrasting informationTtre example below shows the role of Prominence in signaling new information.Speaker B first gives prominence to "partlt'new information that answers speaker

A s question. In the seconcl part of speaker B's answe! the new information is "loud";"party" is now olcl information and is pronounced with a lowered pitch

A: Why do you look so tired?

B: There was a PARTY in the bu dlng last nlght, a very LOUD parly.

Highlighted words also presertt information that contrasts with previously

mentioned information. In the following dialogue, speaker B is contrastinginformation about his new car (see ContrastiYe stress, below):

A' How do you like your new car?

B: lt gets better GAS mileage, but it's not as FAST.

The fact that highlighted words are often the last content worcl in a phrase

provides a straightforward approach to teaching this intonation lbature to beginningstudents. There are also general, teachable exceptions to the last-content-word rule

CH^prER 3 Intonatian 97

(Cruttenden 1990). Nouns tend to be focused more often than verbs, acliectives, oradvefbs. In presentational sentences, the noun following tbere is/are tencls to befocused eyen if there arc otlter following nouns which also present new infomation.

There was a PARTY in my bui/ding.

Final adverbs are not usually focused, unless they present contfasting information orthe speaker wants to emphasize the specific meaning of the aclverb.

I'm going to B0ST0N, fortunatety.

I finished the BOOK yesterday.

The tendency for highlighted words to be the last content word of anutterance is not a rule, nor clo all exceptions fall into the general exceptionsdescribed above. Intermediate and ndvanced sttrdents need to be aware that thespeaker can focus potentially any word, regardless of its position. In the first line ofthe dialogue belov', the word "pictures,', the last content word of the sentence andthe new Lformation, is highligl.lted. In the second line,,,back,,is highlighted, while"yet;'an adyerb, is de-emphasized, one of the general exceptions to the last_content_word rule.In the third line,"yesterda)." and "today" are cortrasted and so are fbcused.In the fourth line, the manager highlights the words ,,who,, and ,,I,llr.,, words incontfast, but also "have;' to emphasize the lack of ',existence,, of the particulafservice. The highlighting of"have" neither follows the last-content-word rule, nor isit one of the general exceptions to the rule, described above.

Customer (handing a slip to the store ernployee): I want to p ck up some PICTURES.

Employee (checks and returns empty handed): Sorry. They're not BACK yet.

Customer: I brought them ln YESTERDAY. I was told they'd be ready TODAy.

Employee: Sorry. I don't know WHO you spoke to. l'M the manager and we don'tHAVE next day service.

Activity 3.1

Level

Wolksheet

Tip

Description

Highlighting: Breakfast in the rcal world

Beginning, ESL Settings

Page 2I9

Teach highlighting of key words to help students make theirmeaning clearer.

Students practice ordering breakfast in a restaurant, highlighting newinformation (the breakfast choices they order). This activity can also beintegrated with other work centering on the topic of food (count andmass nounsr for example, are often presented with food vocabulary).Classroom practice can be followed by a t.ip to a restaurant.

(continLla.al on ne$ page)

98 ]HAPTER 3 lntonation

Actlulry 3.1 continued

1. Before class, plan t0 go with your students to a local restaurant for breakfast,lunch, or dinner. Bring copies of the menu to class and go over them.

2. In class, after explaining the restaurant trip, pass out menus to students and

ask them to choose what they will order. Go over vocabulary as necessary. lfthe menu is long or includes a great deal of new vocabulary, ask students togo over it as homework, choosing the items they will order. In this way, class

time can be used for speaking and pronunciation praciice raiher thanvocabulary development.

3. Write the students' choices on the board. lvlodel the pronunciationand ask students to repeat. IVake sure students can pronounce theirchoices u nderstandab ly.

4. Write a dialogue on the board, using one student's choices, or use the sample

dialogue on Worksheet 3.1. To keep the practice natural, do not insist thatstudents always use complete sentences. Capitalize highlighted words andmark intonation.

@ s. oirect students' atteniion to the capitaiized words. Students listen to thedialogue and repeat the lines. Explain that the capitalized words have the most

important mean ing.

6. Students practice the dialogue in pairs, taklng both parts.

7. After practicing the dialogue, students use the model on the board to practice

their own choices, in groups of two (waiter and customer) or three (one waiterand two customers), before going to the restaurant.

[F] contrastive stress

V/hat the Teacher Should KnowContrastive stress is like highlighting, except that two words are pronounced

with salient pitch and stress. ContmstiYe stress tells the listener that two pieces ofinformation afe being contrasted or compared.

The lecture wil be in HA[/lLTON Hall, not LEWISOHN Hai .

Pierrehumbert and Hirschberg describe tlle pitch accent on contlirstinginformation as a sharp rise (from a low note) to a high note (1990,296).

CH^PIFR 3 lntonatian 99

Act;vity 3.2 Conttastive strcss: Which apartnent is bettet?

level lntermed iate/Advanced

Worksheet Page 22O

Iip Teach highlighting of key words to help students makemeanings clear.

Description In this inforrnation gap, students complete information missing fromdescriptjons of two apartment shares and then decide which ispreferable. This activity can be adapted to many other comparisons,such as two schools, two cars, two cell phone service plans, or twobus routes. lt can also be used to integrate pronunciation withgrammar practice of comparatives.

1. lntroduce the topic of housing. Ask the class what is irnportant when they lookfor a place to llve. List thelr answers on the board, recasting them as much aspossible as nouns (e.g., location, size, rent/price, privacy, noise).

2. lntroduce pronunciatlon. Check two of the items on the board and contrastthem in a sentence Iike "For me, loCAtion is more irnportant ihan SIZE.',

3. Ask students which words you contrasted and how your voice shows thecontrast (the contrast words are heavlly stressed, pitch is higher on thesewords). Repeat your sentence and ask students to repeat, using their voices toh ghlight the contrast words.

4. Ask a student to choose two items on the list and compare them forimportance. Provide feedback 0n pronunciatlon of the contrasted words.Choose several other students to do the same.

5. Find out if anyone tn class is living tn an apartment share. Ask the class whypeople choose apartment shares.

7.

6. Put students rn pairs, giving one member Chart A, and the other Chart B. Tellthe class that each student has half of the information about two apartmentshares. Each member of the pair tells (not shows) her partner the informationon ihe chart, stressing words that contrast (not all of the information on thesample charts contrasts). The listener writes the missing informatron tocomplete his chart. When the charts are complete, the pair discusses whichapartment share is more desirable.

After the pair work, ask students which apartment share they preferred andwhy. Provide feedback on the pronuncia on of contrasting words.

100 :HAPTER 3 lntanation

ffi ua"t rntonation Patterrx

what the Teacher Should KarowAs discussed aboyc, specific intonation patterns are often linked to sentence

types'. Yes'no questior.ls, for example , end in rising intonation. The link, however, is aloose one. Bolinger, for example, reports that J,es-no questions end with fallingintonation almost as oflen as they end with rising intonation (1998). Research onthe role of gender and intonation in yes-no questions shows that women are morelikely to use rising intonation than men (Svrdal and Jilka 2003).

lfli questions can end with either falling or rising intonation. When thequestion is a true information question, intonation falls. When the lVH questionis used to ask for a repetition or clarification, it rises. The example belowillustrates both.

A: I know somebody at the UN that you should contact.

---'--''-----..-B: Great. What's hls narne? (asking for informat on)

A: A. Chandaha nathan

B: What was that? (asking for a repet tion/c arification)

A: C'H-A-N-D-A-H-A-N-A-T-H-A-N.

Thl] use of rising intonation with 1f11 questions is a useful one for ESL

students, who frequently need to ask for repetitions or clarifications, and is also

addressed in a number of textbooks.In discourse intonation, fisinE! intonation at the end of a tone unit (thought

group) signals that information in the tone unit is shared between speaker andhearer It can also be an invitation for the listener to make a conment (i.e.,

indicating the end of a turn). Brazil explains yes-n o questions plonounced withrisin!! tones (e.g., Is tbat tlre titleX as "making sure" questions, questions whoseanswers the hearer knows and the speaker assumes to be true (1994a,20).

Flral Falling Intonation

Declaratives, Comrnands, Iflformation Questions. Final lalling intonation(also called rising-falling) is t)'pical with declarative sentences, commands, andinformation qr.restiol.rs. The genefal meaning of falling itttonation, certainty orfinality, is consistent with the typical meanings of declaratives and commancls. Ifl thefirst statement below ("I saw John yesterda)'l'), the speaker is not expressing doubt

cHAprER 3 Intonation 1O1

about seeing John yestefday. Similarty, commands do not reflect doubt about whatthe speaker wants to happen.

Although information questions are not statements of fact, theyneyertheless reflect a good deal of certaintF. For example, when we ask thequestion Wbere did sbe go yesterd.ay? we believe that she went somes/here-weiust don't know where.

In discourse, speakers use final falling intonation when they are informinglisteners of something new (of something the speaker believes the listener was notaware of). Final faling intonation is also used to signal that a discourse orconyersational tum is finished. For ottrer uses of falling intonation, see alsoComprehension Checks and Tag Questions, page 104.

Yes-No Questlons. Thompson describes yes-no qtestions with falling intonationas conducive questions, questions to which the speaker already knows theanswers (1995).

Teacher (going over a student's essay that is very repetitive):

Are these two sentences really dfferent? . )

Bolinger gives the follov/ing example of a yes-no question with fallingintonation, spoken with a steadily falling pitch by an exasperated mother to a child:

Are yolr going to pick up your toys?----=-'=-

Final Risfurg Intonation

I.es-No Questlons. A final fising intonation can mean that the speaker isunceftain. This final pattern is cofltmon in yesao questions and intonationquestions (declaratives used as questions).Btaztl calls yes-no questions with risingintonation "making sure" questions <1994b, 2O).In the question below, intonationrises on the prominent word ("Sonia") and stays high to the end of the question(righ rising).

ls Sonia here?

1 saw John yesterday.

Open the window.

102 IHAPTER 3 lntonation

A low-rising iJrtonation, where pitch is low on the prominent word and thenrises to a high note, is also used and appears to differ little in meaning from the high-risirg t ontour Oevis 2002).

tl'ls\r9fiere?

Low-rising intonation is common in polite requests for information fromstmngers. We might use this intonation to stop someone on the street to ask forthe time .

WU Questions Asking for a Repetition or Clarification. When 1tr41 questionsare used to ask for a repetition or clarification, intonation rises on the questionword, remains high, and rises a little at the end of the question.

B:

A more exaggerated use of this rising pattern with lFI1 questions can indicatedisbelief or increduliry

A: A taxi hit my blke today.

B: What?

Holding the FloorA final falling intonation indicates a speaker has fiiished speaking. To show the

opposite, that the speaker is not finished and has more to say, final intonationdoesn't fall ro the bottom of the speaker's ranfie, but remains at a higher ler.el.Consider the two pronunciations of "I know" below.In the first, spoken with fallingintonation, the speaker signals to the listefler that she is finished.In the second, finalintonation remains faidy high, a signal that the speaker is not finished or needs timeto think.

Let's go to a movie.

What did you say?

I know .

Excuse me. Do you have

O 1. Students listen to the djalogue and practice jt in pairs.

2. Students write their own mjnimal dialogues and perform them for the class.

Activity 3,4 Finat intonation: Fanous people

Leyel Beginn ing

Worksheet None

]lps Teach intonation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances.Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language ihat yourstudents know how to use.lsolate intonation patterns usjng nonsense syllables to make themeasier to hear.

Description ln thjs activity, students practice the rhythm and intonatjonpaiterns of common questions used for asking about names andspellings in order to discover the name of a famous person. Thespelling questions also provide practice with the pronunciation ofletter names.

1. Before class, prepare cards with the names of famous people your studentswill recognize (actors, poljtlcians, musicians, school officials).'prepare as manycards as there are students.

cnaprrn 3 lntonatictn "lf)f,.

Activity 3.3 final intonation: Mininat diatogues

Level Most Levels

Worksheet

Iips

Descriptior

Page 221

Use short utterances to illustrate jntonation patterns.Teach inionation patterns that occur at the ends of utterances.

This activity provides practice with final intonation patternsassociated with declarative sentences (falling), information questions(falling), and yes-no questions (rising). As students practice ihedialogues, the teacher can glve feedback on whether the range ofintonatjon is wide enough.

(continLted on next page)

1O4 :HAPTER 3 lntonation

ActtuiA 3.1 continue.l

2. ln class, write the following questions on the board, varying the size of thewords to show their relative prominence. Draw intonation lines. (Do not writethe isolated rhythm patterns shown in parentheses on the board.)

wHAT',S your FIRST NAtVtE? (On ou DA

Dn)

HOW do you sPELL it? (DA oa oa DA

oa)

WHAT'S your LAST NAM E? (on au DA

On)

How do you SPELL it? (DA o, ou DA

ou)

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

l\lodel each question, followed by its isolated rhythm-intonation pattern,Students repeat both the question and the isolated pattern.

As a demonstration, choose a student to ask another ciassmate the fourquestions. Provide feedback on rhythm-intonation and pronunciation. Repeatthe process, choosing another student to demonstrate the questions.

ln pairs, students ask each other the four questions. (Although many studentswill know each other's first names, they may not know last names and spellingmay be even more mysterious, especially in classes where students speakdifferent native languages. )

Famous people. Put students in new pairs and give each student a differentcard (see step 1, above). Students ask each other the four quesiions on iheboard and write their partners' answers. When pairs finish thelr cards, theypass them to another pair and repeat the activity with cards from another pair.

Repeat the card passing and questions two more times.

Following the pair work, ask several students to ask a classmate (not theirpartners) the same questions about the names on the classmate's current card.Provide feedback on rhythm and intonation.

@! comp"ehension Checks and Tag Questions

What the Teacher Should KnowComprelrension checks, tags like OK? ot Rigrrt? Me appropriate for all levels of

students. Comprehension checks are added to the ends of statements andpronounced with risinla intonation.

So I twist the white wires together, right?

. A?TER 3 tntonation "l0s

::s\e expressions are easy for students to use and afe communicarively usefi-d, as

--.11. Pickering suggests that ITAS include comprehension checks in their lectures in:iier to break up the preponderance of falling and level tones that haye been:.::rn-ed (20O1).

Tag questions llke isn't be? or can !ou? end in either falling or rising::Dnation.When the speaker is asking for confimation, the falling pattern is used.-:-r€n the speaker is expressing rincertainry rising intonation is used.

Ihls is a nice party, isn't it. (requesting conf rmation)

_ ''-,You're from Mexico, aren't you? (expressing uncerta nty)

A tag question alone with falling intonation can also be used to express.rgreement.

A: lt's cold outside.

B: lsn't it.

Tag questions are among the last question types to be used accurately bystudents. They are granxmatically difficult, requiring mastery of the verb system aswell as subjcct-verb inversion (Lightbown and Spada 1999, 79). Because they occurwith either rising or falling intonarion, tlteA pronunciation is also difficr t. Inaddition, they are pragmatically difficult. Levis suggests that before students aretaught how to pronounce tali questions, they lear-n the situations in which they areused appropriately (1999,52). As an example, he imagines e help room situation inwhich an ITA is working through problems witlt an undergraduate student whoseems to be having difficulry Levis asks how the I'I'A knows whether to ask aboutthe difficulty with a direct question or a tag question. He presents several possiblequestions, shown below, and concludes that only thc first is cleady appropriate(1999,53).

Student: Oh, I'm just not getting these problems.

ITA: This is real y hard for you, isn't it?

This isn't really hard for you, s it?

ls this real y hard for you?

This is really hard for you?

Because of the difficulties with tag questions, they are better left as apronunciation topic for high intemediate and advanced students.

106 (HAP\IR i tntanatian

ln class, give the sandwich recipe to a student who will read the instructionswhile you write them on the bOard. Tell the student to read at a normal pace.

As the student gets ahead of your writing, stop him. Repeat the last part 0f theinstructions he read, ending with the comprehension check rghtZ

Ask the class what word you added to check your understanding. Ask whetheryour voice rose or fell over that word (i.e., rightn. lf necessary, repeat the lastpart of the instructions with the comprehension check.

The student continues to read the recipe instructi0ns and you continue writingthem on the board, stopping the reader from time to time to check yourunderstandl ng, using rteht?

Activity 3.5 Conryehension checks; My favo te sandwich

Level Most

Worksheet None

:ip Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that yourstudents know how to use.

Description Students write a recipe for their favorite sandwich. The recipe shouldbe simple and easy to make. In pairs students listen to each other'srecipes and take notes. The listener checks his understanding byreading back his notes and adding the confirmation check right?with rising intonation. (Alternatively, students can give each otherdirections to their homes, a favorite restaurant, park, movie theater,or library. lTAs can define a term or concept from their field tosomeone who isn't in their field.)

1. Before class, prepare simple lnstructions for making a sandwich to use as ademonstration, The example below is for a garlic-and-cheese sandwich. Onlyone copy of the recipe is needed.

ngred ents, a slice of good bread, I c ove of garl c, ol ve oil, salt and pepper,your favorite cheese

1. Peel the garlic clove and cut it in half.

2. Toast the bread.

3. Rub the cut sjde of the garlic over one side of the bread.

4. Sprinkle a little olive oil over the bread.

5. Sprinkle a little salt and pepper over the oil.

6. Add cheese to the bread and eat,

2.

3.

4.

5.

.HAPTER 3 lntanation "l07

Ytilnr) 3.5 continued

5. Students write their own slmple recjpes for a sandwjch (or some other food).Provjde help with vocabulary.

7. Pai work, One student reads her recjpe to her partner, who takes notes on thesteps. The partner then checks his understandilg ov-r!.oire back the notesand using the comprehensjon check right.z witf, i.ing ,tonu'tion.

IStoTlior,rfyith I jsts, Choice euestions, andNon-Final-Thought Groups

(b) And r want to prck up things rir" p*.trnt-----ron uno ituti..iiltlil-J i. g"t ro.t.

S/hat the Teacher Should Know

Listing Intonation. The first items in a lisr are usually pronounced with risingintonation, especia.lly when they a-re single woros or strort ptrrases. The last item ispronounced with falling intonation to indicate that the list is complete.-.''''/---\

We v'sited Beijirg. Sharghsi. and Horg4oig.If the speaker wants to show that the list is not complete and that she couldadd more to it, the last item is also pronounced *itt ,lrirrg irriorration. The raisedfinal pirch indicates that the list is nor finished. Th e word1nd is ofren omitted in"open" lists.

----''/--''''/We visrted Beijing, Shanghai, Ho-ng Kong. . .

, cauldwelr and Hewings point out that this intonation rule,like all others,is notalways observ-e<l in natural speech (1996) and that ,fr" ,.rf., should not bepresented as "hard and fast.,'They cite an example from an introduction to a radioprog?m g: th: poetry of Phillip La&in (1996,3]8).In describing his poetry, Larkinuses two lists;the first (a) follows the pattern clescribe.l above while the second (b)does not.

(a) | tike to see at a gtance ,-,.-1"-ngt'. tniGilo,^,u no ,* *--===J;nuru.

One, two, three. . .

Cauldwell and Hewings, working in a discourse intonation framework (see page93), suggest that Larkin chose ro use falling into nurion un prnriuation, ruther tlr^nrising, because punctuation is not something the radio listiners would expect to beimportant in poetry (i.e.,lookin€i at punctuation is new information).In a discourseintonation model, falling intonation is used to sign"t new into.mafiorr.

108 :HAPTLR 3 tntonation

Choice Questions and Questions with o/. Choice questions are often phrasedwith or: They look tike -lLlesr?o qllestions, but the speaker expccts them to beanswered with one of the choices, rather than with./es or zo. 'l'he choices are indifferent thought groups;pitch rises on the first choice(s) and lalls on the last.

'-'-,'-'--'-A. Do you want to go on Friday, Saturday, or Sunday?

B. Saturday.

Some J,es-no questions with or are trucJes-/lo questions, qr,restions that can beappropriatel) answefed with J€s o!: ,?o. In this case, both items in the or phrasc arcin the same thought group, ancl intonati(.,n fises as with other l.,es-7?(/ questions.

A: Can you corne on Saturday or Sunday? (the speaker doesn't care wh ch day)

B. No, sorry. I'm busy.

Non-Final-Thought Groups. Non-final-thought groups (phrases or clauscs) canencl with a slight rise or fall. Pitcll cloes not rise or fall to the level it docs at the endof an uttcraficc. This slight chanl;c in pitch is one of the rvays the boundaly of athought group is markcd (Avcry and Ehdich 1992). Th€ intonation on the secondclause often starts at a lower note. These changes in intonation at internel thoughtgrc-r4r bounclaries are difficult to hc:r.

lforgot my keys, and now I'm locked out.

lf h s score is good, he'll app y to law schoo s.

--''--.--..--You can't come n because it's ate.

,-=------^--,-- ___--,,-..--_When the phone rang, I didn't answer it.

In a discourse intonation fi?mework, final and nonfinal phrases (tone units) afenot differentiated from eaclr other tbrmall_\.. A risin€! tone at the end of a phr.rse

inclicates that the inlbrmation in thc phflse is slrared betn'een the speaker andhearer'. A falling tone shorvs that the speakcr believes the informetion is new (orchooses to speak as if it were new). In Pierrehumbert and Hitschberg's framervort,nonfinal phrases and clanses are callcd intermediate pluascs. '\ high tone at the enclof rln intcrmcdiatc phrasc indicates that it is to be interpreted $,-ith what follows. Alow tone is used to show that the phrase is independent of $.'hat follows ( 1990, 287).

Neither explanation of the differencc in meaning bet$-een nonfinal rising andfalling intonation is concrete or clear enough to appll in the classroom. Cllxssroomstudies ha\.e shown that the shared-ne$' distinction is frequcntly unclear to tcachcrsand students. It seems likely that the distinction bet$ een informrtion that is to beinterpreted with $'hat fbllows and information that is indepefldent of s.'hat follows

cHAprER 3 lntonation 1Og

will be as unclear, leaving the teacher with no ready explanation for why intonationon one nonfinal clause falls but rises on anothef. In my own teaching, I address thepronunciation of nonfinal clauses (phrases) as part of rhlthm (thought groups) anddo not focus on the co-occuffinfi intonational changes, which are especially difficultfor students to notice.

Acaivity 3.6 Listing intonation: eobrs, aninals, fanily wotds , , ,

level Beginn ing

Worksheet None

Tip lntegrate intonation work wilh classroom work on other English skills.

Description Students practice listing intonation in the context of a game. Afterpresenting the intonation patterns associated wiih lists, studentsplay the game in groups of three. The group chooses a vocabularycategory that your students have learned (for example, familywords). One student starts by naming two types of family members,using listing intonation (e.g., mother and father). The next studentrepeats the two items and adds a new one (mother, father, andsister). The third student repeats the three items of the secondstudent and adds a fourth (mother, father, sister, and brother).' When the group can't think of any new words in that category (orremember all the words that have been said before), the lastcontributor to the list chooses a new category (e.g., colors, animals,rooms in a house, or means of transportation).

1. On the board, write category headings. Choose familiar categories that studentscan expand (e,9., animals, colors, family words, months). Ask students forwords that belong in each category and add them to the board.

2. Demonstrate listing intonation when the lists are complete. Ask the questionWhat are the first three (colors) in the list? Choose a student to answer.

3. Write the answer on the board, adding intonati0n lines, and model the answer,Students repeat.

-----/.'''/ \red, blue (and) yellow

4. Then ask What are the first four (animals) on the listT \Nrite the answer on theboard, showing the intonation lines. Students repeat.

5. Elicit intonaiion: l\4odel each item on the lists and ask students whether yourvoice goes up or down. (Alternatively, explain intonation: 0n the first words,your voice goes up. When the list is f nished, your voice goes down.)

(c xinued on next page)

1 10 I LAPTER 3 lntonation

Actiuitt 3.6 dlntlnued

6. Erase the words in the categories, leaving only the category headings on theboard. Choose two students to demonstrate the game with you.

7. Choose one of the categories on the board-for example, colors. Ask a studentfrom your "group" to say two colors. Give feedback on intonation. Ask the otherstudent in your group to repeat the first student's colors and add a third. v,ou

repeat the three colors and add a fourth. The student who chose the first twocolors repeats your four and adds a fifth, and so on. When someone forgets a

color word or can't think of a new one, a new category is chosen. The studentwho is the last to add to a category (i.e., has produced the longest list), gets tostart the new category.

8. Students work in groups of three and repeat the demonstration.

Kl Appositives and Parentheticals

V{hat the Teacher Should Know

Appositives. Appositives are phrases that follow a noun and provide additionalfufofmation about the noun. They are pronounced in a group by themselves, set offfrom the rest of the sentence.

When an appositive occurs insidc an utterance, intonation also sets it off fromthe rest of the sentence. At the beginning of the appositiye, pitch drops to a lownote, rises a little on the impofiant word in the appositive and falls again to a lowlevel.

I\4r. Johnson, rny boss, s coming to d nner.._?,--..\

Yakima, "The Frult Bowl of the Nation," rs my hometown.tr---l ft

When appositives end a sentence, intonation usually starts low, rises, andthen falls.

I inviled l\4 . Johr:on. mv boss.- -/--'\.-

l\4y hometown is Yakima, "The Fruit Bow of the Nation."_r-- __

Pai:entheticals. Parentheticals are expressions that are set apart from the mainutterance . Examples include direct address forms (e.g.,Mr Smitb, can I ask lou aquestion?), comments thnt exprcss how the speaker feels about the message (e.9.,He's late ag.in, I suppose), politeness expressions (e.9.,I'd like an application,please), of final reporting expressions, (e.g., I'm la4t, be said). Parenthetical

CH^prF,R 3 tntonation 111

information is pronounced in its own thought group,e with low pitch and lowvolume. This rather monotone delivery sets the parenthetical information off fromthe "livelier" intonation ofthe main message.weaker le,,els of stress are also involvedin parenthericals (Dickerson 2003).

The intonation on sentence initial parentheticals can end in either a rise ora fall.

lVr. Smith, can I ask you a question?

lVary. c6" lash you a questior.

In the middlc of a sentence or at the encl, parentheticals are pronounced v/ithlower levels of pitch; intonation rises slightly on the prominent wofcl (Celce_Murciaet al. 1996, 191).

I was waiting, I guess, for an hour.

That's rny book, I think.

Students use parenthetical expressions, but they may not use appropriatestress, grouping, and intonation to set the expression off from the rest of theutterance effectiyely. If students give a parenthetical word too much prominence,that word may be interpreted as part of the main Lrtterance rather than as apafenthetical, leading to a possible confusion between Ilozr,.s J,, our (Jncle Cha es?lbr example, and Aou.t's lour uncle, Cba es?

Activity 3.7

Level

Worksheets

Tip

llescription

Parcntheticals: Yau look ptetty happy, Iuke.

Advanced

Pages 222-223.

Practice the intonation of communicatively useful language that yourstudents know how to use.

This activity provides practice listening to final parentheticals indialogues, and noticing the pronunciation that marks them asparenthetica ls.1o For pronunciation practice, students add finalparentheticals to a d ialogue.

(continued on nefi page)

'l long pa1€nthetical may consist olmore than one thought group:for example, lo ur uark. ln facl, all the aot h )nu'ue darl thiteek b.$bee letific ln lhis sentence, the parenthelic l is long (ii1.bct, aitlhe aork la 'rc t1atrc tbis zr,ee*) altl would likelv be

:.onounced in firce thoughl gto.lps o/l.t'act/all the aorhl,ou l,p 76r, 6i, ,,rrU, Regirilles of Length. a lou"pitched, monoton'e-lir€ry \I'ould chffecteria the entiN p tntheticall0l

his a.tivitvls nodcled after Dicke$on (2003)

112 ]HAPTER 3 tntonatian

Actiuit! 3.7 conunuecl

@ 1. Students listen to the dialogue. Direct students' aitention to how theunderlined parentheticals are pronou nced.

2. Elicit the pronunciation, using these questions:

. ls the parenthetical separated from the main sentence?

o ls the voice loud or soft?

. ls heavy stress used on the parenthetical?

. ls the voice low or high?

Alternatively, explain the pronunciation of parentheticals: There's a slight pause

before the parenthetical expression; the volume of the voice is low; the stressesare not as strong; and the pitch 0f the voice is low.

Students listen to the dialogue again and repeat the lines.

Students practice the first dialogue in pairs and then do a class reading. Givefeedback on pronunciation of the parentheticals.

ln pairs, students add parenthetlcal expressions to the second dialogue. Theycan use examples from the table of parentheticals given on Worksheet 3.7B, orother expressions they know, Tell students to use parentheticals that areappropriate to the meaning of the dialogue and not to overuse specificparentheticals. Students practice ihe dialogues in pairs.

After the pair work, choose palrs of students to present their dialogues to theclass. Provide feedback when parentheticals are not clearly set off from themain sentence.

3.

4.

5.

6.

ffi ntonation, Emotions, and Attitudes

What the Teacher Should KnowIntonation plays an important role in the expression of emotion and attitude.

Gussenhoyen (2004) distinguishes between informational interpretations ofintonation and affective interpretations. An example of an informationalinterpretation of falling intonation is "finished" or "ceftain." As cliscussetl above,languages show considerable similarity in how they interpret the informationalmeaning of final intonation. Affective interpretations includc e'mluations of whethera speaker is angr)', fiiendly, conlident, or sacl.

There is evidence that languages associate similar affective intefpretations withparticular chamcteristics of pitch and intonation (Bezooijen 1984, Scherer 2000,Scherer et al. 2001), ns well as evidence of sorne differences (Graham, Hamblin andFeldstein 2001, Chen and Gusshoven 2003). The universal interpretations

CttAPtER I lntanation 113

(infomational and affecti\.c) of jr]tonarbn are belieyed to clerive from biological codes(Ohala 1983, Gusshor''en 2(X)4). One biological cocle, rhe ficc1uenc1. code, associatesconrotatioos of "small" with high pitches xnd "big" with low pitches. .Ihcse

associations come from the fact that larger vocal cords and yocal tmcts, such as thoseof men (or large animals), ploduce lo\rer pitclted sounds;smallcr r,'ocal corcls ancl \,ocalfacts procluce higher pitchcd sounds, slrch as those of childrcn (of small animals).

Afltcti\,'e interpretntions of intonation arc believcd to havc developed from thcbig-small meirnings of low and high pitch. Low pitch is assorliatcd wirhassertivcness, confidence, dominance, aggression, finalitl', and thrcatl hi€lh pitch isassociated with lack of certainq', fricncllir.tcss, lack of confidence, politeness,vulncrabiliq', and submissivcness (Ohala 1!t3J, Gusscnhoven 2004).

Another code, the effort code, maintxins thxt lireatef articulatory efloft resultsin clearer, more explicit speech contfirsts. In intooation, greatcr ellbrt produces awider ranlle of pitch, wliile less effort produccs a narrower rarlle of pitch. Affectiveinterpretations of a widcf range of pitch include surprise, enthusiasn, authority, andhelpftrlness. Interprctations of a narrowef fange of pitch (less effort) ir.rclude lack ofinterest, lack of commitment, less surprise, ancl so on.

ln intcrpreting others' emotional states, we r.ely not olly on vocal cues (levelor range of pitch), but also on r.isnal cues (facial gestur.es, posturc, or bodylanguage); on context cues (the situation in which a particular conversatiolt takesplace or the felationship between speaker and listener); and on linguistic cues (thespecific wolds used ancl their connotations). An emplo,vee who takes offensc at l.risboss's criticism, for example , mav say nothirg but srill rcveal his rlnlier in a stiffeningof the lace ancl body. An onlooker to the exchange rnight latcr sa,.\r, "I know he wasangry I conld sec it in his face."

Research on nativc speakers' abilitr,' to recognize ernotions in audio recordings.where there are no visual cues;rnd therc may be no context cues, shows agrcementas to what emotion is being portrayed, alrbougb there afe diff'efences in rhe degreeof agreement. When listeners arc asked to choose among a small numbef of"prinary" emotions (anger, fear, sadness, jolD, agreement is highef than when"secondafy" cmotions (hate, nervolrsness, or timidity) arc also included among thechoices.r 1 Disa€ireements usuallv inyoh-e distinctions between closely r.elateclemotions such as sadness and depression.r2

Graham et al. (2001) studic.l the abilit]- of lrati\.e and nonnatiye speakers ofEnglisl] to idcntify emotions portm,yed in English in an ar-rclio recording of fburprofessional actors. The nativc English listencrs $,'ere Alnerican college students;thenonnative listeners werc Japa[ese and Spanish ESL studcnts at different levels of

ilor extnple. leer leads to flighl) S€condan cmolions nll'be mo|e culture specilic. \lOst firchologists flace rngc1 1iu, sadness,

io hapliness xnrurg lhe frrnaN e.roLions but nto' not aqLe€ 0n lhe lull set Stc l0r criLNllc. ElnDm (1999)

rccitations ol ihe iLlphabet |ead with diliercnt emotiors (Deurz lnd DlriL 1959) t0 te\ts rcad bl actors.

114 (H^PIER 3 lntonatiott

proficiency. They found that although the ESL learners identified emotions at better-than-chance le\.els, they identfied them less accuratell than natir e EngLish listeners.A rnore surprising finding was that the more-proficient ESL srudents wefe not bctterable to identify the emotions than the less-proficieflt students. Gmham et al. suggest

several possiblc explanations fbr their results, including the tact that students are

not likely to be exposed to certain types of emotion in the classroom. Indeed, theclzssroom is not an appropriate place for tlte expression of man] strong emotions;neither teachers nor chssmates welcome the genuine expression of erupting ra€!e,

deep despaif, of scathing sarcasm.The attitudes and emotions we want our students to express more

appropriately are tamer: confidence, interest, ffiendliness, and so on. These are

positive attitudes that are likely to extend conYefsation, create more opportunitiesfor practice, and, ultimately, lead to greater learning. We can expose our students tothe expression of more extreme emotions and attitudes vicariously by bfingingemotion into the classroom through Yideos and movies. Because the affbctiveinterpretation of intonation is highly dependent on context, it is difflcr t to make

teachable, generalizable statements about its use (LeYis 1999) As a result, intonationteaching should focus preclominantly on features of intonation that ha\.e broad

informational value in discourse (e.g., making words prominent or turn taking)father than on the expression of emotions.

Students can, howeYer, without explicit irlstruction on the use of specific pitchlevels or pattems of intonation, be given the opportunity to "stretch their Yoices" inrole plays and skits, where they ffy expressing different feelinp;s and attitudes and

try on different persoflae.

Activity 3.8 Attitudes and emotions: Anbiguous dialogues

level l\4ost

Worksheet Page 224

Tip Encourage monotone speakers to use their voices more

Description This activity can be used as a voice warm-up. The teacher or

students describe different situations in which a short exchange

between two people might take place. Pairs of students act out the

exchanges. The differing relationsh:ps and situations require the

expression of different attitudes and emotions.

1. Students read the dia ogue and the situations on Worksheet 3.8.

2. The teacher explains that the class wlll use the dialogue to act out thesituations in the handout. Since the words in the dialogue do not change,

students must use their voices to show the different situatlons.

CHAPTLR 3 lntonati.)n 115

Actit) y 3.8 mnttnued

3. The teacher and an outgoing student perform the dialogue, acting out one ofthe situations on the handout.

4. ln pairs, students perform the diarogue three times, to refrect each of the threesituations.

5, After the pair work, the teacher chooses different pairs of students to act outone of the sit_uations. The pair should not tell the class whjch situation they areacting out After ristening, the crass wiI decide which of the three situationswas demonstrated.

Actiyity 3.9 lnprovs; The Chaser

level High lntermed iate/Advanced

Wolksheet None

Tips Encourage monotone speakers to use their voices more.lntegrate intonation work with classroom work on other English skills.

Description lmprovisations are useful in the classroom and give students anopportunity to take on other personae. I use the short story ,,The

Chaser" by John Collier (1940) for improvs. ln ,,The Chaser,,, a

young man purchases a love potion very inexpensively from a shrewdshopkeeper. The shopkeeper first tells the young man about anotherpotion he sells, a ,,life cleaner," which is far more expensive than thelove potion. The shopkeeper knows that the love potion will producesuch suffocating devotjon from the woman who drinks it that theyoung man will return to the shop, later in life when he is well_off. topurchase the life cleaner and rid himself of the woman. The improvscene takes place either iwenty days or twenty years (studentschoose) after the purchase of the love potjon and uses two to threeactors. lnstead of basing the improv on a short story the teacher canchoose a different situation for students to enact*ior. example, afirst date, breaking up, or lost :uggage at the airport.

1. The teacher or teacher and students choose a situation to act out in afive-minute scene. Objects in the classroom can be used as props.

2. Two students are chosen initially as actors and one as director. The directordecides what props should be used and blocks the scene (decides where theactors and props should be, where actors should enter and exit the set, etc.).The two actors and director come to the front of the class.

(coittinued on next page)

"116 cHAprER 3 lntanation

Actil'io, 3.9 continued

3, The class creates the script, which the teacher writes on the board andstudents copy at their desks. New characters and actors are added asnecessary. As the scene is being written, the teacher provtdes needed language,gives feedback on grammar and word choice, makes suggesttons about thedirection in which the scnpt is going, and decides when the scene is finished.

4. The script is rehearsed by the actors and the class as it is being written. Thedirector and audience provide feedback to the actors to make them moreexpressive. For examp/e, they might say, "that doesn't sound angry enough" or"that sounds too angry" or "say that louder."

5. Once the script is written and on the board, the actors rehearse again,receiving direction from the ciass and director,

6. Then the script rs erased. The actors act out the scene, improv sing as necessary.

7. After the performance, the actors and director stay in character. The rest of theclass asks probing questi0ns about the characters.

CONCLUSION

The role of intonation in both structuring and interpreting a speaker's meaningmakes it a crucial component of pronunciation. It is also the most colrmunicativeaspect of pronunciation: Alone , withot-lt words, it can communicate meaning. Nativespeakers, for example , may "hum" common utterances lilFie I don't knott) ot yes,

A: ls l\4ax ready?

(l don't know.)

A: Are you ready?

FrB: ff ['l (Yes. )

Teachers should focus intonation work on communicatively useful ancl easy-to-hear intonation features such as highlighting or comprehension checks,presented and practiced with sufficient context to make meaning clear Dialoguesand other materials from nonpronunciation class work can provide an excellentsource fbr intonation practice and at the same time reinfofce the sructures anclvocabulary taf[ieted in those materials.

C HAPTE R

Cowboy tongs? This is how one of n]y stuclents pronounced.cowboy towns.,,Given the context, I understood what thc student wantecl to say, but 1:hepfonunciation was odd enough to make fi]e turn it over and oycf in m.,, he.rdmissing whatever the student said next. part of the problem was a mispronunciationof the I'inal consonant in tozlr?z

Pronunciation difliculties with consonants are highly dcpendent on thestudent's native language, in contrast to vowel cliflicr tics, which are morewidespread (McNerney and Menclelsohn 1992). There are 24 consonants in NoffhAmerican English.

There are only a few Engrish consonzurts v/hich afc difficr t for most studcnts(e.g. the first sounds in thing and tDlO. Since many English consonants ha\'e closecounterpafis in other languages, studcnts may fi.rd consonants. at least at theheginnings ('l w(,rd\. easi(.r to lcffn lhrtn vowcls. Ted(.herr -r1 ,f.,n iUlO.on.rnrn,reasier to tcach than vowels (Daucr 2005). corsonrnt contmsts are not as clitlicultperceptually as vowel contmsrs (Tench 2003), ancl the spelling of consonants is noreconsisteflt than the spelling of vowels. ln addition, because consonants involvetouching one part of the mouth to zu.lother (or moving one part of tlte mouth close toanothcr part), the studcnt has fixed refefence points, which are often easy to visu;tiizeand control;instructinli a student ro touch the rop teeth to the bottom lip, for example,is usually sufficient to enable l.ler to pronounce tlte first sounds in ,s/J ancl uan.

Pronouncing consonants at the cnds of words or sylleblcs, on the other hancl, ischallenging for most students, even when the same consonants pose no problems at

1'17

118 cuAPrtR l Cansanants

the beg rnings of words. A student who has no difficulq' pronounclitg th.e /t/ '1l]. timemay nevertheless have a great deal of difficulty pronouncing tbe /t/ it migbt.Consonants that occrr in consonant clusters Groups ofconsonants, as in train or test)are also rnore difficult than consonants which occur singly (Hancin-Bhatt and Bhatt199D. A student, for example, may be able to pronounce /r/ in rou), but not in grozl

Problems with consonant clusters and with finxl consonants generally are tiedto the dilferences between syllable structure in the learner's native language andin English.

SYII-{BLE STRUCTT]RE

A syllable is a "beat" in a word. For example, dog has one syllable, urslt has twos_yllables, and u)onderful has three syllables. The center (nucleus) of a syllable is ar'owel. In English syllables, vowels may be preceded and/or followed by one or moreconsonants. Every language places restrictions on the type and location ofconsonants that can occur in syllables. The word tlack, for example, is not a

permissible English word because /tll is not a permitted cluster (although it is insome languages). Trlrs4 which doesn't happen to occur in English, is a permissibleword because it does not violate English s_vllablc strucLrre (the beginning cluster inthe nonword t /rst occurs in tbree altrd tbrift).

Syllables are either open or closed. Open syllables end in a vowel;for example,the word see is an open syllable, and soJn? contains two open syllables ("so" and "fa").Closed syllables end in one or more consonants; r/og for example, is a closedsyllable,

^nd pictule.s (pic-tures) contains two closed syllables.

Open syllabtes, found in every language, are simpler oi more ufliyersal thanclosecl syllables (Jakobsen and Halle 1956, Greenberg 1965, Tarone 1980). Studentswhose natiye languages are predominantly open-sllable languages Oapanese,Cantonese, Portuguese) often have difficr.rlty pronouncing the final consonants andconsonant clusters of English s-vllables, like those in dog, felt, or utaltz.

Thus, the teacher can assume that pronunciation work with a few generally"difficult" consonants. with consonant clusters. and with final consonants $'illbenefit most students, regardless of nativc-lanlauage background. For otherconsonants, howe\.er, the teacher will need to cliagnose the speech of his studentsand base additional consonant work on those assessments.

ARTICIIIATION OF CONSONANTS

When two parts ofthe vocal tract (the areas where souncls are produced) moveclose enough to€iether to obstruct the air streem, consonants arc produced. Forexample, the fust sounds ln path llnd batb in'.r'olve a brief closure of the lips, anobstruction that completely stops thc airflow. If snrdents cannot pronounce a

CtlAprER 4 Consonants _i,19

consonant alter seeing and hearing it cleady modeletl, they may need informationabout how the consonant is articulated (pronounced). Consonant articulationinvolyes three factors:the place ofarticulation, the marut* "f ""i.rl"*rr, r".f,.f.i"g.

Place of aftianlatioz refers to the place where the ai_r steam is obstructecl in thevocal tract. For the fust sotnds of pati and bath, this occurs ,i ,n. lpr, which arepressed together /b/ and /p/ are called bilabial (,,rwo lips,,) sounds becausc theobstruction occurs at the lips. If you prepare to say time and dime, lToldjllg the firstsouncls of these words and concentmting on the tip of the tongue, you should feel thetip of the tongue touching behind the top teeth. The rop of the mouth just behind theteeth is_ called the alveolar ridge or tooth ndge. /t/ and /A/ are both alvcolar consonants.. The consonants of English_ are produced at seven places in the vocal tract,shown in the diagram below The place of articulatlon of specllic consonants isshown in the charr.

Nasal Cavity

Palate

Velum

Tongue

Vocal cords/glotis

Bilabial consonants@oth lips)

p, b, m,w

I-abio-dentatconsonants(teeth and lips)

Interdentalconsonants

Getweefl the teeth)

0 (thought),6 (though)

AlYeolat consonantsGehind the ropteeth)

t, d, s, z, n,l, r

Palatal consonants(front roof of themouth)

J ("hip),g (pleasure),tf (chair),q CazT-)y (ves)

Velaf consonants(soft palate)

k (cow),c Go)! (sing)

Glottal consonant(vocal cords)

120 :HAPT:R 4 Consonants

Manner of articulation refers to the wa-Ir iI Fhich the air stream isobstructed.Ifith stop consonants, the air stream is brieflr but completely stopped.Tty p6th and bath again and holcl the first sound-do not release it. If you nowtry to breathe through your mouth, you will find ,vou cannot: The closure of thelips completely stops the airflow. Now say the first sounds of ls, ard uan,prolonging the consonants. You will notice two differences betryeen /p,b/ nnd/f, v/. First, with /f/

^nd /v/,rhe air continues to flow through the mouth. Second,

/f/ and /v/ are "noisier" than /p/ or /b/-there is a hissy sound when they arepronounced. /f/ an(l /v/ are fricati!-es, a second manner of articulation. Withfricatiyes, the air stfeam is obstructed enough to create turbulence and a noisysound, but not completely stopped.

Affficate sounds represent a third manner of articulation. There are twoaffricates in English: the first sounds in cbeck /tl/ and jazz /Q,/. An affricate is a

complex sound that combines a stop consonant Ut/ or /d/ in English) with a

fricatiye: [/ (^s in sbip) or /s/ 6s in pk..sure). s^y mucb ^nd

edge very slowly,prolonging the end of the words. There is a brief silence that "cuts off" the vowelbefore the final consonant is produced; this is the "stop" part of the affricate (the /t/of /t[/ and tl]'e /d/ ot /qD.when the stop is rcleased, the noisy fricatiye part of theaffricate is heard.

In all, there are six manners of articulation. rvhen important, manner ofarticulation is covered below in Specfic Consonants.

Stops (air is stopped) p,b,t,d,k,g

Fricatives (afu is obstacted but notstopped)

{ \. 0, 6, s, z, f (ship), S (pleasure),h (hearT)

Affricates (stop + fricative) tf tchairr, Q tjazzl

Nasals (air comes out tlrough thenoso

m. n. ! (sin9

Liquids (A/ and /rDl l,r

Glidts (Jw/ and /yD w,y

The final factor that determines the sound of a particular consonant is

uoicing-whether the vocal cords are yibrating as the consonant is produced.'When the vocal cords vibrate, yoiced sounds (e.g., /b/ 'and /v/) are produced.'When the vocal cords do not yibrate, r'oiceless sounds are produced (e.g., /P/and /f[).

I The tem'Ljquid" is a perceptual ternr 'lhe c0ns0nanls // and/l/ heve a liquid sornd.

]HA?TER 4 Consonants 121

You can test voicing by placing your fingertips alongside the yocal cords (theAdam's apple) nnd pressing gently while 1'ou alternate between a long /y/ arrd along /f/:

wvrrffflfi'vwffffff

'When you say A'l'v\.v/, )'ou should be able to feel the vibration ifi )'our fingertips.When yotr say /ffff/, th.e yibration "switches off." It is difficult to feel rhe differencein voicing between /p/ and /b/ n ttls way, because these sounds can't be prolonged

^s/f/ and /y/ can. Howerze! if you close youf e;rrs with your fingers and then say"pa"

and "ba," keeping the vowels as short as possible, you can hear the vibration in yourhead with "ba" but not with "pal'

WIIAT DO STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW?

Although eyery consonant has a place of afticulation and a manner ofarticulation and is either \.oiced of voiceless, teachers rarely need to refer to allthree parameters (place, manner, and voicing). For example, if studentspronounce other as"ozzer:'the error involves place of articulation, not yoicing ormanner of articulation. For the middle sound in ot e4 the tip of the tongue shouldbe between the teeth;when students say "ozzer," the tip of the tongue is behindthe top teeth.

In addition, teachers should avoid technical terms like uelum or alueolarridge or fricatiues in the classroom.lwhen it is necessary to refer to features ofconsooant afticulation, diagrams afe effective, and most technical tefms have easy-to-understand, ordinary English paraphrases.

Voiceless sounds (vocal cords dovibrate)

p, r, k, 0 (think), f, s, J (ship), tf (cheap), h

sounds (vocal cords vibrate) b, d, g, Y, 6 (then), z, 5 (pleasure), &(jazz),n,m,D (sin9, r l, rv, y

122 (1lAPttR I C(ntlonants

AIJTRRNATTVES TO TECHNICAI TERMS

Bilabial Both lips

Labio-dcntal Top tceth an.l bottorl lip

Alveolar ridge Td)th ridgc;flat part behind the top teeth (this can be felt withthe tongue)

Palate Front part of the top/roof of the mouth (this can be felr with thetonglre)

Vchul Back part of the top/roof of the mouth (this cannot be felt withthe tongue)

Vocal cords No substilute , but tl.le teacher can point to tlle Adam's apple

ryStop Stop: the air is completely stopped

Fricative A noisy sound; the air isn't completcly stopped

Affricate /t/ + /J/ prcnounced together (4/ is lirst soturd in s/rrp). Students

will not hear the two parts as separate sounds (see Sibilants,

below);

/d/ + /3/ ptonouncecl together (/3/ is the middle sound inpleasure).

Students will not hear the two parts as separate sounds

Nasal Nasal;lhe eir comes out thc nosc; 1/, tn, or "en[a"

Liquid rorlRetroflexion The tip of thc tongue poil.rts/cu s I'rp

Lareral l; air passes over the sides of tl.tc tongue (refetence to this termis rarely necessarl,

Glide &, V\\-an or j/ VYan

Voiceless Voiceless; r'ocal cords do not Yibrate

voiced Voiced; vocal cords \.ibrute; morc "sound" than voiceless consonants

cHApT[R,i Consonants "l2i

TIPS FOR TEACHING CONSONANTS

The six tips listed below provide some general suggestions for helping sfi.tdentsimprove their pronunciation of consonants. The tips nre based on how consonantsare pronounced in English and on how they are learned by nonnative speakers.

ffirps

improve their

W'e discuss what the teacher shor d know about each of these topics and proviclesuggestions for te;Lching ttrem. In some cases, the suEigestion is a classfoom activity.Inother cases, it is effor coffection. Suggestions for error correction are shon enough touse when sh.rdents rre engaged in nonpronunciation actiyities. They are also usefij foraddressing pronunciation problems that only one or two of your students experience.

The remainder of this chapter presents the following consonants and lbaturesof consonant ptonunciation. The slx tips aboye are explained further and reflectedin the context of specific consonants.

7. Labials: pe' bet, jfeet, uet, net2. th so].]lJ'ds: tbink, this3. Srops /r/ and /d/: tie, die;Fla[rs: tuefting, zaed.ding; Glottaljzed /t/: xuritten4. Sibilants: see, zoo, sboe, pleasur?, cheap, jazz5. Nasals: sz4 somq sung6. Stops /k/ and /g/: coat, goat;'lhe lettef x7. Glottxl /h/ lzand

8. Illltial /r/ . rigbt9. Initial A/: Ugbt; Final A/: all; Contrasting /l/

^nd /n/: ligbt,night

124 ( HAPILR I Cotisonants

10. Contmsting /r/ afld /l/: rigbt-Ught

lI. Glides:/)/J"l xnd /\\/ tttt)'12. Initial yoiceless stops. pea, tea, ke!13. Initial consonant cllusters'. probletl14. Final consonants:plecq asft

15. -ed and -s endings

ffi ruriur., p" t, bet, feet, aet, uet

what the Teacher Should KnowArticulation of the labial consonants /p, b, f, v, w/ involves the lips.Vith /p/ ancl

A/, the lips firnrly close;/p,/ is voicclcss ^nd

/b/ ]s voiced.With /f/ a'nd /v/,tlre topteeth touch the lower lip; / is yoiceless

^nd /v/ is voiccd. with /w/, the lips are

rounded. The diagram'below shows the mouth shapes for these consonents.

pandb fandv

Coflsonants nnde with the lips, the labial sounds /p, b, f, v, w/, are the sourceof a variety of pronuncintion problems. The protrlems clepentl on the nativelanguage of the student end usually involve specific pairs of souncls:

. /p, b/: These sounds are problems for Arabic students. The problem is onc ofvoicing. In Arabic, /p/ and /b/ are variants of the same sound.

. /p, f/: These souncls are confused by Koreart-speaking students

. /i v/:These sounds are problems lbr Japanese-spenking students

. ,/b, v,/:These souncls are problems for Spanish-speaking studcnts

. /y, w/: These sounds are problems for native speakers of a wide rangc of lan-guages: Chinese, Vietnamcse, Thai, German and other Germanic languages,

l'urkish, and Russian and other Slavic latlguages

. Consonant clusters with /w/, especially /kw/ (e.g., question, quiet, Ian-guryq hoin):These words are problems for Korean sttrdents, who often omit/w/ (or fail to round the lips enough to make ,/w/ cleady heard;scc also InitialConsonant Clusters, bekrw).

. The sequence /wo/ (e .g., uroman, uoulD: 'Ihis is a pfoblem for natiyespeakers ofJapanese especiall)', as wcll as Korean. See Glides, page 148.

CHA?|ER,4 Consonants 125

Few students ha\'e problems with the articulation of all five labial sounds (/p,b, f, v, wD. In classes where students speak a varietF of native languages, the ftrll setof sounds can be presented, and the teacher can be confidenr that the lesson willaddress problems that each student has. Because labial consonants are pronouncedat the front of the mouth and ctifferences between them are easy to see, studentshave good control and awareness of articulation. These souncls are easv to teach andeas) lLr letrn.

In a classroom where all students speak the same natiye language, the teachercan focus the lesson on a specific pail (or pairs) of problem souncls. For example,with a class of Spanish studenrs,the teacher can fbcus on /b/ and /y/.In Spanish, thestop pronunciation [bl occurs at the beginning of a word; a bilabial fricative [p],which sourlds very close to English ,/y/, occurs after vowels.2 Thus, in Span ish bebir,"to drink", the first "b" will probably be pronounced [b], brjt the middle consoflantwill be tpl.3 Followin!! the Spanish pattern, Spanish students may pronounceEnglislr words Iike aery as "berry,"while words like rob arrd, table mav sound like- rop and - t:rvcl.'

Activity 4.1 /b/ and /v/ (Spanish): A very big problem

level lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tips Direct students' attention to the visible clues ofconsonant pronunciation.Teach the pronunciation of communicatively useful words.

Desctiplion Students discuss problems (personal, job, local, environmental,world, etc.) and practice the pronunciation of beginning /v/ in com_mun icatively important words.

1. On the board, write phrases containing words with lvl andlu /b/ that can beused to d iscuss problems.

very important

a very big problem

not very important

valuable (tesources)

very serious

family values

iob opportunities

joh security

volunieel

(conti aect on next page)

'z Square brackes (l ]) aLe used to indicate that the sound in bmckets is a va anl frununciation of anothff sound, rather than adiflerent sound. lror example, natile speake$ lronoxnc€ the / rn ,r e/a dlfferertlf ham thc t i.t mehic. rhe t tt nieta, aflzp, is ava anl |ronunclalion ol /L/ (se€ fla|s, /t/ llnd /d./, beloq,).r

A [i]rbial frcJtrre t[p] r rs made $h€n lhp air l.L$es thLough the lips, rfiich an alnost, but not quitr, closed. The labiodentallricali\ ' \ l i. -r...1' ,\' .I hF ,o t"prh t.. , . t p buLlo.n rrl.

gtt:X

K

126 IHAPTER 1 consonants

Actiuit:y 4. 1 contlnuecl

2. lvlodel the phrases. Exaggerate the visible articuiation of /v/ and explain

articulation if necessary (the top teeth touch the bottom lip). Students repeat.

Provide feedback on /v/.

3, Brainstorming. Elicit from students specific problems from a particular area(e.g., adjusting to life in a new country, job problems, school problems, worldproblems), Write the problems on the board.

4. Group work (4-5 students per group). Each student in the group chooses two

or three problems that he or she thinks are very important and explains them tothe group. Remind students to pronounce lul carelrlly in words like rery.

During group work, provide feedback on pronunciation

5. After the group work, ask several students which problems they chose and why.

Provide feedback on pron unciation.

ERR0R C0RRECTIONi Westion Solor;'ds Llke "Kestion" (Korean)V/hen a Korean student mispronounc es question

^s"kestion" ot language as"latgidgel'

r€peat the mispronunciation as a question:"Kestion?" If the student has difficulty self-

correcting, model the word, exaggerating the lip rounding of /kw/

E rr sonnos tbink, tttis

What the Teacher Should KnowThe flrst consonants n think (/eD a:nd, this (/6D are interdental fricatives

The tip of the tongue protrudes slightly between the teeth These sounds can also

be produced by placing the tip of the tongue lightly against the back of the topteeth (a dental place of articulation). Teaching the dental articulation is not as

effective as teaching the interdental articulation (tongrle tip between the teeth). /O/is voiceless and /6/ is voiced.

Common substitutions fot tlre tlJ sounds are /s/ or /z/, as in "ze man sir rsabout zis probleml'or /t/ and /d/, as in "de man tinks about dis problem]A r.rrer

substitution is an /-like sound (for /d/) by some Chinese students, which produces"lat man" for "that man." students from the same natiYe-language background oftenprefer the same substitutions, although there is some Yariation; most Spanish

students, for example, substitute /t/ ar'd /d/ for the t sounds, while Japanese

students prefer /s/ an(l /z/.Because of the widespreacl difficutqv with these sounds,Jenkins suggest that

they be taught only receptively to students who use English primarily withnonflatiye speakers (2002). However, the t sounds are teachable and learnable,

and, as many pronunciation teachers can attest, students are concerned about

them. In addition, we cannot predict with whom our snrdents will use English inthe future. If students ha\.e professional or academic goals that bring them into

.HAPTiR 4 Cansonants "127

contact with native speakers, the)' shor-lld be aware that some substitutions for ,Jsounds (for exarnple, "wif, for .,with.' ,,dem,' for .them,', and ,,tink,'for .think,,) arestitimatized and associated with nonstandard,

'neducated English. Students can and

do learn to pronounce these sot-lnds accurately, so they should be adclressed inpfonunciation wofk.

Students usually learn quickly to percei\.e the clifference between the ,/,sonnds and their common substitutions (as in think-ti11k_sink, tben_den_Zen),dtltough preceding sounds can influence rhe degree of perceptual similaritybctween the tl, sounds and natiye,language substitutions.i

The intetdental articulation of these sounds is the most.lifficult tbature oftheir pronunciation. Students need to be taught that the tip of the tongue protrudesa bit between dte teeth and d1e aif passes out o]/er thc tongue. The sounds areeasiest to pronounce at the beginnings of worcls (e.g., tbanks, tbink, thing, tbis,tbat) , morc dlfficLt lt when t is in me dial positi on (e .g. . otlzef ueather, autt\or) , andmost difficult when t ends a word (.e.g., utitb, batb, breatlJe, fourtb). In fin Iposition, students may have less difficrjlty with voicele ss /e/ eB in uitb) than withvoicecl /6,r (as it1 breatbe) (see also Final Voiced and Voiceless Sounds).

Native speakers sometimes simplify final t sounds when an _s ending follows.This is very common in the word clothes, which most Americans pronounce likethe yerb "(to) close," and ln months, which most Americans pronounce as ,,munts,,

Umants/). These simplfications in common words should be taught to students.(See also -s endings and Native Simplifications of Final Consonants).

Students may express embarrassment about pronouncing t/, sounds asinterdentals, worrying rhat they will look rucle if they.stick out,,their tongues. Theteachef should addfess this reluctance. With stuclcnts in academic programs, it isoften enough to explain that incorrcct pronunciations of tD sounds may lead nativelistenefs to conclude that the student is not wcll educated.5 Teachers can also takethe "gafden path" appfoach and ask students to clescribe what the q,pical Americanor Canadian tongue looks like-is it long or short, fat or skinny? What color is it?Since native speakers use the t sounds very frequently (jfi the, tbis, tbat, thing,etc.), students should have a cleaf picture of how thc tongue looks if it really is"hanging out" of the mouth. In fact, the tip of the tongue protrudes only a little, andit doesn't "hang around" outside. Students will not look rucle if they pronounce ,/,coffectly, but they may sound uneducirted if rhey don,t.

Pronunciation of tb citn be included with the teaching of the fbllowin[igrammatical poiltts:

arltcle: the

demonstratives: th i s/that/th ese/th ose

ntrod ucer: there i s/a re/was/we re

a Trciinovich, Gatbontin, alrd Segelowiu (2007) report that the /d/ oi 1re wits casicst for frcnch canedian ESL lexnrexj to h€er{,hen itwrs preceded by a yojced fticatjre (e.g.,rutds the barr) or l,otced affricate (1lr\t.t iudge the man).t onll the I 1 slLbstitution is stigm.tized Th€ J-.; sub\h tu tior | \ | [,c hc.r I d Js romrlt| e. not noutandard.

128 cH^PrER 1 Consanant

compa ratlves: wtln than

noun clauses: with fhaf

adjective clauses: wlth that

functional language: giving opinions wrlh l think . ot I don t think

Activity 4.2 Th soundsr When's yow birthday?

level Beginn ing

wo.ksheet None

Tips Teach consonants that are difficult for your students.

Direct students'attention to the visible clues of

consonant pronunciation.lntegrate pronunciation with work on functional language, grammar'

or otner coursework.

Bescription This activity integrates pronunciaiion of final TH in ordinal numbers

(fourth, fifth, etc,). Students ask each other when their birthdays are

and answer, using the rnonth and an ordinal number for the date

(e.g., May 30th).

L Elicit from students the ordinal numbers from 1-20 as well as 30 and 31'Write the ordinals on the board, using their standard abbreviations (1st, 2nd,

3rd, 4th). Provide feedback on the pronunclation of th Model all the ordinals

from 1-31. Students rePeat.

2. Elicit the months of the year and write them 0n the board. Model each month

name. Students repeat.

3. On the board, write "When is your birthday?" lVodel the question. Students

repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciation of "th" in birthday'

4. Students copy the months of the year as a ist on a piece of paper, leaving

enough room after each rnonth to write classmates' names and birth dates

Students circulate and ask each other about ihelr birth dates, wr ting the

information on the paper (in a room too smallto move around in, interviewing

can be restricted to smaller groups).

5. When the interviews are finished, ask students about their classmates' birth

dates. Provide feedback on pronunciation. In a class of 23 students, for

example, there is over a 50 percent probability that two will have the same

b irthday (month and date).

cHAprER 4 Consonants 129

Itges l1/ a-tl /!/ (e.g., tie, die);Flapst (e.g., uetting, ueddins);Glottalized /t/ (e.9., utritten)

What the Teacher Should KnowThe stop consonants /t/ "td /d/ are produced by touching the tip of the

tongue to the alveolar ridge, just behind tl.re top teeth; /t/ is yoiceless, and /d/ isvoiced. In some languages (e.g., the Romance languages), /t/ and /d/ are dentalstops; the tip of the tongue makes contact with the back of the top teeth.Substitutions of dental /t/ and, /d/ for alveolar (Enghsh) /t/ arld /d/

^re acceptable.

tie, die

V/hile the pronunciation of /t/ and, /d/ in words like tie afld. die is '?lelydifficult, both /r/ and /d/ har.e variant pfonunciations (for example, the t in

uater), which can make words hard for students to undefstand. Variants arediscussed below

Flap* uetting, uedding. The middle consonanF in u.)etting aruI wedding arepronounced as flaps in North American English (NAE). The tip of the ronguequickly "slaps" the top of the mouth behind the teeth; the yocal cords yibrate.Inside words, flaps occur when /f/ ot /(l/ follows a stressed vowel (or a stressedvowel plus /r/, as in party) ard then is followed by an unstressed vowel.Inpotdto,for example, there are two ,/t/ sounds; the lirst "t" is not flapped because it doesnot follow the stressed yowel; the second /t,/ is a flap (phonetic symbol [D])because it follows the stressed vowel. Compare the flapped prol.lijnciation of /t/and /d/ In column A below (where stress precedes) with the sound in column B(v/here stress follows) :

A

Attic taDtw

(an) Addicr /aDlkv

FAtal feyDay

Adding lal.lqt

caTTACK latav

(to) aDDiCT /adlkY

laT Alily ltelateciyt

aD0ition /adfan/

130 cHAPrtR I Consonants

Sincc flapped /t/ and /d,/ are both yoicecl, homorryms occur in \\ ords llke latter andlqddet; putting

^nd. pudding, and u)etling xnd ueddings

Fittal /t/ car. bc flapped in common words when the ne\t \l'ord begifls with:rvowel (even if the vowel precedinti thc flap is not stressed):

at a movie /aDa/ movie

What is he doing? /waDr/ he doing?

Get out ol here. /g€DawDa(v)/ here.

The flapped pronunciation oflt/ and /d/ is charactcristic ofNorth American En€ilish(NAE) but does not occur iil British English, thc dialect that man)' ESL studentslearned when they lirst studied English. Bccause flaps can make worcls clifficult forstudents to understand, they sl.rould be taught for recoflnition. Teachers whose stu-dents are living in the United States or Canacla may want to teach f'laps lbr pronun-ciation in some comtlon words or expressions, such

^s u)ater and What's the

,ncttter? h1 thesc words, thc unfhpped pronunciations can be difficult for natiyespeakefs to undefstand. For most words, however, substitutions of"regular",/t/ and/d,/ are acceptable, and the flap need not be ta'.iliht for pronunciation.

Glottalized t: urirten. When ft/ is followed by an unstressed syllable containing/n/.as in mountain or u'ritten, it is pronounce d as a glotalized /t/ (s-vmbol td]) oras a llbttal stop (sirmbol /? D.1 A glotttrl stop is used in the warning Ub-otr.lt is ttle"creak" in the voice (thc yocal cords briefly closinla) that precedes eacl] of the twosyllables: ub-oh is pronounced /?a?oV.8 As /t/ is pronouncecl, thc vocal cords(glottis) close briefly, cutting off the air. Say the following pairs of words end listento the differcncc in the underlired /t/s:

mounlain /maunt?er/

Salan /seyt?an/

button /hat?an/

]'he fitst word in each pair is pronounced with a glottalizcd /t/;the secoml word is

pronouncecl with a "regulaf" l.Glottalized /t/ ]s not a high priority pronunciation topic. Native spcakers' use

of glottalizeci / cloes not make worcls unrecognizable to students, xnd students'useof"regular" /t/ does not make words unrecognizable to natiyc listeners.

i In these \\'ords. /i,/ is Uonour.ed N 1 slllabic nNxL (see \asah page I 36) .

in Cockne) lhglish, Dr1ltu is fuurnced b0?1." \{ost NAfl spexkeN llxf the /y ln ,0/l1e hoDl ' or "boDal. '

mainlain /meynteyn/

satanic /satanak/

baton ^aton/

CHAPTIR 4 Consonants 131

Aclivity 4.3 Recognizing flaps

level lntermed iate

Worksheet Page 225

Tip Teach students to recognize reduced pronunciations to jmprove theirlistening comprehension.

Description This activity focuses on recognition of flapped pronunciations of /t/.

L Write matter and material on the board, underlining t's. lvlodel the words,asking students to listen to how the t's are pronounced. Ask student if the I'sin the two words sound the same.

2. Explain that the I in matter is pronounced like a fast d. Ask students to saymatter, pronouncing the underlined consonants as a fast d. Explain that in theUnited States and Canada, f's and d's have this pronunciation when thepreceding vowel is stressed. Students can use regular lll and ldl in their ownspeaking, but should be able to recognize the flaps.

3. Add other cornmon words wtth flaps to the board, capltalizing stressed syllablesand underlining flaps. l\4odel the words.

WAler WRIling pRElly tEACer ( !er) tomAlo

4. Ask students to volunteer words they have heard where t or d has anunexpected pronunciatlon.

@ 5. Oirect students' attention to the dialogue on the worksheet. Students ljsten tothe dialogue and write the missing words in the blank. ln pairs, studentspractice the d ia logue.

R Sibilu.rt", see, zoo, sboe, pleasure, cheap, jazz

What the Teacher Should KnowSibilants have an s-likc sound. Students, problems in\,olving sibilants vary

according to natiye language and usually involve pronunciation rathef thanperception difticulties. Spelling is also a source of confusion.

Pronunciation work with sibilants can be added to glammar lessons on _.s

endin€is (Simplc Presenr -s Ending, Plurals, possessives), count-mass (how much,how man)), and questions and adjective clauses witlt zrrlc/r.

"132 .HAPrrR 4 Consonants

/s/ a'rd /z/. The sibilants /s/ and /z/ are tiicatives ("hissr" sounds), produced bybringing the tip of the tongue close to the alyeolar ridge Oehind thc top reeth). /s/js voiceless and /z/ is yoiced.

Sue! Zou

The consonant /s/ occurs in maq'languages ancl is a familiar sound for students.Itsvoiced counterpart /z/ i,s less common.Vietnamese, Thai, Korean. and most dialectsof Chinese lack /z/; in Spanish, /z/ occurs only before voiced consonants (e.g.,misrnr.t) ,tncl, even in this context, may be weakene d in some dialects. Voiceless /s/is a common substitute for ,/z/, althoLtgtr /l'/ or /dz/ may also be substituted.Japaneseand Korean students may pronotnce /s/ as /[/ in words like see, sit, sue, and pursue(that is, before higlt vowels; see Vowels); /s/ does not occur before these \.owels inJapanese or Korean.e

/l/ s}ei:p and ft1 pleasure. The boldface sounds rn sbip and pteasure ([/ and /3/)are plonolrnced by pulling the tongue back f.rom the /s/ /z/ positiot] (ro the palate)and rounding the lips slightly. The boldface sound in sbrp is voiceless; in pleasure,it is voiccd.

. pleasure

With the exception of a few l-rench words (e.g., gen rc'). B/ does nor occur at thei)rgirln ing ol English word..

The specific problems involving /l/ ^nd

B/ clepcncl on the student's nativelanguage. Chincse students may pronounce the bold consonants in usualll ormeasnre (BD too weakll', 5s that tltev sound like "uwlally" or "mayor" Greckstudcnts may substitute /s/ for [/ before high front vowels;sbaep for example, maysound like "seep," and garage like "p;araz.'

/tJ/ Gheck) and /q / (jeep). The lip diagrams for the affiicates /t/ (as in clreck')encl /4/ @s 1n jeep)

^rc iclcntical to those for /[/ a]nd /3/ ahovc. /tl/ is voiceless and

/Q/ is voiced. The affricates /tl/ (.^s it1 mucb) and, /Q,/ (.as in major) e complex

'Korqu sludenb mar suhstitllt€ /torl 3 / for /s/ or /z/ bcforc nrid-io\rcls irs $ellllor cvnrple. r'r,r'rz1l ntal sound like rezhult.'

w7;4Y2Y_-4r-^{//

shipmY2

CtAprER.tr Consonants 133

sounds which start as stops (/t/ or /dD and arc released as fricatives (/t or /3D.Thestop is not heard as a separate sound but must be articulated lbr the affficate to bepronouncecl coffectl)'. In words witl.r flr]al /tJ/ and /S/ (for examplc. muclJ aIILlage), tl.e stop can be heard as a brief silence before the last sound. say tnuch vewslowly and notice that the vowel sounds "cut off" and is followed bv a Lrief silence.Tl.ris Occurs becluse the /t/ (.of /t[D briefly stops the airflow (ancl ihus rhe vowelJ.'Vtith musb, the vowcl is not cut off because [/ is .d fricati.ve (the air flow isobstructed but nor stopped). The same is true for /e/ and B/, as in tnajor afld.measure. Pronounced slowl),, the first \.owel in tnajor sounds ',cut off,,; the firstvowel in ,neasure does not.

Many students confuse pairs like much afl(l mush or major and mea.sure.The phonetic symbols /tl and /Q/ are uscful reJchi|g ajds since they show bothpxrts of the sounds. which ordinary spellings sometimes fail to do. A Spanish orVictnamcse Student is less likely to n spronounce matclz as r?as, because, iSpart of the spelling of tnatcb. It words like mucb, u,lticb, and ectcb, hower.ef, itis not.

Korean stndents nny add a vowel souncl :rfter final [/ (as tn u,ist'), B/ @s itrb.eige),,/t[/ (4s in uthiclt), a;nd /$/ (as in e d.ge). Vt:]ich ma! sound like .witciy,,'edgelike "edgyi'lisD like "fish).i' and Derge likc ,,beig ,

g ss, c (followed by / or e), -se latter a consonanq-r'zgl[Effi.,sr,

Exceptions: .ss is pronounced /z/ in dessert, scissors, and possess.z, -se, -$ (s between vowels), -es (e.nding): zero, dizzy, rcsi, caus.,

Exceptions: -se is pronounced /s/ , as in dose, clJctse, bouse, and erasesb, 1i-, -ci-, -ssion, -ssure: sboe, u)asb, patient, natioiStryr4ian,special, mission, discussion, pressure

Unusual spellings: ocean, suga4 sure, Cbicago, macbine, clicbe-sure, -sion, -zurc: pleasure, Tneasure, decision, teletision, uisi<tn,seizure

Unusual spellings: regime, beige, garage, equ.ttion

cb, tcb, -tu- (xnstlessed): church, catcb, nature, centuty, pictureUnusual spellings'. cello, amateur

j. clj, g (Defore i and e), dge, z/r- (unstressed): judge, edge, Geor.qe,gene. gradual, educa lio,t, sdJ..luleUnusual spellings'. sold.ier, ex&ggerate

134 :HAPTIR 4 Consonants

Activity 4.4 Sihilants: How nuch oil?

Level lntermed iate

Worksheet Pages 226 227

Tips Integrate pronunciation work wiih work on funciional language0r grammar.

Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com-prehensibility and grammatical accuracy,

Description This information gap practices final ltll in How much questionsabout countries that import and export oil. The substitution of f/tor ltl is a problem ior Spanish, Vietnamese, and Thaj siudents;Korean students sometimes add a short vowel sound after hY (e.g.,"muchy," "wh ichy").

1. On the board, write minimal pairs contrasting lll and ll. Underline the targetsounds. lvlodel the words, Students repeat,

watch-wash much-mush

catch-cash which-wish

2. Explarn pronunciation: The last sound in the frrst word of each pa r beginswlth a /t/ sound. In watch and catch |he /t/ is written. ln much and which iI rs

not written, but it must be pronounced. Students wil not hear the /t/ as a

separate sou nd.

3. On the board, write questions about the price of oil, using Haw much.

. How much is a gallon (4 llters) of gaso ine (in the United States/inyou r country)?

. How much was a gal on of gas two years ago?

4. lVode the questions. Students repeat. Provide feedback on the pronunciationof much.

5. Choose one or two students to ask classrnates the questions on the board.Provide feedback on pronunc ation.

6. Eljcit from students the names of oil exporting countries and wrlte them on theboard. Ask students if their countries are o I importers or exporters.

7. Put students in pairs. Give each member of the pa r a differeni chart of oilimporters and exporters. Students complete the nformation missing from theircharts by asking "How much oil does import/export a day?"

B. When the pair work is finrshed, review the information with the class. Providefeed back on pron u nciation.

CH^PIER 4 Consonants 135

ERR0R C0RRECTI0NT Your student sa'.s "race" wh€n he wants to say ,.raise,,' oruwass" when he wants to say'kas.""lell the student to lengthen the vowel in "raise" and keep the last sound shoft (see alsoFinalVoiced andVoiceless Consonants, page 155).

YoufJapanese student says "she" whefl he wants to say "see," and,,shoe"when he wants to say "Sue." Youf Korean student says "pefshuade' instead of"persuade," "rezhult" lnstead of "result," and "muzheum" ilstead of"museum."Model the incoffect and correct pronunciations, exaggerating the sibilant sounds. Teltthe students to move the tongue dp forward in the mouth (behind the top teeth) andrepeat the words.

Youa Spanish, Yietnamese, and Thai students say "mush" when they want tosay "much," and "sheep" when they want to say "cheap."Introduce the phonetic symbol for "cln"t /tl/.E\plai'f, that "t" is paft of thepronunciation even wheil it is not shown in spelling (though it is written in matclJ aj:'dccttch, fot example). Students y/ill not heat /t/ as

" sepanate sound, but it must be

pronounced. Encoffage students to make "mental" respellings of"ch" as "tch."

Your Chinese student says "uv/ally" when she wants to say "usually."Tell the srudent to keep the tip of the tongue up in the mouth. The tongue lighrlytouches the top of the mouth. Contrast "uwally" and "usualry Direct students' adentionto th€ "noisier" middle sound in "usually'

Your students say "cheap" when they want to say "sheep."Tell your students that the tongue does not make firm (strong) contact with the top ofthe mouth for the fust sound in sreep. Students should be able to prolong (exhalethrough) the first sound.

Your Korean student says "whichy" or "edgy" wh€n he wants to say '.which"or "edge."Tell your student to keep the last sound of these words very short. Work with thepronunciation of final consonants (see Final Consonants, page 153).

136 ( HAPrtR,+ Cansonanrs

I:Lrf l N-.It, su rt. sorrre. su,,g

What the Teacher Should KnowThere are three nasal consonants in English:/n/ as in sun. /m/ as in some, and

/l/asin sazg. With /n/,the tip of the tongue touches behind rhe top teeth; with/m,/, the lips close;and with /1,/, the back of the ton€iue rises to touch thc vclum (theback of the roof of the mouth) and the tip of the tor.rgue rests behind the bottomteeth.With all three consonants, the air is released throulah rhe nose rather than tlremouth. /rJl occlrrs only in the middle or at the ends of words le.g., singing).

Students have few problems with ,h/ and /m/ at th.e beginnings of words ors)'llables (e.9.,fl /ce, dinnet; mice,

^nd dimmer).The Chinese conftrsion of beginning

/n/ and /l/ (pronouncing ligbt as "right" and vice versa) is discussed ]D A/ "Dd

/t/-/l/,below.

nll may be mispronounced as /r)gl or /lk/ by Polish or Russian students or as

/n/ by Spanish students.lr) This problem can reflect a difficulty pronouncinli /!/ ora spelling confusion, since the r?g spellitg represents both /\/ (as in slrrgel) and/\g (.as n s/ngle). Students should be made aware of the spelling pattcrns of thefwo pronunciations.

10 The pronurciation ol /4/Ls /q g/ also occuni in son€ netile EngLish didects in fic lofih€estelr United States, especixLl! $hen the

nexl word begi$ wth e vo\\'el Long ls[and rtty be prL\rounced l,oncu\'land.

suflg

n8 is pronounced ,i rll nS is pronounced /!€il

1. fnal ng: long, young1. Con.lparatives and supedatives of -/€

^djectivel longer, loungesL stronger

?.tbe -ing efudirg 2. zgle spellings: single, tingle, ,ningle

3. most othe xg spellings 3.finger

cHAprtR I Consonants "137

At the ends of wofds, two Wpes of problems occur. Spanish speakefs maysubstitute one nasal for anotheq prono\lncing someone, for example, as,,sungwung',(Avery ancl Ehrlich 1992). These stLrdents should be instructed to pronounce nasalconsonants as the). are written. Final nasal consonants may also be .dropped,, byChinese and Portuguese stt-rdents and realized as a nasalization of the prececlingvowel CJuffs 1990, Averl and Ehrlich 1992). the Chinesc student who pronouncessolrleone as/s3w;/ (- indicates a nasalized vowel) needs to le,J'In to lengthen iinalnasals oL pronounce them as consonants rathef than as vowel nasalization.

Although Spanish and Chincse students mispronounce final nasal conson,rLntsin cliflbrent ways, the Spanish problem of nasal substitutions ard the Chinese (orPortuguese) problem of vowel nasalization can be dealt with in the same lesson.Correcting both problems involves getting students to pronounce worcl or syllable-final nasals as they are writtefl:the lips close for /m/, the ton[luc tip touches behindthc top teeth for /n/, and, the back of the tongue rises fbr /rll. Spelling is alnostalways a reliable cue for promnciation of linal nasals.r i

In unstressed syllables,like the last syll^bl.e of taken, /n,/ may be prolongecl andpronounced as a syllabic nasal-(symbol [n]). The vowel virtually disappears and thenasal i$elf is the last syllable.12 In connected speech,and is usually pronounced asa syllabic nasal black and utlr/te (pronounced "black 'n white;,,see also Reductionsof Function Words, Rh]'thm). This is not a topic that needs to be coyered in class.

Activity 4,5 /q /: Present continuous and -ing

level Beginn ing

Worksheet Page 228

Tips Integrate pronunciation work with work on functional languageor grammar.

Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com-prehensibility and grammaiical accuracy.

Bescription This activity adds pronunciation work with /1/ to course materials forthe present contin uous.

1. Before class, choose a picture (or cartoon or picture story) from coursematerials showing people engaged in a variety of activities.

2. ln class, on the board, write the progressive form of two or three verbs whichcan be used to describe the picture(s) (e.9., walking, studytng, sleeping).l\4odel the words. Students reDeat.

(continue.l olt nexl page)

l'? 0ther consonanh ae also p|onounced i]s srllabics: in ,11r1c forere ple,Lhel t$lllablcisprcnoltncedir.sxs,vliabic'1,"widtt€ry

littLe voncL (slnbol lll)r rn ,r1lr,r. for exalnple. fie lrt srlhble is a sllLabic frtll.

1 3B . HAPrtR :4 Consanants

Act irit! 4. 5 conti nae.l

3. Present the articulation of /n/ and /q/ on Worksheet 4.5. Explain that with /n/,the tip of the tongue is up, behind the top teeth. With /q/, the tip of the tongueis down, behind the bottom teeth.

4. Using the textbook picture (or cartoon or picture story), ask students to describewhat is happening. Provide feedback on the pronunciatton of lnland lql.

Activity 4.6 Final nasals: I'm thinking of someone who . . .

Level lntermediate (Spanish, Chinese, Portuguese, Russian, Polish)

Worksheet None

Tip fncourage students to pronounce final consonants to improvecom prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.

Description This activity practices a variety of final nasals: lml and ln/ insomeone and /11 in thinking. Students provide clues about someoneuntil their classmates can guess the ideniity of the person.

1. On the board, write "l'm thinklng of someone . . . ." Underline the nasals.lModel the sentence. Ask each student to say the sentence, pronouncing theunderlined sounds carefully.

2. l\4odel the activity. Tell students they are going to use the sentence on theboard to play a game about famous peopJe. Choosing a famous person thateveryone 1n class knows, give a hint (e.g., "l'm thinking of someone who livesin Venezuela"). Classmates guess the person's name (e.g., Hugo Chavez) orask questions to get more informatlon until they can guess the person.lnstruct students to begin their questions with "Does/ls the person you'rethinkingof...?"

3. Ask a student to choose a person whom everybody in class knows and give ahint about that person, starting with "l'm thinking of someone. . . ." The restof the class asks questions until they can guess the person's identity. Thestudent who guesses the person's identity chooses a new person. Providefeedback on the pronunciation of nasal consonants in the phrase I'm thinkingaf sameone.

I

I

CHAPTER I Consonants 139

K stop" /ld arrd /g/t coat, goat; theletter r

What the T€acher Should KnowFew students have problems pronouncing the stop consonants /k/ aJrd /g/

when they begin a word or syllable,as n coat arrd gort Ifith both .orr.o,rurrtr, th.back of the tongue rises to touch the velum.,/V is voiceless and,/g/ is voiced.

coat, goat

Most problems involving /k/ and /g/ occur when the consonants end words,and they can be addressed in a lesson on final consonants or on final voiced andvoiceless sounds. In Spanish, /g/ is pronounced weakly (as a fricatiye) at the ends ofwords and between vowels; Spanish stlrdents may tfansfef this weakenedpronunciation into English words like beginning (which may sound like"behinning") or dog Korean students haye difficulty pronouncing /wil (orpronouncing it strongly enough) in the consonant clusters /kw/ and ,/gV; question(/kfl) often sounds like "kestion" and language egwD Lke,,langidge', (seeBeginning Clusters, below).

The letter x inyolves difficult clusfers with /k/ or /g/.The pronunciations of rare largely predictable and should be taught to students.

Activity 4.7 Ptonunciation otx: Spelling and sounds

Level lntermed iate/Advanced

Worksheets Pages 228-229

lip Encourage students to pronounce the consonants in consonant cluslers.

Descripti0n This activity practices the pronunciation of words with x.

(continue.l on next page)

1 40 . H)FTE!' I aan'onants

1ctilit l.: contin ed

1. On the board, write ta4, e4am, and 4ytophone, underlining the letter x in each

word. Explain Ihat xylophone is a musical instrurnent'

2.|Vode]thewordsontheboard.AskstudentsWheihertheletterXispronouncedthe same or differently in the three words.

3. Explain that the letter x has three pronunciations (ks, gz' and z) and write them

on the board.

4. Pass out the first handout and go over new vocabulary'

65. Students listen to the words on the handout and repeat them. They listen again

and write each word under the appropriate pronunciation column'

6. ln pairs, siudenis check their work. Ask the pairs to figure out ihe

pronunciation rules for x. lnstruct them to consider the position of x in the

words, whether a stressed vowel precedes or follows x, and whether a

consonant follows x. Pass out Worksheet 4.7B

7, Elicit from students other words spelled with x. Ask students how x is

pronou nced.

ffil oo...t' /t:./ (band)

V/hat the Teacher Should KnowThe consonant /h/ is a voiceless fricative created by pushing air throlrgh the

glottis (vocal corcls). It is d1e sound of panting or breathing after exercise'

/h/ is a weak sound in English and may be dropped when it is inside a word

or sentence and not followed by a stressecl vowel ln history, for example' '&/ is

always pronounced because the ibllowing vowel is stressed ' ln bist'rical' A1/ is

followed by an unstressecl Yowel. It is always pronounced when it begins an

utterance (e.g., Historical figures are. . ) However, w]ner historical is inside a

sentence, some speakers say "nn historical fact" (omitting /hD ancl others "a

historical fact" (pronouncing /hDThere are two pronunciation problems involving /h'l The first is an incorrect

place of articulation. Chinese and Spanish stuclents may pronounce /h/ at the back

of th. mo.,th (rather than the glottis) so thal At/ sounds like the German

pronunciation of cb in Bacb (lite a throat-clearing sound) 13

Spelling can also be a source of mispronunciation ln most words with D like

beauy, abeacl, han(l, beart, bartl, /h/ is always pronounced Tn other words'

mostly borrowings from French, /h/ is never pronounced, as in 'on

est' bonor' and

bour: Frenct and Italian students may "drop" /h/ when it should be pronounced

15 'l he misprollrncialion is a leLer frciunciatjon ol /l/

CHA?TER I Consonants 141

(.e.9., bead is pronounced "ead") and add it when it should not be pronounced(.e.9., air is"haij").

In function words that are typically unstressed (such as he, bim, lsis, lse4 l:aue,lsas, and baD. native speakers pronounce /b/ afler a pause (e .g., ,,He ,s tall,,), butfrequently omit it inside a sentence (e.g., Is be tall? is us:ual]ry pronounced .Izzytall?"). Students should be taught when /h/ is always pronounced and when it isnever pronounced. They should also be able to recognize the /:-less pronunciationof function words (see Pronouns and Reductions of Function Words, Rhlthm).

ERROR C0RRECTI0N; Mispronunclatio n of /b/ as a Velar Souad (a ,,Idieatry h)1. Explain that A/ has a soft sound in English, like the sound of breathing. Demonstrate

the sound, using bfearhs of a4 as if you were panting. Contrast the incoffect (thehea\,'!' or thfoatdearing pfonunciation) and the correct pronunciation.

2. Ask students to think of words for parts of the body that start with /h/ (e.g.,t ear,lJead, lrand, foretread, afud, trair).ptovide feedback on pronunciarion.

3. Write a tongue twister sentence on the board that includes several,/h/ words (seeexample below). Model the sentence and ask students to repeat it-

Harry heard Harrjet had heart problems.

Whtitial/t/t Rigtrt

What the Teacher Should KnowThe articulation of /r/ ya.res considerably from language to language. In

English, /r/ is a retroflexed consonant: The tip of the tongue turns or cuds up andback.ra At the beginning of a word or sy able (e.g., riglt, arriue), the tip of thetongue starts turned up and slightly back (the retroflexed position) and then lowersor uncuds, without touching the top of the mouth.15

righr

W'v.r^WffiW

r4 The body ofthe tongue a1s0 moles b11!k. som€ narive spea[elx do not rehofler //, but insllad "bunch" the longue. rorFdagogical

purposes, explalning articuiation as rclrcflexion, atuniing up and back of the tongue, wiliprobabl,v produce th€ b;t resuli, (A;riandEhrlhh 1992,23).15lhe

lips xre also sllghtly rcunded for //. How€ver, jnstructing students to rcund their lips sometimes produces misprcnunciations llke"whjte" for " ght ' In ny own teaching, I ignorc lip mundjng.

142 :HAPfER I Consonants

Pronunciation Problems associated with beginfling /r/ ('as in rigbt) xedifferent from those associated with frn l ft/ (h/

^ftet \o$ els. as in car) a1ld should

beaddressedh<lifferentpronunciationlessons(forlr,/aftervorlels'seeR-ColoredVowels in chapter 5).The movement of the tongue also differs; At the beginning of

a word, the tongue moves out of the retroflexed position (uncurls); after a vowel'

the tongue moves into the fetfoflexed position (cuds back)'

Student mispronunciations of be€iinning /r/ include substitutions of native

language /r/ or interrnediate sounds (Bcebe 1980) At the end of a word' students

m"y eiift.r dr,rp /r/ or substitute a different sound Japanese problems with /r/ and

/l/ are discussed in the following sections Onitial /l/, and Contmsting /r/-/l/)'Retroflexionofthetonguetakesplaceinsidethemouth,anditsexternalvisual

cues are minimal. Although some students are able to pick up the retroflexed

pronunciation through exposure to spoken Eflglish, many will need to be explicitly

taught how to make /t/.

Activity 4.8 Beginning h/: The R gane

Level lntermediate

Worksheet Page 230

lip Use hand gestures to reinforce the articulation of /r/'

Desc]:ption Students learn the articulation ot hl and practice it in a guessing

game featuring questions that can be answered with common /r/

words. By choosing /r/ words suitable to the vocabulary level of

students, the teacher can tailor this game to any level ln addition'

the game can also be a means of practicing question formation if the

teacher asks students to write their own questions'

1. Present the diagram of /r/ on Worksheet 4.8. Model the words right and wrong'

Explain that the tip of the tongue starts up and back and ihen lowers The tip

of ihe tongue does not touch the iop of the mouth' Use the hand gesture below

to reinforcle articulation and for feedback. ln the gesture, the hand represents

the tongue; the fingertips represent the tip of the tongue'

\

( HA?TER I Consonants 143

ActiuiA 4.a conhnued

2. Model right and wrong again. Students repeat together and then individually.Provide feedback on articulation (Japanese, Arabic, and Spanish students mayircorrectly touch the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth; French andGerman students may use ihe back of the tongue, rather than the tip).

3. On the board, add other words containing beginning /r/ for practice. lncludesome of the answers to the guessing game questions. Ask students to volunteerother words with beg nning /r/. l\4odel the words, using the hand gesture toreinforce articulation. Students repeat.

right wr0ng

like

roof

5.

6.

4.

round road Jetrigerator

The guessing game. Divide the class into two teams. Team members should sittogether, facing the opposite team. Give the teams different sets of questions.

Team members first decide the answers to their questions.

Play the game. Team A starts, wjth each member in turn choosing a player onthe opposite team to answer one of Team A,s questions. The team memberasking the question must pronounce it clearly enough for the opposing teammember to understand (this is the most challenging part of the game, andseveral repetitions of a question are often necessary). The Team B playeranswers the question with a word containing /r/. The answering team earns apoint for a correct answer, with a correc|y pronounced /r/.

lnttlal /U (ligbt); Filn l /V (att); Cotftrastjflg /l/ and /n/Qigbt and nigl:t)

What the Teacher Should Know/1,/ is produced by toucltinfa the tip of the tongue to the top of the mouth just

behind the teeth; the air passes out latenlly oyer the sides of the tongue. Since it isdifficr t for students to feel the lateral passage of air, articulatory information abourthe placement of the tip of the t()ngue is more useful pe dagogically.

144 ;HAPTER 4 Consonants

Light and Dark /V. English /l/ has two pronunciations. depending on its positionin a word. "Light," or "clear," /1/ occurs at the beginninE! of a word or syllable, as inlike, loue,

^nd. aliue."Dark" A/ occufs at the end of a word or s,yllable , as inatl, cold,

andll. With light ,/l/, the back of the rongue is relaxed and down;with dark /I/,rheback of the tongue is nised. Perceprually, dark /V sounds as if it is preceded by ashort /a/ sound (e.g., coalr/).

Lis,ht /1/ D^tk /1/

Different pronunciation problems occur with beginning (light) /l/ and final (dark)/U, and the two types of /l/s should be addressed in separate lessons. Nativespeakers of Japanese, Korean, and Mandarin may conftlse beginning /r/ wirh /l/.These two sounds may be both difficult to hear (especially for Japanese students)and difficult to pronounce. funeJ', Takada, and Ota suggest that teachers point out toJapanese sb,rdents that they are more likely to mispronounce A/ thafi /r/

^nd t]:rat

pronunciation work with /l/ be addressed bcfore work with /r/ (2OOO,731,).Howeye! the /r/ l/ contrast should also be addressed, since students for whom it isdifficult invariably ask about both sounds.

A common substitution for final (dark) /l/ is "

clear Oeginning) /l/. Thissubstitution does not interfere with inrelligibiliry and does not need to be corrected.A more serious problem is the pronunciation of dark /1/

^s /o/, /u/, or /w/

(vocallT,ation of /1/);old l)eople,lbr instance, sounds like "ocle peopo," ^nd,

beautifulsounds like "beautifo." This mispronnnciarion is common with native speakefs ofBrazilian Portuguese and Chinese, but may occur with other students, as well.16 Themost impoftant goal fof students wh<t yocahze A/ is to pronounce it as a consonant(light or dark), rather than as a vowel.

/U and. /rt/ (Ctrtnese). In some Cantonese dialects /l/ ancl /n/ can be substituted foreach other at the beginning of a word, and Cantonese studcnts may make the samcsubstitutions in English words: /as, may be pronounced lil<e "nast" or n lglr, like "light"

16ln Br^zilian Po uguese, final/y is Iocxlized 10 a /$y' 0r /u/ sound. ln Chinese, /1/ do€s not occur ln find losjtion. \bcalizeuon of/y

isalso common.nrong chiidrcn leallrirgEnglish aJ aliNtl guagc (who ln a,v s,ry 'lilto peopo" instead of littie people') andh2loccuned as asoundchange in other lalguages.

CH^prER I Consanants 145

(Avery and Ehdicl.r 1992, 1 15). t - Mosr students are not aw2lre that they are making thissubstitlrtion. Even if the conirsion of /1t/ and A/ does nor fesult in uninteligibilitl it isodd sounding to listeners (nati.!.e and nonnadve) and draws attention away iiom whatthe student is saying. This is a persistent but impor-tant problem, since there afe manvminimal pairs in English involving ,i nl .Lnd A/ (-Atfotd 1987).

ERR0R C0RRECTI0N : Peopte is pfonounced ,.peopo,'1. Explain to students dlat they are not pronouncing /l/ at ttre end of a word (or after

a vowel) strongly enough. Model the mispronunciation and tlt€ correct pfonuncia-tion' exaggerating the final /1,/. Ask students to listen to thc difference between theinco[ect ancl correct pronunciations of the word (e.g.,',peopo,, and.peopte,,).

2. Instruct students to touch the tip of the tongue behind the top teeth when aword is spellcd widr / (there are, howel.er, silent /'s in wolds like ualk, salmon,nd calm).

3. Ifrite some commonly mispronounced pfuases with final ,4/ and ask students torepeat them. The plrases below are some that I have colected from m', students-

old people snalt children

a helpful article a lit e bit

useful results

meanwhile

Zrgrt is Pronounced .,Ntglt" ot Nigbt is pronounced ,.Light,,1. Tell student that they arc sa,ving // instead of /n/ (or vice versa). Students are

usually unaware that they are confusing the two sounds. Model the mispronuncia-tion and thc correct pronunciation, exaggerating both the /fl/ and /y (e.g.,,,night,,and "light").

2. Explain that if the wor<l is spelled with n, air comes out the nose.l)irect the stu-dent to touch her nose as she says ,'nighrt, If the word is spelled with /, the aircomes out the mouth. Direct rhe student to lightly touch her lower lip as shesays "light."

3. For intermediate and aclvanced students, writc this short poem on the boardfof pmctice :

You've no need to lrght a night-lieht

On a ntght like tonight,

For a night-light's light's a s ight light,

And tonight's a night that's light.rs

t7 Aldlough ,/-1l subsuluti0ns afir relofed t0 be uoblens l0r cantoncse stu.lerb. I har,€ had studeDb tl,ho idertif, then]sei\es es

natir,€ sFake.s of l\{xndarin u'ho hare the samc problem.13

This is the llNt half of a tongue t$isler foem thal cm be folrnd on htDi//$$'$i.dfs org and other tonglre hvisier \feb sites.

146 :HAPTER I Consanants

ffi aon .u", ing /t/ and /l/: Rigltt-Ligltt

\Iahat the Teacher Should KnowThe contrast of / and /l/ (^s in right afld /rgrt) is notoriously difficult for

riative speakers of Japanese. It is also djfficult for native speakers of Korean,Mandarin, and Vietnamese. The Japanese /r/ is a flap (the tip of the tongue "slaps"the top of the mouth) but can be pronounced like /l/ in some contexts.

Research on the perception elfid pronunciation of the /t/-/l/ confta:st byJapanese ESL leaxners shows that even good pronouncers of /r/ and /l/ may h^vedifficulty hearing the difference between these two sounds (Goto 1971, Sl.reldonand Strange 1982, Riney et al. 2005). In addition, English /r/ may be perceptuallymore different from Japanese /r/ than English /l/ and, therefore, easier for studentsto hear and pronoulce (Flege, Takagi, and Mann 1995; see also Riney et al. 2000).Itis important forJapanese students to leafn to pronounce /t/ and /V lccurately sincetheir mispronunciations are stereotyped (e.g., "flied lice" for "fried rice") and arestrongly related to a heary accent (Riney et a1.2005).

In spite of lingefing pefceptual difficulty, students can learn to pronounce /r/and /y, likely basing pronunciation on how the sounds feel when they are correctlypronounced. It is helpful to point out that with /r/, the tip of the tongue does nottouch the top ofthe mouth, and with /l/, it does;substantial practice of these soundsis impoftant and helptul.

Activity 4.9

Level

Worksheet

Tip

Description

light

W----/*-\ u?7a-drc t/2: \zt</1

right

Practicing the /r/-/U contrast. How do you spe tight?

Low lntermed iate/lntermed iate

Page 231

Use hand gestures to reinforce the articulation of /r/.

This activity focuses on the perception and pronunciation ol lrl and/l/ in minimal pairs.

:HAPTER 4 Consonants 147

ActiolA 4.9 continued

1. Direct students' attentjon to the djagrams on Worksheet 4.9. Model

2.

6.

"right" and

4.

" light, " and explain articulation:

. "L" is a contact (touch) sound. The tip of the tongue touches behind thetop teeth.

. Use the hand gesture below to show the articulation oI Al. fhe upper handrepresents the top of the mouth. The tips of the fingers of the upper handrepresent the teeth. The lower hand represents the tongue. point out tostudents that the tongue tip touches behind the teeth.

. "R" is not a contact (touch) sound_ The tip of the tongue does nof touchthe top of the mouth.

. Use the hand gesture illustrated on page 142 and explain:

The tip of the tongue starts up and back.

The tip of the tongue lowers without touchlng the top of the mouth.. Write two sentences on the board, one containing only words beginning with

/l/ (e.g., "Lovely Lisa loves Luke") and one containing only words beginningwilh lrl (e.g., "Ray Rivers reached Rome"). Ask students to say thesentences slowly, focusing on the different articulations.

Minimal pairs. lvlodel the /l/ words. Students repeat. Ask each student to choosethree /l/ words and say them out loud. provide feedback on pronunciation. Repeatwith the /r/ words. Then model the rows. Students repeat. Ask each student tochoose three pairs and say them out loud. provrde feedback on pronunciatjon.

Read one word from each pair. Students circle the words they hear.

Go over each word on the card, asking the class whether you read that wordand how ii sounds.

0n the board, write a model dialogue for pair practice of the minimal pairs.

A: How do you spel right ?

B: R-l-G-H-T

In pairs, students take turns choosing one member of a minjmal pair from thesecond part of the handout and asking their partners how to spell the words.

5.

148 cltAPrtR I Consonant

uffdcs: /y/ ,et ^nd,

/w/ VA.v

What the Teacher Should KnowThe glides (dso called semivowels) /y/ and /w/ are consonants when they

begin a word or syllable, as in 1,eq young, uineyard, u.ny, and auoke. After a. vowe|they function as part of the vowel, xs in boy and nou.

\fith /y/ (e .9.,:rc.t, the body of the tonlaue pushes up through an /iyl posirion(,/iyl is the vowel sound in see).The lips may be spread.Wtrh /w/ (e .g.,ulr?),the lipsstart rounded and then unround ro the vowel that fbllows.le The back of the tongueis raised witll /w/, but tltis infomation is not pedagogically important.

]'es way

The glides pose few difficulries for students generally, although students fromcertain native-language backgfounds malr experience pfoblems with some wofds.20Spanish students mal,' pronounce let and J,tolk like "jet" and "jokej" a srereot\pedpfonunciation which shoulcl be addressed in class. Japanese and Korcan srudentshave difficult]. pronouncing / ,v/ in year and J,,edst when the following .i.owel is /I/or /iy/; year ma.v sor.rnd like "ear" 2Jtd least like "east." There are very few wordswith this sequence Q)i.eld is nnotlj'ff example). Since the onl1. comrnon problemword is leaI, its mispronunciation can be addressed through error corrcction.

A similar problem ifl.olves the pronunciation ot /w/ in uould/uoo4 u.nman,uo$ and uool.This is a problem primarily for Japanese and Korean speakers, whofind it difficult to say /w/ when the vowel /u/ follows, pronoun cing ruoman andLoould llkc"'omarl" and "'ould." Again, since there are yery fbw Entilish words wherethis difficult sequence occurs. the problem can be dealt wirh through errorcoffection. The confusion oflw// and /v/ (pronouncing ,e?, as "wiuy"), cliscussed inLabial Consonants, eadier, is more widespread.

(as in zzr1)

'0 !'or Chiiese studentr prorunciation ofrir?simil,llto lbnt, sec liphthongs, page ]90.

CHA?TER 4 Consonants "l49

For Spanish students, the pronunciation of /y/ in yesterday a:nd, yet can beadded to work on the past tense or present perfect.

ERR0R C0RRECTI0N: Mispronourclflg "Yet/ as "Jet" (Spantsh Speakers)1, On the board, write the mispronolnced wold with its normal spelling, and below

it, a pronunciation spelling in which the double l€ttefs r7 are substituted fof/ andthe following stressed vowel is written in lar8e l€tters. Model the coffect pronuncia-tion, spreading your lips for /y/. Tetl tlle student to pronounce ? as a long /V Gn thepfonunciation spellings, the letter / has the same yalue that it does in Spanish),stressing the second r.owel. The student repeats.

yesterday young

ii6sterday iiSng

. Add some other words beginning with /y/ to the board, writi.rg pro{mnciationspellirigs below the words. Ask the student to say them, stretching out the fustsound and spreading the [ips.

yes

ii5s

year you

ii6ar ii6u

Mispronouncing ''O:dd" Oapanese and Kofean Students)1. On the boa.fd, write the mispronounced wotd with its nofmal spelling, and below

the wofd, a pfonunciation spelling in which the double lelters ut are substitutedJor zu. Tell the student to start tlle word tl,oman with a long /u/ sound that movesinto the following stressed vowel.

would

u u 6uld

2. Alternative feedback:

. Tell the student to imagine he is stretching a rubber band as he says the firstsont\d of uould.

. ?ell the student to prepare to say u,ould wil}] the lips tightly rounded. As he says

tlle word, he unrounds his lips.

3. Add these words for practice:

would woman wool wolf wooden

Mispfonounclng "Yeaf" as "Eaf" Oapanese and Korean Speakers)On the board, write the mispronounced word with its normal spelling. Below it, write a

proflunciation spelling in which the double letters ll are substituted fot !. Contt^st )Earalfd eatt prolo/lg;tflg tl'.e /y/ of year'leU the student to statt lear wilt' a long /i,/ soundthat mo\'es into the following stressed vowel.

year

ii6ar

150 :HAPTER 4 Consonants

ffi t*,trt .lroiceless stops: p ea, tea, key

What the Teacher Should Knowwhen the yoiceless stops /p/, /t/, ot /k/ are followed b}' a stressed vowel,

the stop is pronounced with a puff of ai! aspiration. In textbooks, this may be

represented as a small stlperscript "h" after the consonant or by a smallsuperscript "<" after the consonant (e .g., pt'ea, f ea, kh e1t, ot p<ea, t<ea, k'e!).Aspiration occurs when the buildup of air behind the stop is released suddenly.

ln pan, fot example, the treginning /p/ is held while air builds up behind the lips.

When the lips open, the air is suddenly released.In a language like Spanish, stops

are unaspirated;the stop closure is not helcl as long as it is in English and less air

builds up.If /p,t,k/ are insufficiently aspirated, native listeners may hear them as

their voiced counterparts, /b, d, g,/;prg may sound like"big," tie like "die," and coatlike "goat."

Aspiration of /p,t,k/ occurs only when a stressed Yo,wel follows.ln apb^ ,

atfAck, ^nd

decb6.y, fot example, the consonants are aspirated because a

stressed \.owel follows. In dpple, 6ttic, and ddcadent, the bold consonants are

not aspirated because a stressed vowel does not follow2t Voiceless stops are also

unaspirated in /s/ clusters, such as spot, stop, ^nd

scrool Because of the role ofstress, the rule for aspiration is complex and students do not have time to applyit when they are dealing with stops inside a worcl (for example, decbdy versus(lecad.ent).If your students' pronunciation of Pig, tie, and cold sounds like "big,"

"die," and "gold," address aspiration in monosyllabic words beginning with these

consonants. The vowel that follows is ?rlways stressed in this context, simplifyingthe rule.

ERROR CORREBTI0N: Pie sounds rjke Buy1 On the board, write the mispronounced word together with monosyllabic words

begnning with other voiceless stops.Write a small superscript "h" after the Yoice-

less stop to fepfesent aspiration.

Model the words. students repeat. Explain that dle ffist sounds are pronounced

with an e-xplosion or puff of air

Demonstrate aspiration. llold a sheet of paper or a tissue so that the bottom edge is

iusa a tittle below your mouth and about 2 inches a$/ay from the mou:h. Turn side-

ways to your stud€nts and say each word in tum. The bottom edge of the paper

should blow out when you say the words. Students may notice that the papef

mo\.es fafthest for /p/ "nd

less for /t/ and /k/. This occurs because with ,/p/, the

21 The /t in rd. diffe$ fmm lhe /V tn atta& \r al\alhet way: Illdtlic, /tJ \sirPped bccause stres precedes jl The flapped

flonuncixtion of/y is dscussed in /t/ and/d/ l1eps, abolc

kneythiepnie

2-

3.

cHAPr[R 1 Consanants 151

4.

buildup of air is closest to the paper;with /t/ ^1td

/W,tlae buildup occurs fartherback in the mouth.

students repeat ttre demonstration in pairs. Remind students to hold the sheet ofpaper up, about 2 inches away from the mouth, so that the bottom edge is justbelow the mouth (if the lower edge of the paper is at neck level, aspiration is notsroog enough to move it). One student watches for movement of the paper as theother student says the words. If the paper doesn't move, the speaker has not aspi-rat€d the consonants sufficiently.

on the board, add minimal pairs that contr.rst voiceless and yoiced sounds. Explainthat there is no aspiration v/ith the second word in the pais. Stud€nts repeal thewords, strongly aspirating the flrst word of each pair

).

pay-bay too-do

pill-bill tie-die

pack-back town-down

coat-goat

c0me-gum

card"guard

ffi trrnr.t Consonant Clusters: Pxtbkm

Vihat the Teacher Should KnowThe worcl pl"oblem contains two initial consonant clusters: /prl begins the

word (and the first syllable) nnd All begins the second syllable. English allows a

large number of two-member begiruing clusters (for example, s'zake, sIoP, ploud,glass ln n, tbree, txuin, and music). Three-mcmber clusters are more restricted; allbegin with /s/ followedby /p/, /t/, or /k/, followed by /r/, /l/, /y/, or /u,/,as in string,square, and speut (/sJlutr/).

Most students are able to recognize pefmissible and impefmissible clusters inEnglish (e.g., /ml/, /bn/, ancl /pt/ are impcrmissible). Altenberg reports thatbeginning to advanced students had a good sense of permissible and impcrmissibleEnglish clusters, though they could not alw,tys pronounce the pemissible clllstersaccurately (2005).

Difficulty with a specfic consonant cluster depends ot.t what is permitted inthe native language.22 Spanish, for example, does not permit cluster sequences of/s/+ Consonant (as in scbool). Spanish students often add a vowel before these

22 Dive6al facto$ also ir luence difficuLn. Broselou and Fincri tr'lininaLSonodft lli$ance model (199i) pledicts that sto| + liquid

clu$e6 (e.g, 4r4 eill be morc difficuit than fricatilc + liquid clu$ers (e g.,tr.?i. H rcin Bhatt end Bhatt's slud! oi]apanese xnd

Sfanish ESi. ljstrne$ pxrti,llh corllflned this prediction (1991, 341).

"152 :HAPTFR I Consonants

words (e.g., "eschool") so that they conform to Spanish patterns. Some languages

Oapanese, Cantonese, and Vietnamese, lbr example) do not permit any be€iinningconsonant clusters.

Adding a vowel to separ4te the consonants in a cluster or deleting one of theconsonants also occurs. Japanese students may pronounce s/,tss like "tiurassl'

Egyptian Ar':rbic students may pronouncefZoor as "filoor'."Vietnamese students maypronounce problem vs /pabam/ ot Sreet 'd:s "geetl' As mentioned above, Koreanstudents have difficulty with /kw/ and /glw/ in words like cluestion

^nd language,

pronouncing ,/w,/ too weakly of not at 2ll.There afe a yariety of techniques that can be used to correct beginning

consonant cluster effors, depending on the type of error, but none works in allcases. Students who add vowels in front of clusters (e.g., "eschool" for "school") can

be instructed to prolong the flrst consonant of the cluster ("ssschool"); this helps

them avoid starting the word with a .\rowel. This tecl-mique does not work when thefirst consonant is a stop (/p, b, t, d, k, g/) because stops cannot be prolonged.

When studei.lts separate the consonants in a clustef (e.g., "filoor" fot flootr"gurass" for grass) or delete a consonant fiom the cluster (e.g.,"geen" for green),thefirst technique to attempt is tbe simplest. Students who pronouncefloor as "flloor"should be instructed to pronounce both consonants close together Students whopronounce green as "geen" should be instructed to prorloullce /r/. The simpleapproach sometimes works.

If the simple technique tails, teachers c2!r1 tell students to prepare to say thesecond consonant in the clustcr (n/ ir floor or /r/ n Sreen) ?'nd then say the wholeword. This technique works well in words like grc?r?, Jloot pla!, break, afld cloud.

In these clusters, the tip of the tongue is inYolved in pronoLrncing the second

consonant (A/ or /r/) but not in the first consonant (/p, b, f, k, g/). The vocal organs

can therefore be in position for the second cor.rsonant as the first is pronounced. Thistechnique, howe\.e! does not work when both the fust and second members of thecluster involl,.e the tip of the tongue (in words like tee, clriue, three, snou,

^ d sleet).

Activily 4.10 Extrene weather

level lntermediate

Worksheet None

Tip Encourage students to pronounce the consonants in consonant clusters.

Description This activity provides practice with beginning consonant clusters in

the context of weather and can be added to the topic of climate

change or global warming.

1. Elicit from students words or phrases used to describe the weather or effects of

ihe weather and write them on the board (not all of the words need to containbeginning consonant clusters). Underline beginnlng ciusters. Add a few new

CIIAPTER 4 Consonants 153

Actiuit! 4. I 0 continaed

words, The words below cover a range of weather conditions; the teachershould choose vocabulary that is appropriate for the studenis' level as well asfor the types of weather they are lrkely to talk about.

Weather Words

!!ow sleet

extreme weather hlizzaft

hazy sunshine drought

blistering heat tornado

spreading tires slush

st0tms

cloudy

hunicane

Eeeze

climate

thunderstorms

bright sunshine

cyclone

drizzle

sprinkles

2. Go over new vocabulary. lvlodel the words. Students repeat. providepronunciation feedback on consonant clusters.

3. Students work in pairs and make two lists, one for words describing extremeweather (or weather effects) and the other for words describing mild weather(effects).

4. Following the pair work, ask students to volunteer words from their lists.Provide feedback on pronunciation of consonant clusters.

5. ln small groups, students use the words to discuss questions about weather.. Have you ever experienced extreme weather? Explain.

. Has the weather in your country changed with global warmjng? How?

. What type of climate do you prefer?

6. Following the group work, ask several students to answer the questions. providefeed back on consonant clusters.

ffi taut consonants: p iece, ask

What the Teacher Should KnowConsonants at the ends of words and syllables are more difficult to pronounce

than those in bellinning position.In English, all consonants except A/ can occur infinal position (e.g.,rob, lip, bead, bat, dog, pick, kiss, rose, eaclr, eclge, laugb, loue).2.Tri'Gmember final consonant clusters are common (e .g.,ask, barut, heaft, betp, l.efD,as arc three-member cluslers. especialJy when grammarir.al ending,

"." ,at.t.O, u, i'text (/kstD, uorks (/rkst), oJld launcbed (/ntftf. Becar.rse many languages place

'?3lfhen 4y' aud 4t occur in iiialposition, the! arc considered pert olfie vowel.

154 (H^PILR4 Cansanants

gfeeter restrictiolts on fi]lal consonants than English does. errors;rre widespreacl andless depcndcnt on the stlldent's native language than those il]|olyinla bcgifliingconsonants (and beginning clusters). Japanese, for example. permits only /n,/ in finalposition; Sparish permits or.rly /d, s, n, r. l/. Languages F'hich do permit a Lu.ger r4ngeof final consonants ((icrman, Russian, and Polish, for examplc) ma| not allow the final\.oiced stops and fricatives that are :rllowed in English: (e.Ei.. rr1re, lJafld, rttb, dog).

Universal factors ancl narkedness (linguistic naturalness) interact with andfeinlbrce natiyelangu:rge festrictions (see krtroductior], page 5). Final voicedobstruents (stops and fricatives, ns rn dog or bate) are more clilficult than finalvoiceless obstruents (as in dock antl half). They occur less tiequently in the$'orlcl's languages, and in langurges where they do occur', like English, thcy areacquired later by cl.rildren learning their lirst lan1 uage.

Most errors involving final consonants have the eflect of making English wordsand syllables more like thosc in the speaker's native languagc, thereby simplifiiingpronnnciation for the leaflrer 'l'wo common rypes of errors afe delction (e.9., bigpronounced as "bi") and cpenthcsis (thc addition of a vowel; e.g., rrg pronouncedas "bigo").2t

.Pronouncing final voiced stops ;mal fiicatives as their yoiccless collnteryafts

(i.c., clcvoicing) is another comrnon error (e.g., Drg sounds like "bickl' lsr.tue soundslitri:e "half'and u6ts sounds like "wass"). Less fi€quently, final consonants may bechanged to other consonants (e.9., pocketbook pronounccd as "pocke(t)boor").

The tvpe of efrof studcnts make depends on native language, the level offormality in speaking. the learner's level of proficiencl', the specilic final consonantor cluster. and the soun':ls preceding or folk)wing it (Tarone l980,Weinberger 1987,Hansen 2001, Hansen 200.1).weinberger found that his Mnndarin EsL lcarners r\.eremore likely to pronounce lrlt as "bit)" (adding an epenthetic vowel) when theywere feading wofds in a list, out of context (1987). When thc same words wereused in context (such as in paragraph reading or speakiflg), both deletion (c.€1.,"bi"for bit)

^nd epenthcsis (c.9., "bit'") occurred. In list readinli, clcletion of the final

consonant introduces ambiguity-is "bi" big, bit, or bid? 'flre addition of the yowel(as in "bita") allows the listener to "rccor,'cr" the $'ord more easily than deletion ofthe final consonant.

Both types of errors (deletion and epenthesis) shoulcl be a.ldfessed inpfonrnciation work. Whilc deletion cxr difectly lower intelligibility of a word(because part of the wold is missing), cpenthesis (addition of a linal vowel) canlowcr it inclirectl_v, by creating an unnatural rh1-thm; sl.llablcs that should not bepresent are pfesent. Epenthesis efrors can be addressed by teaching thepronunciation of final consonarts as part of linking (scc Linking Words Togethe!Rhythm). Deletion can be addressed throu€lh error corrcction by focusing students'attention on missing final consonants, and in lessons on -el and -s endings.

consoliadls, lle unrcle.Lsed ir nixnr contc s in llnglish (scc Linking [rords lbged]er Rh\1hln).

cHl\pfti I ConsDnants 1Ss

Native English simplifications of Final consonants. Not an deretions of finalconsonants are effors. Natiye English speakers do not always pronounce all theconsonants in final clustefs. Some simplifications are specilic enough to teach tostudents (for example, simplification of f\n I tb souncls before an _s encling). Othersfollow rules which are too complex to be of much use to stuclents. Howevet ifstudents use the same simplfications that natiye speakers clo, they should not becorfected and required to produce consonants that the teacher himself does not.

ZII Simplifications before an -s Endiarg. h nonths /mens/ and clotlres/klowz/, common plurats, the /, sounds are rzrely pronounced by native NAEspeakers, even in citation word pronunciations. since the tr, sounds ar.e difficult,students will be grateftll to leam this.

In other words, interdental //: is often dropped and the _s endin| mav belengthened ("holding the place,'of /r).

two fifths f lfs/

She bathes /beyzl the baby.

earth's /ars/ orbit

Sequences of Consoflant+Stop+Consonant. Nati\'e speakers often delete themiddle stop consonant in sequences of consonant + stop + consonant, as long asthe stop is not a grammatical encling (e .g., aske.l /ast/, facts ,,fa_x,,) (Avery andEhrlich 1992, 87).25

kindness /kaynaY

softness /sofnev

textbook /t€ksbuk/

next month /n€ks meno/

past policies /pas polasiyz/

left side /l€l sayd/

Middle stops are not omitted when rhe next wor{l begins wirh /h/ (.e .?,..leftb ande d, not " lef h^nd,e(|,, ).

The simplilication of consonant + stop + consonant clusters should not betaught to students. Most students have at best only a vague nodon of what a stop isand would not be able to apply this rule in actual speaking. In addition. becausestudents do not pronormce many final cons()ltants thdt should be pronounced. it isunlikely that teachers would feer comfortable presenting a .- e which cannot beapplied in real speaking and whiclt might encourage more inappropriatesimplification offinal consonants.It is, however, appropriate to reach simplificationsof common words like "ast', for as&ed and ,,gifs" for gqflg on a word_by_wofcl basis.

Final Voiced afrd Voiceless Consonants. Students may clevoice final voicedstops and fricatiyes, pronouncing them with theif voiceless counterpafts; forexample bag may sound like ,,back,,' and peas may souncl like ,,peaci.,, Some

?t Temperley cites some crses $herc th€ slof is oj)litted even $hen it i, a grammdicaL etding 0987. 80).

156 cH.\PrtR I Consonatlts

languages, like German or Russian, do not permit voiced obstruents (stops 'indfiicatives) in final position; in these langualacs, devoicing is r rule. Cliltlren leaflringtheir first language also have more difficulqv with final \ oiced obstruents. Stampedescribes the de\.oicing of final obstrucnts as a natural process of language (1979).Eckman describes linal voiced obstruents as more marked (diJ}icr-rlt) than finalvoiceless obstruents (1981).Thus,there can be both universal and language-specficreasons lbr a stuclent's pronunciatioll of Drzg as 'back" or /:al e as -halJ. "

Researchers have invcstigatecl several issues involving tinal voiccd :urdvoicclcss obstments. Yivas reports that his Portuguese, .Japanese. :rnd Mandafinlearners werc more likely to devoice final /<I/ and /g/ than linal /b/, bid antl bigwere more likel]-to lle pronounced as "hit" and "bick," and r/1, s?s less likely to bepronouncecl like rip (1997).2'; M.rgcn rrl')rtcd thxt devoicitrg errors did not appearto bc an impoftant contfibutor to accent (1998).

Tcxcling students to voice final obstruents is diilicult tbr r$o reasons. First,students have little awareness or control over the articulator responsible forvoicing the vocal cortls. In general, articulatory awrrcncss is higher witharticulators closcr to the front of the mouth (for example, the lips, the teeth, the tipof the tontiue); thc vocal cords, howe\rr, arc the articulators lArthest fiom the tiot]tof thc nouth. Sccond, devoicing errors are rnost cornrl1on when the obstruentoccurs in fiml position, an already difficnlt position fbr consonant pronunciation.

A pedagogical stratclay thet sidesteps these dilliculties is teaclting the vowcliength clift'erencc that occurs betbte final voiced and voiceless cousonants, rathefthan Voicing (or together with \.oicing).Vowels before voiccd cOnsonants are longe;'than vowels bcfbre voiceless consor]ants. In thc mininal pairs beloq the vorvels inthe first column (coming before voicecl sounds) are longer than the vowels in thcseconcl column (coming before voiceless stLtnds).

Vowel + Voiced Consonant

raise

vowel + Voiceless Consonant

race

feed

pig pick

When studcnts learn to lengthen gowcls befbre voiced consonants, the finxl con-sonant sounds mofe \-oiced, even if it is not.

feet

26 l)clolcing 0l linrl /d/ flrd /g/ w,r\ nost Likely wh€n dre consonlnt \rr€ lteceded b! high r o$'eh

CHAPTER I Cansonants 157

Activity 4,11 Recognition and production of final consonants, finat cons.,nantclusterc, and final voiced consonants

level Intermed;ate

Worksheet Page 23ITip fncourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com_

prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.

Description This activity targets deretion errors with finar consonants and vowerIength differences before voiced and voiceless sounds.

@ t. StuOents listen to the pairs in part 1 and repeat them.

@ 2. Students ljsten to the pairs in part 2 and repeat them. 0f you model thewords live, exaggerate the length of the vowel in the first member of eachpair and pronounce the final consonants normally_do not overpronouncethe final consonants.) Ask students to describe the difference jn vowellength in these pairs. Explain that the fjrst words in part 2 end in voicedsounds (the vocal cords vibrate), and the vowels are longer. The last words inPart 2 end in voiceless sounds (the vocal cords do not vibrate), and thevoweJs are shorter.

@ 3. Students iisieil to one word from each of the pairs in part 2 again and circJethe word they hear.

4. ln pairs, students practice the words in parl 2. Then each student reads a wordfrom each pair and the partner identifies the word.

5. After the pair work, ask each student to select a pair and say one of the words.The class will decide which word was said.

6. Ask each student to choose a pair of words from the handout and write asentence containing both words. Students read their sentences to a partner.

158 ]HAPTER I Consonants

l\4odel the words. Students repeat. Explain that the vowels in the first wordof each pair (i.e., before voiced consonants) are longer than those in thesecond word.

Distribute Worksheet 4.I2. Make sure students understand the categories.

Ask students to describe how federal tax dollars were used in 2007. Encouragethe use of use as a verb. Provjde feedback on final consonants (lengthening thevowel in use).

Ask one or two students how they would advise the government to spendtax dollars. Encourage students to use advise and use. Provide feedbackon pronunclation.

In srnall groups, students advise the government where to spend more or less

money. Remind students to pay attention to final consonants.

After the group work, ask a representative from each group to report on theirdecisions. Provide feedback on final consonants.

Ask students whether the federal government spent more or less moneythan it took in (since the percentages add up to more than 100 percent,the governrnent spent more money than it collected). Ask the class howthe government should close the budget gap. Try to elicil raise taxes asone possibility.

Activity 4.12 How woultl you use 2.7 tti ion dollars?

Level Advanced

Worksheet Page 232

Tip Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to improve com-prehensibi lity and grammatical accuracy.

Description This activity targets final voiced consonants, such as in advise, (to)

use, and raise (faxes). Students work in small groups io decide howbest to use money in a budget. The sample shows how U.S. tax dol-lars ($2.7 killion) in 2OO7 were spent (and overspent). Any budget,however, could be used, such as a typical lamily's yearly income,your school's budget, or your city's budget. The budgets of manyorgan izations are available online.

1. On the board, write minimal pairs ihat contrast final voiced and voicelessconsonants. The words below are useful for discussing budgets.

advise-advice (to) use-a use raise-race halve-half (to)close-close(adi")

4.

2.

5.

6.

7.

8.

CHAPTER 4 Consonants 159

ffi -rrf .na -s Endings

V{hat the Teacher Should KnowPronunciation work with -ed and, -s endings reinforces gmmmar and focuses

attention on final consonants.

-ed endings. The pronunciation of the regular past tense -ect ending <Iepends onthe last sound of the yerb.If the last so];tr;rdis /t/ ot /d/,the -e,/ ending is pronouncedas a syllable Uad/ or /tdD.

ended

ledl

If the last sound of the verb is voiceless (as in /p, k, 0, t,s,l,t[D,the -ed ending is alsovoiceless and pronounced as a single final consonant, /t/.

invited

ladl

laughed

lltlWith these verbs, the -ed ending always creates a final consonant cluster. If thestudent simplifies the cluster by dropping f:trjlal /t/, ttre pronunciation error willsound like a grammar errof.

If the last sound of the verb is a vowel or a voiced consonant (such as ,/b, g, 6,f z, 3,q, n, m, l, f V),the -ed ending is pronounced as a single final consonant, /d/.

robbed showgd saved planned

lbdl ldl luU tnd!

When the base verb ends in a consonant, the ending creates a cluster (e.g.,planned /ndD.

With most adiectives ending in -e4 the pronunciation of rhe ending followsthe rules for regular verbs above.

interestqdstudents scarqdchildren a lockgd dool

Nladl

In some adjectives, the -ed ending is pronounced as an extra syllable (/ad/)even when the sound preceding it is rrot /t/ ot /d/.

kicked

tkv

the wicked witch

/3dt

reminded

ledl

washed

tfi

a thlee-legged dog

ledl

tdt

a learngd genlleman

ladl

Including these adiectiyes in a pronunciation lesson for advanced students canadd interest to the topic (other similaf adjectives are xaretcbed, naked, and, rugge^.In some -ed adjecri]',es, the ending has two pronunciations (for example, beloued/btlevad/ and /btlal"df).\n learned, the two pronunciations ha.t'e different meanings:

160 :HAPTIR '1 Consonants

learned /latnd,/ bcbctuior a:nd q learned /larna(l/ gentletlt4,t (Celce-Mufcia et al.1996). The -eri ending is also pfonounced /a.l/ jn aclverbs fi)rmcd from ed adiecrives(e.9,., sul )posedl.|, allegedly).

-.s Endings. -s endings include plurals, third-person singular present endings,possessives, and contractions of bas antl l'.s. Likc the ed endings, thc pronllnciationof an -s endin[i depends on the last sound of the word to which thc cndir]g is added.wlren the word encls in a sibilant (slike sounds, see Sibilants. above), the ending ispronounced as an extra svllable, /az/ or /t7/. After other words. it is pronounced asr firal conson.rnt. /s/ tt /L/:

Thc -s ending is pronoundcccl /az/ ot /tz/ when the last sound of the word isa sibilant (/s, z,l,3.tf, d3D.

wi![-wishes

age-ages

The -.s e nding is pronouncccl as r'-oicclcss ,/s/ whe n the last sound of thc wordis voiceless.

writes /tY The lock's /ks/ broken. lips /pV

The -.r ending is pronouncecl as voiced /z/ when the last sound of the worcl isa vowcl or voiced consonant.

Sue's /z/ sister pigs lgzl John's /nzl here.

Vhen -s endinpls are added to words encling in t/, sounds, nxtive speakers ma1'simplify or delete thc t sound; the -.! ending may be lengtltened to "hold the plece"of the th sound.'l'his is a simplification that can be taugl]t to students (sce Finalcor.rsonants. Native Spcakcr Simplifications of Finxl (i)nsonants, page 155).

The rules fbr when -ed or -s cndings arc pronounced :rs sin[ilc consonants (/t/or /d/,/s/ ot /z/)

^re peclagogicall_v complex. nr apply the rules, students must know

the invcntory of voiced and r-oiceless sounds in English, an unrealistic expectation.Further, evcn if students have this knowle.lge . it is r-[rlikely that thev wjll have timeto apply it in normal speakilrg. A pedagogically si|tpler approach is 1o focus on['hen the ending is pronouncecl as a separate svllatrlc (,/ad/ or /azl.).With the past,the ending is a syllable wben the verb encls in /t/ ot /d/, otherwisc, it is a finalconsonant (/t/ or /dD. For the -s endings, the ending is a s1.llable when the wordends in a sibilant sound: otherwise, it is a final consonam Us/ ot /zD.

'this simplified approach also focuscs students attention on thc mostnoticeable mispronunciation of the er./ endiflg-the inappropriate use of ,/ad/ withr,-erbs like listened. The simplificd n-rle does not capture YOicing distinctions; tltatis. it does not speciti'when -ed, for exanple. is pfonounced /t/ or /d/.yoicrng ofthe cnding mav be either left to yoicing assimilation (a natural ten.lenc-y for a

following sound to takc on thc voicinli of the prcccding sound) or resolvedthrough errof cofrection.

ki99-kisses

garagg-garages

r0!g-r0ses

match-matches

CHA?TER 4 Consonants 161

Research on final consonants suggests that when a grammatical ending is theonly final consonant in a word, as in bols or shoue4 it is tess likely to be cleletedthan single final consonants that are not endings, as in lose or zrke (Saunders 19g7,Hansen 2001). In addirion, the deleti(xt of -, endings scems to depend on thefunction of the -s ending, with verb enclings (e.g., pay) more likely to be deleredthan noun endings (c.g., daJLls). The larger number of errors witlt the present tenseending (compared to plural or possessive) may reflect the fact tltat the meaningaddecl by the yerb ending is alnost always redundant: Mandarory subyect nouns oipronouns clcarly iodicxte the person and nurnber ofthe subiect (,lhrone and pafrish1988).' Lightbown and Spacla su€igest that vigilant error coffection may benecessary fbr accurate use of the present -s cnding (1999, 151).

Pronunciation of grammatical endings is especially important for students whowill use English in academic or pr,,fessional settings. Mf,ny grammar ancl coursebooks for beginning and intermedinte students cover prorr.rrii"tion of the _ed nnd-s endings; thesc exercises have the bcnefit of using vocabulary and topics thatstudenb afe aheady co\.ering in class.

Course and grammar books for advanced students, on the other ltand, may notaddress the pronunciation ofendings. Teachers should not assume that their advancedstudents know these pronunciation mles. Deleted endinlls may indicate only thegeneral diffic.lty with final consonants and can bc dealt with as such. Howeyer.pronunciations like listen-ed, as a three-svllable wor.1, or toatclt-ed, as a two_s),llableword, probabl,v mean that the sh.rdent does not know hos/ to pronounce the enclings.

Activity 4,13 Past endings: Montlay noming wam-ups

Level Beginn ing/lniermed iate

Worksheet None

Tip Encourage students to pronounce final consonants to imorove com_prehensibility and grammatical accuracy.

Desctiption As a regular part of Monday morning classes (once the past tense hasbeen taught), ask students to describe what they did on theweekend, using the past tense.

1. Ask students to describe what they did on the weekend, using the past tense.Provide feed back on pronunciation.

2. List all past tense verbs on the board.

(continued on next page)

2t Vith some irrcgulat plural sirbjects, the J ending is not rcduJr{lant In rc lollorving senlences, onlvthe ve$ending (orlackoiit)identifi€s re subj€ct as pluttl at sit.rg\tlxt:7he [hee\ llohs sick,,Jl)e sheel) llak sick.

162 cHAPrtR 1 Consanang

ActiuitJ' 4.I3 contin ed

3. Ask students to divide the past verbs into three categories: verbs where the-ed ending is a syllable, verbs where the -ed ending is a stngle sound, andirregu lar verbs.

4. Students check their lists and ask questions if necessary. Ask individualstudents to read the verbs from one of the categories. Provide feedback onpron u nc iation.

CONCLUSION

Pefhaps mofe than any othef afea of pfonunciation, stereotypedpronunciations involve mispronunciations of consonants. For this reason, as well asto improve comprehensibility, it is important to address them. Teachers can oftenpro\'ide visual clues to the pronunciations of consonants by exaggerating the shapeof the mouth, using hand llestures, or providing simple diagrams.

The most pervasive and persistent errors with consonants occur when theyare in final position. Errors with final consonants can lower students'comprehensibility as well as their grammatical accuracy. Teachers can use bothpronunciation actiyities and frequent error correction to help students pronounceconsonar"iis in this difncult position.

Although controlled practice of consonants is important for students to gainskill, they also need the opportuniry to use their new skills in connected speech,in activities that mo.t'e them bevond the domain of the word.

In a discussion of TV shows and entertairlers, a low_intermediate Frenchstudent said that he likecl Joe pardee. I asked who Joe pardee \fas, ancl he said, .No,Joe Pardee." I was puzzled and wrore ,Joe par<lee,' on the board. He said no. theshow .Joe Pardee. 'I'he student meant the game show Jeopar(ty. Although mymisunderstanding involved more than rhe effof in the first vowel, I might haveunderstood the intended word if that vowel had been closer to its Englishpronunciation (of I might have guessed ,Jay parclee').

Pronunciation difficr tics with English vowels are widespread, in part becauseEnglish has a relatively large number of yowels. The diagrim below shows thevowels of North American English (NAI. spokcn in the Unired States and Canada)and their relative positions in the mouth.r Bebw the diagmm are the threediplrthongs (complex vowels): ,/aV (as il.t houD, /ay/ (as in bigb), .and /oy/ (ds jn&oJLl). Because of dialect yariation, some native speakers, vowels may differsomewhat from those shown below

CHAPTER

Diphthongs lawl how /ay/ high loyl boy

In contrast to consonants, vowels are procluced with little obstfuction of theairflow.Vowcls also havc longer durations than consonants (Mehler et al.1996).

English vowel differences are procluced by varying the height of the bodyof the tongue (high, mid, or low); the frontness or. backness of the tongue (froni,t

These positions dfti altered sont€\|h at bl adj accnt consonants 1 63

[:] bought

164 (HAt'rER 5 Votlels

central, back);the degree of muscular tension (tense or lax): antl the rounding ofthe lips (rountlecl or unrounded). The grid imposed o\er the mouth in thediagram above shows how vowel height, frontness,/backness. and tension/laxnessare reflected in NAE \.ow(jls. All English b;rck vowels are rounded, xs they are inmost languages.

VOWEL PERCEPTION AND PRONUNCIATIONBY ENGLISH I.EARNERS

Like most unfamiliar features of a ner' language. vowels and vowel contraststhat do not occur in the student's nativc langua€le are likely to be difficult. However,both perception and pronunciation of English vowels improve as proficiency,exposlrre to English, and use of English increase (Bohn ancl Flegc 1992,Ingram and

Park 1997, Flege and MecK:ry 2004).Cenoz and Lecumberri report that practice with listening ancl discriminatiofl

improyes the accuracy with whicll students hear unfarniliar vowel contrasts (1999).lVhen vowels and vowel contrasts are heard more cleadl', students haYe moreaccurate "perceptual models" on rvltich to base pronunciation (Flege, Ilohn, and

Jang 1997,Ing$m and Park 1997).The /il/'/r/ conrrlst (as in lealte'liue) is a new and

difficult contrast for many students.If a student is unsure of how the vowel in /laesounds (e.g.,1/lre in NeuY('rk),he fiq- substiture his closcst native-langlrage vowel(especially if he is a beginner) or pronounce the vowel ofle Na) orl ollc occdsion

and another way on another.Itrithout a clear perceptual model of the Yowel. he willnot have a clear tafget for pronunciation. An example from onc of my students is thepronunciation of the last yowel in democrctt (/a/).The student, ;r native speaker ofMandarin, was talking about the two-party system in the llnited States. He used theword clemocrctt six times in two minutes, and pronouncecl the tlird Yowel in thatword in five different w.rys: "democrease" (once, also nispronouncing the finalconsonant), "dcmocrit" (once), "dcmocrate" (twice), "dcmocrais" (once), and

"den.rocr.rt' (once, with the third vowel pronounced correctll). Almost all of his

substitLrtions were frot.tt vowels (like English /a/). One explanation for his variablepronunciation is that he wasn't sure llow /e/ sounds and thereforc didn't have aclcar pe|ceptual target at v/hich to aim his pronunciations.

Since accumte perception of vowels is linked to more accurate Pr,)nunciJtion,work with vowel perception is important. Ilowever, vowcl perception develops

llraduall,v. 'i9ork with pronunciation can still be cffcctiYe cven when the vowel(contmsl) is not clexd)' perceived. Many students who cannot hear a vowelparticularly well can nevertheless lexrn to pronounce it more accurately once tbeyunderstand how it is made, ancl more accurate pronunciation may lead to moreaccurate pefception.2

'] Perceltion lna-r aho lag production $ith consonxnl\ (see Colronalb f4e 146).

CHAtrtR 5 Vo\,\/els 165

Vowel Pronufrciation

In general, front ]/owels (/iyl beat, /r/ liue, /ey/ bait, /€/ bet, /E/ bat) andcentral vowels (/a/ bltt, /o/ potr r are peclagogic;rlly more important than mostback vowels (/Dw/ boot, /u/ book, /ow/ t:ia|, /Ji bought), since many of thefront and central rrowel contrasts are both clifTicult foi students ;rnd liequentin English words.Tense-ktx aoluel contrLtsts are also

pronunciation of lax vowels.a

Tense Lax

/lyl leave hl five

ley/ lale kl bt/uw/ Luke lu/ toak

diflicult for students, in particular the

The terms tense afld lax tefet to the muscular tension fequifed to producethe vowels. With tense vowels, the tongue is positioned farther fiom the center ofthe mouth (the center is the rest or relaxecl position for the tongue), thusrequiring more muscular tension to reach and maintain these positions.When thetension is relaxed a little, the tongue mo\.es toward a more central position inthe mouth, producing the lax \.owel counterpatt. For example, with /iy,/ (as inleaue),the body of the tongue is high ancl front in the -or.,h. wh.r, rhe tonguedrops down and back a lirtle (more toward the center of the mouth), the lax\owel / r/ (Lts iit liue) is produced. Differences in lip shapes are also present withtense-lax pairs. The lips are generally more relaxed lless spread or lcss roundecl)for lax vowels.

( @rcaYe/i,/ @''"""i.,---------,-_Wr;, ; @tarc/ev/ @*,n,r""u,/ $eluke/uv @ bok/u/

I Ir sone dialecl!. /q/ 0ol) is a Lrack or centmlback \,0$r1 (rte$,and lhrlich 1992, J0).{relc"\1. ii !t .i ,t,r Jp ir,-'d\\o*el. t,,,U, rl

166 IHAPTER 5 Vowels

Vowel Spellings

The sound-spelling correspondence of Entilish vowels adG a ler-el of difficr ty topronunciation. My student's mispromurciation of the first \-o\\ el i-fr.leopard! wasprobably the result of its unusual spelling in that word (i.e.. a -spelling pronunciation)

Sound-spelling correspondences are complex partlv because there are onlyslx vowel letters (a, e, i, o, u, y'\ used to spell more than a dozen vowel sounds. Inaddition, English has "borrowed" many words from other languages along withtheir spellings (suite, for example, is a French borro\r'ing). Finally, linguisticchanges in the vowel system, most notably the Great Vox'el Shift, produced newpronunciations. bul old spellings were relained.i

Students should be aware of both the common spellings of !-owels and theexceptions to the conrmon patterns; spelling is coYered in many textbooks,especially at the beginning and intermecliate levels.6 Intermediate and advancedstudents who hn\'e learned the comlnon spelling patterns ma still need work withthe exceptions.

Phonetic Symbols

Phonetic symbols are used in pronunciation tertbooks and in ESL dictionaries.Thcy proyide a means fo| representing sounds unambiguously and are especiallyuseftll when teaching vowel pronunciation (because of the complex spelling rulesfor vowcls).7 It is not necessary for students to memorize a phonetic alphabet. Mosttextbooks do not assume or require memorization of a phonetic alphabet, andsymbols are always accompanied by sample words.

Different phonetic conventions sometimes give rise to diffefefit symbols for thesame sound. Some textbooks, for example, use ,/ayl to represent the boldface vos/elsin time or iron; ot]l'erc use /ail. rvith ,/ayl, the second part of the vowel (the glideending) is represented with the consonant symbol /y/; wilh /ai/, it is representedwith the vowel symbol /i/. For some pronunciation problems, one sltnbol ispedagogically more useful than another. In helping Chinese students correctmispronunciations of time as "Tom," the symbol /ail is more useful because thesecond part of the vowel iri tlnxe sounds like /i,/. HoweYer, the symbol /ay/ is rnorenseftrl when showin€i the pronunciation of iron,,/ayarn/, because the second part ofthe vowel sounds more consonantal.In this book, alternate symbols (to those shownin the diagnm on page 163) are explained and suggested when pedagogically

appropriate. A comprehensive list of phonetic symbols and their alternates is

provided inside the front cover of this book.

5 The lowel aLlemafons in sane satll\,, u'lie Lidlh,lt]ld metetmehic, ior €ti^mple, arc resuliJ 0l the Crcal \b$€l Shift.

6l,rator and Robinelt (1985) inclLrde ayery cornplete |st ofWelLings for $ressed vowels. The rules are aLranged br lclte4 rathet than by

sound.1 In the Silent val lovels are ilrsocieFd wifi pafiicular colon to represent theni unamblguousL,v; sce Gattegno (1912).

cHAprER 5 Vowels 167

Dialects and yarieties of EnglishEnglish dialects r'ary more in pronunciation than they do in grammar or

vocabulary, and vowels show more dialect variation than consonants (Ayerv andEhdich 1992). Spoken English includes many yarieties, some natiye lOiatectj anOothers nonnative (fofeign accents). EsL teachers whose stuclents speak differentnatiye languages are faniliar with the difficulty students have understandingclassmates from other language backgrounds, especially at the beginning of thitefm; as the semestef progresses, mutual undefstanding improves, even thoughaccents remain (see also Gass and Varonis 19f14 for the role that familiarity ptays;intelligibility). since many of our students will use E'glish to communicate withother nonnative speakers, it is impoftant to expose tltem to clifferent yarieties ofEnglish.Thcre are a number of web sites that provide recordings of different dialectsand accents; see, for example, the American Dialect Society,s .Web

site,www.ameficandialect.org or the University of Kansas,s International Dialects ofEnglish Archiye, http:/ /web.ku.edufid,ea/.

Bringing dialect infotmation into the classroom not only adds variety andintefest, but sometimes provicles stuclents with "dialect altematives', that makepronunciation easier. For cxample, many speakers of NAE use the sane yov/el (/o/)in pairs like caugbt-cot. The pronunciarion of cougbt with /o/ (as opposed to n,/, avcwel used by native speakers in the Northeast) is acceptable and often easier fofStudents to learn than,6,/. It does no harm for stuclents to speak English withfeatures from different dialects of \.arieties as long as thc features are intelligible andn()f stigmatizr(l

Natiye English reachers should teach their ow1.r dialects, pointing outdifferences between their vowels and textbook \.owels. Nonnative English teacherswill probably not pronounce all English vowels like a native speaker and ma,v preferto focus on vowel contrzsts they feel confoftable teaching. In addition, tapes andother recordings should be used in class.

Interactiofl of Vowels and Other Areas of pronunciationVowel pronunciation can be affected by neighboring sounds as well as bv

stress. R- ancl /-colored l.owels, discussed bektw, are examples of how a followingconsonant can affect vowel pronunciation.

Voiced and voiceless consonants can alter the length of preceding stressedvowels. A following voiced consonant (as in peas ot bad) lengttrens the vowel; afollowing voiceless consonant (as In peace or Z2at) shortens the vowel (see FinalVoiced and Voiceless Consonants, page 155).

The vowels in some words (e .g., and, can, or) are reducecl to /a/ in connectedspeech unless the speaker giyes them special emphasis. The conjunction arz4 forexample, is pronounced /an,/ in normal speaking: I'll hatte bacon ,n eggs (seeReductions, page 72).

168 :HAPTER 5 vowels

TIPS FOR TEACHING VO\VELS

The si-x tips listed below provide some general suggestions for helpingstudents improye their pronunciation of vowels.The tips are based on how yowelsafe pfonounced and on how they are learned by nonnative speakers.

The remainder of this chapter presents the specific vo$/els and vor',sel

contrasts listed below. The six tips above are further explained and reflected in thecontext of specific Yowels.

[] sprctrtc vow+s

Front yowels:/iyl an(l /r/ (leaueJiue)

Front vowels: ,/e1y' afld /e/ (Jaait-u)et)

Front vowels: /a/ (bad), /a/ ^nd

/E/ (had-bead)

Front and centnl vowels:/e /, /E/, /a/,and /o/ (kept-cap-cup-cop)

Central vowels: /3 / a'nd /o/ (not-nut)

Back vowels:/u\V,/ ^nd

/u/ (boot-book)

Back vowel:,/ofl (go)

Back vowel: A/ (cauglit)

Diphthongs:/ayl 1tigb), /a'gg/ (hotr), dnd /oy/ (boy)

R-colored vowels and /-colored vowels

'We discuss what the teacher should know about each of these topics andprovide suggestions for teaching most of them. In some cases, the suggestion is aclassroom activiry In other cases, it is error correction. Suggestions for error

t.t

J.4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

cHAprER 5 Vowels "l69

correction are short enough to use when students are engaged in nonpronunciationactiyities.They are also useful for addressing pronunciation problems that only oneor two of your Students experience.

ffi u"on, Vo*.ls: /iy/ atd /r/ (I.eaue-kae)

\Xlhat the Teacher Should KnowThe vowel conrrast in leaue-liue is difficult fbr most students to hear ancl

pronounce. Since there are nany minimal pairs like leaue_liue, and each voweloccurs in many words, the vowels and the contrast afe pedagogically important.

Perception of /iy/ alrd h/. ln many languages a single pure vowel ,/i/ (e.g., thevowel in Spanish s/, "yes") corresponds to English /iy/ and / . Many studentsidentiry the tense \.owel /iyl as ,,similar,, to their natiye-language vowel. Somestudents report that //re sounds llke lectue, suggesting that /iy,/ and,/r/ are heard asthe same vowel (like the native language vowel). Other students say that liae and,leaue sonnd. diffbrent, but rhat they are nor sure v/hat the difference is. st l orherstudents say that sometimes /r/ sounds similar to,/i)y' and sometimes different.

Although most students feel that /r/ is more difficult than /Iy/,improyements in pefception and production may be greatef with,/r,/ than with/iy/ (Lax.e 1994), perhaps reflecting diflerent amounts of attention paid to rhe twovowels by learners. Str-rdents are likely to direct learning efforts toward a vowelthey perceive as new or different from their native-language vowel (hence.something to learn); a vowel like /iy/, ss'hich is often pefceiyed as similaf to thenative-lan€iuage vowel, may receiye less attcntion, since the student feels shealready "knows" it (Flege 1987).

The lax vowel /r/ is easier to hear when it is followed by a yoiced sound (as inkicl and is), which adds length to the vowel. Following yoiceless stops and nasalsmake the yowel more difficult to hear (Lane 1994).8

Easier io hear: his, live, fish, big

Harder to hear: sit, quick, th n, I p

Pronunciation of /t/ and /ry/. Tbe diagram on page 170 shov/s the relativeheights of the body of the rongue for /iyl and /t/.The rdised part of the tongue is alittle higher and farther front for the tense vowel /iy/ (teaue) rlT n for /t/ (.liue).For,/r,/ the tongue is a litrle lower (i.e., the mouth opcns a little) and more central thanfor /iy/.'fhe lips

^re rclaxed for /t/ and spread (requiring muscular tension) for /iy,/.

The difference in lip shapes for /iyl and /r/ is a secondary difference. Many students

3 lbiceless stops are /p, I, v. the iiIxt sounds in l/e, /ra */e. Engl ish nasals ilclude /li. n, rl /, the last soLrnds in .ro4 Jrrre, and

srrg \bwels lollo$€d by I'oiceless stops (as inpaltl1 p/i*) .rn r rnder tlrrn thosr to loued bv rorced stops (ar )npeas pig);see alsoC0n'onan6. n !" 1 .

170 IHAPTER 5 Vowels

afe able to rclax their lips and produce a tense vowel. (This is not difficult. Trykeeping )'our lips relaxed and say eat; then spread your lips afld say /t) The glideending ol /iy/ Uy/) is created by a short front gliding motion ofthe tongue and iawA pure (steady state) /i,/ lacks this front gliding motion.

EFL students may be taught to pronounce /I/ as a short version of /iyl.Although /i)y' is sornewhat longer than /I/, native listeners pay more attention to thedifference in vowel quality (the sound of the vowel) than to vowel length; /I/ is notjust a short l'ersion of /iyl (Flege, Bohfl, and Jang 1997, Escudero and Boersma 2004,Cebrian 2006).The difference in tongue position for /iy/ and /r/ is what creates thedifference in \.owel quality, and students must learn the tongue positions for the twovowels in order to pronounce pairs like liue-leaue correctly.

Because the /iy/Jr/ contast is important and difficult, it should be taught tostudents at all leyels and usually needs to be reviewed. with beginning andintermediate students. classroom work should focus on /I/. the "new" vowel.Beginning and intermediate students are concerned about this vowel and ready towork on it. Adyanced students who pronounce /I/ accurately in common words likebig ot kitcben benefit from practice with words like indiuidual or ambiguous,where stressed /r/ is not the flrst r'owel in the word.These words may also have

cognates in the natiye language pronounced with the pure vowel /i/.9Most advanced students need work on the glide endlng (/y/) of /iy/.

Perhaps because /iyl is heard as a "similar" vowel, students often substitute theirnative-language pure vowel /i/.The use of a pure vowel in words Iike beacb andsreet creates the embarrassin€! pronunciations that many students are familiarwith. The glide cncling of ,/iyl is also important when /iyl is followed by anothervowel, as in uideo or pis.no.In these words, the glide ending joins to the nextvowel, creating a new syllable and functioning as a linking sound:videvo, pivano.This also occurs across word boundaries (as in see vit), and therefore has animpact on word-to-word linking, which is part of rhythm (se e Linking Adiacentrwords, page 54).

li]ie /r/

@leave /ly/

/---:\(*i#t,7

' Cognates are pain ol *'ods lrcm diftircnt lengueges that have similar soun& and meanings (e.g., English 4aa1d, and,lrench tluahq

CtlAtrcR 5 Vo\\,els 171

Spellings of /iy/ and /t/. The spelling of /r/ is consistent ancl a good cluepronunciation of the vowel, althougl.r there are somc important exceptions.

/i]y' is spelled in a varieqv of ways:

Activity 5,l /iy/-/ : Presenting pronunciation

level Low lntermediate

Worksheet Page 232

fip Direct students, attention to vowel characterislics that they can see.

Description Students use diagrams showing both lip shape differences andtongue height differences. Since differences in lip shape aresecondary pronunciation differences, students may stillmispronounce the vowels even though they use appropriate lipshapes. The procedure ou tned below focuses more on hl lhan hyl.

1. Model the words live and leave, lengthening both vowels, exaggeratrng ljprelaxation with live, and spreadjng the lips with leave. Ask siudents to describethe d jfference they see.

2. Ask students individually lo say live and leave.

3. Direct students' attentjon to the cross,sectjonal diagram showing the twovowels on Worksheet 5.1. Ask them whether the tongue is higher for /r/ ortor liyl.

4. Tell students to start with liyl and leI their tongues drop a lit e to pronounce /r/.

Exceptions: busy, business, buil<l, guilry gym, women, pretty

Exceptions: key, people, techniqr-le, medium

172 .H^PIER 5 vowels

Activily 5.2 /iy/-/r/: How Do You Spe Live?

Level All

Worksheet Page 233

Tip Provide students with controlled praciice to develop skills with vowels.

Description This spelling activity practices both /iyl and h/ and the pronunciationof letter names, necessary for spelling.

1. From the ist on Worksheet 5.2, select minimal palrs involving /iyl and /r/which are appropriate for your students' level of vocabulary.

2. Present the pronunciaiion ol liyl and A/ (see page 171).

3. Write the selected minima pairs on the board in two columns; number thecoLumns "1" and "2." The samples below are appropr ate for beginning tolow lntermed iate students.

1

eat

seat

leave

reach

4.

5.

6.

]\4odel the / y/ words. Students repeat. Then model the /i/ words. Students repeat.

Say a word from each palr and ask students to tell you the column number ofthe word you said. Repeat if students have difficu ty.

Ask each student t0 choose a word for the c ass to identify. Provide feedbackon pronLrnciatlon. For errors with /]yl, wr te "r i" on the board and tell studentsto say /i/ twice without break ng the voice and stressing the flrst /i/ (see page

1.73 Ior beach and sheet). For errors w th /r/, tel students to lower the tongue;reinforce the verbal instructions by lower ng your hand.

lvlodel the pa r work. Choose a word from one of the pairs and ask a student"How do you spe I nch?" (For low level students, write the questlon on theboard: How do you spell-?) The student should spe I the word he heard.Choosing a different word, ask another student the same quest on.

Pair work. lf possible, pair students who speak different nat ve anguages.Students who speak the same nat ve language can sometlmes recogn ze thentended word even if it ls mispronounced. Students take turns asklng about

the spelling of words on the board. Instruct thern to pronounce the wordscarefully so their partners know whlch words to spell. Circu ate among the pa rsand prov de feedback on pronunciation.

After ihe pair work, review the activity with the whole class. Provide feedbackon pronunciation of the vowels.

7.

B.

2

ir

sit

live

rich

g

cllAPrER 5 Vowels 173

Activity 5.3 Ptoblen words: Beach ard sheet.

Level lntermed iate/Advanced

Tp Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words orgroups of words which contain the vowels.

Worksheet None

Description This activity focuses on pronouncing /iyl tn beach and sheef, twowords of concern to ESL students. When students use a pure vowel(/i/) in these words, English listeners are likely to hear the lax vowelh/ (and the lax vowel counterparls ot beach and sheef). For thesewords, which end in consonants, the symbol /iil, with stress markedon the first "i," is more helpful than /iyl.

7. Wrile beach and sheefon the board and pronunciation spellings below theVOWEIS:

beach sheetll

2. lVodel the words, lengthening the vowels. Explain that in English, /iyl is not asingle sound. Students should pronounce this vowel with two /i/ sounds,stressing the first. The voice does not break between the two vowels.

3. Ask each student to say the two words.

4, Ask students to volunteer expressions involving beach or sreef (for example,beach blanket, beach party, beach ball, a sheet of paper, spreadsheets, andsheet music).

5. ln groups, students plan a beach party, describing the place, food, games, andother activities thai will create a good beach party.

6. After the group work, ask selected students to report on their beach party.Provide feedback on the pronunciation ol beach.

ffi nront Vo*e lsz /ey/ and /e/ eoait-u;et)

What the Teacher Should KnowThe vowel contrast in u,ait-uet (/ey/-/e/) is a new contrast for many students.

The native language vowel corresponding to English /eyl may also be a pure vowel/e/ (as in Spanish pe.so). For most students, tr.e /ey/-/E/ contrast (as trit u,ait-uet) iseasief to hear and pronounce tban the /iy/-/r/ contrast. The glide /y/ in /ey/ (as tnLaait) is also easier for students to hear than the glide ending in /iyl (as in ubeat).

/eyl is a tense vowel and /e/ is a lax yowel. The body of the tongue is higherand farther front for /ey/ than for /x/.In addition, the lips for /eyl are more spread(requiring more muscular tension) th'ln for /E/.

174 cuAPr[R 5 vawels

With Spxnish students, the symbol ,/ci,/ (rather than /evl) should be used sinceel is the nomal spclling of this vowcl ir Spanish.

Chinese students have persistent problems pronouncing the glide ending of/ey,/ wlren it occurs beforc /n/ or /m/, prollouncin€i errplain and ndmq for example,like "explen" and "nem" (see also Diphthongs bclow).

Spellings of /ey/ ajnd /e/. There is ovcdap in the spellings of /cy/ and /x/,wlricl]can be a source of mispronr.lncirltion. Tbe letter sequence ed, lbr example, is a

spclling for /e1y' Qts in break) as well as /e/ (as iD breakfast).

babl', papcq fatnous, table, vacatior]

(word ends in sitent e) late, take, mistake, plane, strange

tr41n, rain, wait, afraid

play, say, today, maybe

glght, vqin, nqlghbor

the-v, convey

break, great

Exceptions: gauge, b4ss (low note)

e (followed by a consonant)

h4!{, ak, f4i!, chair

breakfast, he a\,y, wcather

Excepdons: many,4ny, says, again, friend, guess

( HAprtR S t/owels "l7S

Aclivity 5.4 /iy/-/ey/-/tl Sotting sound and spettinglevel lntermediate

Worksheet page 233

Tip reach exceptional or confusing spellings associated with vower sounds,Description This activity focuses on overlapping spellings of /iyl, ley/, and k/.1. Direct str.tdents'attention to the tist of words on Worksheet 5.4.

@2. Students listen to the words and repeat them.3. ln pajrs, students decide whFther t.he underjined letters are pronounced /iyl,tey/, or /tt and write each word rn tnu

"pp.p,iui ,o;;i;;;r;i, rhe teachercirculates and models words as needed.- Wj;T:ir;[ i."|,,i],Jj:lsd1"0,

add the pronuncjatjon corumn headings from

5. Ask a volunteer to come to the^board..Classmates w/ll tell the volunteer whichwords beJong in the columns When all the-worJuru * i,'l.'OJuro, UrO"nUpractice saying the words, pronouncrng each word in a corumn with thesame vowel.

H uron, Vowels; /r/ and /e/ (tticl_heatl)

\I/hat the Teacher Should KnowWhen students first lc,

conruse ir \\.ith /t/,,,; ;1,',i;:i;';,.liffi,,j':",",:l:l#,:'i.glil,:t:";ffi$::t'6'h,l',:*:: i'i*,I",. :1:l 1* t-u t

"," ;.' r'v'jl si tion l see /,. 1. 1 1 1 o n7.l rn"

"r,',.,.i.1i:;; ff #:-::n#:*i'l1ll, ;l',:.:X,1.::iil, jll:,,ilX*;iERR0R C0RRECTt0N | /iy/ -/r/_/e/Problem: your student pronounces beqt l.ll<e b/t LNtruct ],oul student ro sar.ftro/r/ \ounJj' irr succcssion {s(,c prrtbtcrn *"r0'. o-- r,,u'il). li or*. ,_r,i::ffi:::H:tudent pronounces Dir like beat. rasttuctthe student to lower

llJ#fi,.T"" "tudent pronounces 6rlr like ,er. Instruct the student to raise the

l;J.ltfi*},," "tudent pronounces ,er like br?. Instruct the snrdent ro lower the

ffLm:1ru:HTj-|?:iil:es !,,e'rike u''tit' rnsttuctthe student to drop

"176 :HAPTER 5 Vowels

the problem is one of pronunciation and does not persisr long. Natiye speakers ofArabic may produce a vowel that is midway between the Yo\l'els of / an(l /E/.

[R n"orrt Vo*"lsz /a/ (tcad), /e/ and /e/ (batl-head)

\T/hat the Teacher Should KnowThe vowel in bad, /a/, is the lowest front vowel in English.The body of the

tongue is low and front in the mouth. and the lips are spread.The tip of the tonLuerests behind the bottom teeth and pushes down and fors'ard. For most students, /a/is a new vowel. It may be confisecl in perception and pronunciation with /€/ (as inbed) ot /o/ (as in body), <lepending on the nati1'e language of the student. Nativespeakers of Hindi,Vietname se , Korean, Chinese, Portuguese, and Polish, for example,may pronounce bad with a vowel closer to that in Zred Native speakers of French,Japanese, Spanish, and Greek, on the other hand, may pronounce words like &adwith a vowel closer to th^t n bod! Uo/) ot buddy Ua/).

Students who haye been taught British English may use the Britishpronunciation /o/ in words like laugh or can't, a \owel that sounds closer to NAI/o/. This pronunciatiofl should be corrected if it makes the word harder torecognize (which may occur when there are other errors in addition to theunexpected British pronnnciation).

Spellings of /e/. The spelling of /a/ is very consistent. Once students are familiarwith the common pattern, spelling is rarely a source of mispronunciation.

Activity 5.5 /E/-/E/; Presenting /a/had and /e/nead

levels All

Worksheet Page 234

Tip Djrect students' atlention to vowel characteristics that they can

0escription Guided by mouth shapes for the two vowels, students learn topronounce the difference between /ai and /€/.

1. Present the diagrams ol lal and /€/ on Worksheet 5.5.

a (followed by a consonant)

Exceptions: laugh, plaid, auntlo

r0ln some dralects arzl is prcnounced bny.

|HAPIER 5 Vowets l//

Actiuitf 5.5 contnued

2. lVodel had slowly, exaggerating the openness of the mouth and the spreading ofthe lips. Ask students whether the mouth is more open or closed Ior had. Askstudents whether the lips are spread or relaxed.

3. lVodel head,Iollowed by the same questions: Are the ltps morc open or closed?Are the lips more relaxed or spread?

4. Ask each student to say the pair had,head. Provide feedback on pronuncjation:

. had lel sounds like head ltl: Open your mouth more.

. cap lal sounds like cop lolt Push your tongue front. Spread your lips.

. cap lel sounds like cup lalt Open your mouth more and spread your lips.Push your tongue down and front.

Activity 5.6 /a/-/th Staying healthy

level High lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheel None

Tip Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words orgroups of words which contain the vowels.

Description The sample activity is taken from Focus on Pronunciation 3 (Lane2005c, 20) and provides communicative practice with words related tohealth issues, containjng the vowels /a/ and /e/. After studenls havepracticed the two vowels in conirolled activities, they discuss possiblecauses for becoming overweight or obese, using words like fat, calories,fast food, exercise, and genetic propensity, which contain these vowels.

1. The list shows some of the causes cited for overweight and obesity. Check thethree that you think are most responsible for these problems. The bold leitersare [a] or [€].

a. eating too much fat g. lack of information

b. taking in too many calories _ h. genetic propensity

c. eating too much sugar i. poverty

d. eating too much fast food l. wealth

e. lack of exercise Other

f. watching too much TV

2. Compare the causes you checked with your classmates, Do you agree? Talkabout your choices and listen while others explain their opinions. Look at thelist again, Would you check the same three causes now?

178 cHAPr[R 5 vowels

Front and Central Vowels. /e/ , /e/ , /a/, atd/a/ (kept-cap-cup-cop)

l*/hat the Teacher Should KnowThe vowels 1n kept-cap-cup-cort are pronounced in the lower front-central

region of the mouth.'lhe vowels in kept UE/) and cap (/e/) are fror]t vowels (see

/E/-/E/ on p|rge 176), and the votvels in cup (/a/) and cop (/a/) are central vowels.r I

Diaflrams of the lip shapes associated with these vowels are very ellbctive inteaching their pronunciation. Most students who can duplicate thc lip shapes canusually pronounce the \.owels accumtel)'.

Some combination of these four vowels is a problem for most students. Thequartet of vowels can be presented as a review alter coverinp; specific pairs, snch as

/t/-/a/ (bed-bad) aJrd /a/-/o/ (.^s it7 nut-not).

Activity 5.7 /zl /al /al and /o/ (kepl-cap-cup-cop): What hugs you?

Level Adva nced/l nterm ed iate

Worksheet Page 234

Tips Direct students' attention to vowel characteristics that they can see.

Base communicative practice wlth problem vowels on words orgroups of words which contain the vowels.

Description This activiiy can be used to review pairs of vowels already practiced.lf you prefer to use three rather than four vowels, choose the threethat calse your students the most difficulty. In many classes, theseare lel (as in cap\, lal (as in cup), and /o/ (as in cop). In groups,

students discuss things that "bug" them.

1. Prepare a llst of phrases of bothersome behavrors (e.g., stand ng in l ne).Choose phrases that include words wiih some of the vowels (/:/, lal,lal, or /o/).The examples below are common complaints.

What bugs you ?

ltl Words: kept lal Words: cap /a/ Words: cup lal Words: cop

cell phones stqnding in line muggy weather hot weathertests iraffic Jams studying my boss12telemarketers my landlord rny brqther rny jqb

Lr The vovrl in .ol /o/ is also dcscribcd ru a central-bxck r,orcl (Avc[ rnd lihrlich 1992)

t'Sonre speaken pronounce the vo\reLtrr rr.$ as b/

.HAPTER 5 Vov/els 179

Actiri1' 5.7 contlnued

2. In class, present the dragram of the four vowels on Worksheet 5./. Dernonstraieihe vowels, starting wiih kept and cap. Far kept, keep the opening of themouth small and spread the lips a little. For cap, exaggerate the lip spreadingand openness of the mouth, Students repeat. l\4odel cup and cop, keeping thelips very relaxed. Students repeat. Explain that the lips are relatively spread forkl and lal; for /a/ and /o/, the llps are relaxed.

3. Demonstrate djfferences in the openness of the mouth. l\lodel cup and kept,keeping the opening of the mouih small. Students repeat. lvlodel cap and cop,exaggerating the openness of the moLth. Students repeat. Explain that for /e/and /e/, the mouth is relatively closed. For lal and lal, the mouth ls open.

4. ln addition to the lip diagrams, you can present the dlfferences using a grid.

5. Ask each student to say the four words: kepi, cap, cup, and cop. Providefeed back on pronunciation:

. Cop sounds too close to cupi Open your mouth more for cop.

. Cap sounds too close to copi Spread your lips more for cap. lVove your

tongue front.

. Cap sounds too close to kept; Open your mouth more Ior cap.

. Cop sounds too close to cap: Move your tongue back for cop.

On the board, write "What bugs you?" Below that, make four columnsconesponding to the four vowels. Then write the preselecied phrases containingthe target vowels (or use the phrases above) in the columns, underlining thetargei vowels. Explain vocabulary (e.g., "bug" is slang for "bother"). Tell theclass that the phrases on the board describe things that bug people.

lVodel the words and phrases in each column. Students repeat. Provjdefeed back on the vowels.

Students list on a piece of paper three things that bug them. Encourage themto use words and phrases frorn the board or add their own pet peeves (whether

they contain the target vowels or not).

Students work in small groups and compare the things that bug them.

After the group work, ask several students what bugs them, Provide feedbackon pronunciation of the target vowels.

6,

7.

8.

9.

10.

180 cHcPrER s vo\^els

[6] C.nt"ul vo*.lsz /a/ and /a/ (nut-not)

What the Teacher Should Know

/e/ nut. Thc vowel ln nut (/a/,"sc]n:wa") is a mid-central r.'orvel.The tongue is in thecenter of the mouth, neithef high nor low, front nor back.The lips are sLightly openand relaxed.The tongue position for ,/a,/ is close to the rest position of the tongue.

This vowel occurs as a stressed vowel in words like nut and nrtmber and, asthe yowel of most unstressed s)4lables, as in "ag6" (ago) and, "jlz,las" Cjealous),makinEi it the most cofirmon yowel in English (see Unstressed Vowels, WordStress).1l It is also the pronunciation of the English hesitation word rzl:, used whenspeakers need time to think.

In this book, the symbol /e/ is used for both the stressed vo\rel in number an(Ithe unstressed yowel in cfgo (see also I)auer 1993), Other authors use the symbol/A/ for tbe stressed vowel (as j.n n mbet m6ther) and /a/ for unstressed vowels (as

rn !!Eo, jealous).In some NAE dialects, the tongue may be slightly lower for thestressed version /A/ and slightly higher for the unstressed version ,/a/. Thesedifferences are unimportant for ESL students.

For many students, /a/ is a new vowel.Japanese, French, and Spanish studentsmay conflise lt with /o/ (as in not). Polish students may confttse it with /€/ (as innet). Greek students may confuse it with /a/ ot /o/.

/o/ not. The l'owel in not ^nd,

father (/o/) is a low central or lorn back-centralvowel (Avery and Ehdich 1992,30).The tongue is in the center or back center ofthe mouth;the mouth is open, and the lips are relaxed.

nu.t /a/

-=.-\(H{\ ,-/

not /o/

( HAprER 5 Vov,tels "lB1

Students who haye first learned British English may pronounce /o/ with an"o" sound, especially in words where the .!.owel is also spelled with the letter ,,o,,(^s in poL lock, sbot, bot, possible, and, moclern). Native speakers of languageslike Spanish or Polish, which are spelled phonetically, ma1, use rhe ,,o,,pronunciation because of spelling. Students may also confuse the yowcls in pol| /0/ ) rnd bought \ /J/ t.

Iyhen native speakers ofromance langualaes lenrn that the vowel in worcls likepo' lock, and moclern is /o/, they may substirute their native_language vowel,producing a sound that is close ro English ,/a/ (a vowel that is farther forward in themouth than English /o/), so thatpot sounds close to pat.

Spelling of /a/ arrd /o /Spelling is a sonrce of mispronunciation fof ,/a,/, which is spellecl in nanv ways. aswell as for ,/o/.

mother, brolher, monel', love

182 .HqPIER 5 Yore/s

Aetivity 5,8 /a/ and /o/: Prcsenting /a/ and /o/(nut'noo

Levels All

Worksheet Page 234

fip Direct students' attention to vowel characteristics that they can see.

Description Guided by mouth shapes lor lal and /o/, students learn to pronounce

the difference between the two vowels.

1. Direct students' attention to the mouth shapes of the two vowels on

Worksheet 5.8.

2. l\4odel nut, keeping your mouth almost closed and your {ips relaxed Studentsrepeat. Ask students whether your mouth is more open or closed.

3. lVodel not, exaggeratlng the openness of the mouth and keeping the lips relaxed.

Students repeat. Ask students whether your mouth is more open or closed

4. Ask each student to say nut and noi. Provide feedback on their pronunciationsr

. ivut sounds too close to nof: Close your mouth. (Or, keep the inside of your

mouth small.)

. Not sounds too close to nutr Open your mouth

Activity 5.9 /a/: Luck or skill?

Level lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet Page 235

Tip Base communicative practice wiih problem vowels on words orgroups of words which contain the vowels.

Description This activity practices the pronunciation of /a/ in the word luck.

1. lVlake sure students can pronounce the vowel in /uck (see Presenting /a/ and

/o/, above).

2. Write s0me expressions that include the word /uck on the board. lVodel

the expressions.

good luck lots of luck try your luck down on your luck

3. Ask students to volunteer other expressions that include the word /ack, and

add them to the board.

CHAPTER 5 Vowels 183

Actiuw 5.9 continued

4. Read the quotations on Worksheet 5.9 to students. Go over vocabulary, but do notparaphrase the quotes. Students will do thjs in small groups. Ask each student tochoose a quotation and read it. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck.

5. ln groups, each student chooses one or two quotations to paraphrase. Thegroup discusses the quotation and students agree or disagree with it. Studentsalso d iscuss this questionl

. Do you think you are a lucky person, an unlucky person, or that luck isn'tvery important in your life? Explain.

6. When the group work has finished, ask individual students to explain the roleluck plays in their lives. Provide feedback on the pronunciation oI luck.

lffi Back vowelst /rw/ arld /o/ (boot-book)

V{hat the Teacher Should Know

/rtw/ booL The vowel in boot /u.w/ is a high, back-tense yowel. The body of thetongue rises up ;Lnd back; the lips round for the beginning of the yowel andcontinue rounding to the glide ending (/w/).

boot /uw/

Many languages have a pure vowel /u/ that sounds similar to English /uw/ (as

in bool).The glide ending of /uw,/ is difficult for students to hear, and they are likelyto substitute the native-language pure vowel /u,/ (as in French tort meaning "a11").

In vowel-vowel sequences in which,/uw,/ is the first vowel (as in ruin),Iheglide ending (/w,/) links to the follov/ing voweL (ru*in) and is easier to hear thanwhen a consonant follows /us/ (as in root)-The glide ending is important when a

vowel follows because it creates a new syllable.This occurs both within words (as'1n ruin) and acrcss word boundaries as in do- i/).The glide ending of /uw/ is rarelyreflected in spelling.

ruwin Do" ii.

184 .HAPTER 5 Vo$'els

/u/ book. The vowel n book (/u/) is a ncw vowel for most students '/u/ does not

occru in many English words but does occur in some very common words' such as

uctukl. cottltl, sltttuld, good, book' look, ar'(l lL'otnan'

/u/ is a high back lax vowel Comparecl to /uw'/' the tongue is more cenftalized

with /u/, dropping slightly down ancl forwarcl from its Position for /uw/; the lips are

less roundecl than thcy are for /uw/ (^s rt]. boot)'

book /u/

Although students may Lrse a pure tcnse vowel '/u'l

for both /u/ and /u ' making

little difference befween pairs ltkc Luke ttnd lortk' therc are few minimal pairs

a""f"i"g ,f-tata two vowels, and the contrast is a low-priority pronuflciation topic'

On the other hand, there are some odd-soundiflg Pronunciations of /c/ lhat

should be acldress .cd.In uromdn' lttoul(l, lttld uvol' vvhere the consoniu.rt /w/ precedes

/u/, natiYe speakers of JaP:mese espcciall-v and sometimes Korsm' may om.it the inidal

/w/, pronorncinli uotnalt ^s

'oion ftut is a distracting mispronunciation' which

stroirt'O t e adciresied (see Glicles, page 149, fbr error correction of tllis problem)'

There is native English diatect variation involving /ww/ antl /u/ In some

clialects, natiYe speakers pronounce rooJ; hoof' ancl rootn with the /uw/ vowel'

while others pronounce some or all of these worcls with /u/ There is also dialect

yariation in /u/: in the word s.fu , plt ' and bull ' fbr cxample' some native speakers

rrse a vowel close to /a/.

h.tw/ music. IL music, cute, bedut!. ' union' unit' ,^nd uniaersit!' the Yowel

spelle.t with ,r is pronouncecl /yuw'/ ti Students who hale learned British English

iluy pr.rno,ln.. nins ^nd

tune ^s

/nyo\vz/ and /t)'uwn/ (instead of the NAE /nuwz/

and /tuwn/). The British pronunciation is acceptable as long as the word is

lecognizable.

Integrating Gramrnar and Pronunciation' A common problem associated with

the letteru involves gramntar an'l pronunciation stu'leflts may use the afticle an

befofe words like unitn' uniuersit\' LtTtit' arrd unique becanse the words start with

x vowel leffef. Students need to learn that arz is usecl before words beginning with

a vowel sound (regardless of the beginning lctter) Since the first sound in words

like union ot urliuersity is /y / (v consonant)' the article a must be used (see Articles'

page 61).

li Although the seluence /lLl\y' is a consonxnl plLrs vorelscqlrerlce (/]y' + /u\t) il is includcd herc becal$c its qtlling oltcn leads

sLudenlrj lo co use is pr)nLlncidion witll /u$y' () \'i'1' versll

cH^prER S Vowels "lBs

Spelllngs of /tuw/ (boot), /u/ (book), alad /lrrtw/ (music)A common spellir.rg of both /U/ and, /uw/ is the letter sequence oo (as in book

and boot). This oveflap in spellin!! makes it difficr t for students to predictpronunciation.

boot, shoot, root, noon, food, school, soon, too

oo (word ends in silent e) choose, loose, soothe

student, truth, iunior

u (word ends in silent e) June , rule, true , include

do, who, movie , whose , lose, move

you, ItqUp, through

lev/, grew, threw, flew

sg!t, juice, frqit

book, look, foot, good

push, fr.rll. put. sugar

would, coulcl, should

cute , pure , confuse, music

beaury beautituI

186 (H^PIFR 5 vowels

Activity 5.10 Integrating Gammat and Pronunciation: lndetinite Articles beforc u

Level lntermed iate/Advanced

Worksheet None

Tip lntegrate vowel pronunciation with grammar practice.

Descr:ption This activity can be added to grammar work on indefinite articles. ltprovides practice choosing between a and an with words beginningwith the letter u.

1. 0n the board, write nouns or noun phrases in which the first word begins withthe letter u. lnclude words where u is pronounced /yuw/ (e.g., unit, union)and words where u represents a vowel (e.9., umbrella, uncle). Before eachnoun phrase leave a blank for the indefinite article. Sample words areprovided be low.

umbrella

-

unique idea

-

unit useful tool

university

-

unusual day

-

usual day

-

uncle

2. Ask students to say the words on the board. Write the pronoun you on the board.Ask a volunteer to come to the board. The volunteer will record the class'sanswers to questions 1 and 3 below. Ask the class the following questions:

. Look at the words beginning with the Ietter u. Circle words where the letteru sounds like the pronoun you.

. ls the first sound of the pronoun you and the circled words a consonantor vowel?

. When the circled words require an indefinite article, should it be a or an?

Write an indefinite artlcle before each phrase.

. What is the rule for choosing between a and an? Does it depend on the firstsound of The word or ihe Ii\I lettet?

ffi Back vow el: /ow/ (go)

what the Teacher Should Knoqr'The vowel in go (/ow/) is a mid-back tense vowel. The body of the tongue

pushes back and up a little and the lips are rounded; the lips continue roundingthrough the vowel to create the glide ending /w,/.

CHAPTR 5 Votyels 187

go /ow/

+

In many languages, the vowel corresponding to /oIv/ is a pure vowel, /o/ (as inthe Spanishpo.4 meaning "little"), $'hich lacks the glide ending /w/. Substitutionsof /o/ fot /ow/ arc a maior source of mispronunciation of this vowel.r5 In words likefolk and focus, the pure-yowel proriunciation produces pronunciations that canembarrass students.

Most students do not have difficulty hearing or pronouncing the glide endingof /ow/, once it has been pointed out. They may have difficulty, however,remembering to pronounce it since it is rarely reflected in spelling. Spanish studentsmay be better able to notice the glide ending if the symbol /ou/ (rather than ,/ow,/)is used to represent the yowel.The glide ending of /ow/ is important to teach.

Students may confuse the vowels in boat (/ow/),pot (/o/), anrJ bougltt (h/),pronouncing all three words with a similar vowel. This niay occur because ofspelling (the letter o can represent all three vowels, as in home /ow/, sbot /a/, afld/oss D/) or because they have learned British pronunciations ofthese vowels, whichhave a more "o"-like sound thafl the NAI versions. If the ,,o,:like pronunciation of/o/ words (such as lrot, k)ck, sbop) is not distmcting and does not reduceintelligibiliry students do not need to "unlearn,' the British pronunciations.

Some students, however, do use conftlsing pronunciations with specific pairsof vrords involvin g /o/ UJ/) and /ow/,like uant and uon ? When both words soundthe same, pronunciation should be addressed.

15 The pure Iowel/o/ does nol exist in NA! €xcepl in ,r few erpresions. such as d rc fi$tpaft al0h oh /a'tau/. This warning is also

writttn 'Uh-oh," and "uh" is pnnounced with /e/.

188 IHAPTER 5 Vo\rels

Activity 5.'!1 /ow/ or /o/; "o" Spellings

level lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet None

Tip Teach exceptional or confusing spellings associated with vowel

sounds.

Descript:on This activity targets words where ihe letter o is pronounced /ow/ or

/o/. Students sort the words according to the pronunciation of thevowel. Teachers should look through past readings or vocabulary thatstudenis have covered and select words where the stressed vowel isspelled with o (as in possible, stolen) and pronounced either /ow/ or

/o/. The activity can be made more challenging by including words inwhich the letter o is pronounced lal (as in moneD.

1. Prepare a list of words where the stressed vowel is spel ed with o and

pronounced either /ow/ or /o/. The sample words below, where the o spellingis pronounced /o/, are ones my students often mispronounce.

possible

cold

potent

folk

gr0celres

nqtice gone

modern bone

bother

shop problem

rotten

a lone

lost

m0nster

college

stolemost hold

2. Write the words on the board or present them ln a handout. Add two columnheads to the board that corresponds to the two pronunciat ons.

/oM (go) /o/ (father)

cuAPrER 5 Vowels 189

Actiui1t 5. 1 I continue/l

lAnswers: /a/ wordsr p6ssible, m6dern, shop, gone, bother, pr6blem, r6tten,lost, m6nster, college; /ow/ words: cold, p6tent, folk, most, n6tice, groceries,hold, bone, a lone, stolel

3. IVodel the words. Students repeat.

4, Using the handout (or copying the column headings onto a piece of paper),students write each word under one of the columns, according to thepronunciation of the vowel. This can be done singly or in patrs.

5, Ask a volunteer to come to the board, The class tells the volunteer which wordsbelong in the two columns.

6. Elicit from the class other words spelled with o and clarify questions aboutpronunciation. Your students may volunteer words that are pronounced withvowels other than /ow/ or /o/. ln that case, model the pronunciation andexplajn that lowl and lol are common pronunciations of this spelljng but notthe on ly ones.

ffi BackVowelt /t/ (caugttt)

Y/hat the Teacher Should KnowThe vowel /r/ (as in caught, bought, and lala) is a low, back, slightlv rouncled

vowel.There is a great deal of dixlect variation in how native speakers pronouncethis yowel, what words thcy pronounce it in, and whether they pronounce it at all.Many native speakers do not use /1,/ at alljinstead, they use the yowel in cot (/o/).These speakers do not make a pronunciation distinction between paks Like caught_cot and lctn-la (the musical note). In NAI dialects that distinguish caugbt and cot,h/ m y have more or less of an ',o,' sound. In addition, speakers who contrast D/,Ind /o/ (as in cauglJt-cot) do not alwa_vs pronounce /J/ in the same words; somespeakers, for example, use /J/ (as in dog) y/hile others use /o,/.

Students who have learned British English may pronounce this vowel so thatit sounds close to /ow/ (i.e., lau sounds like *low"). if this pronunciation isconfusing, instruct students to liil/e this yowel more of an .,ah,' sound.

Teachers whose dialects do not include ,/J/ need not teach this vowel. Students,however, shor:ld bc aware of its use in dialects in the Northeast and in other pafts ofthe United States and Canada. Reco(lings of dialects can be fourd on the AmericanDialect Society's Web site, www.americandialect.orfa, or on the University of Kansas'sInternational Diale cts of English A-rchi\.e Web site, http://web.ku .eclu/ideal .

E

E

190 cH^PrER 5 vowels

Spellings of /r/

ERR0R C0RRECTION: zarz sounds like "low"i bougltt sounds like "boat"'Instruct students to pronounce lau (or bougllt) with an "ah" sound instruct them not

to round their lips too much when they say words like bougbL lalu, ot Pquse

ffi otnn norrgs, /ay/ (bigtr), /aw/ (hont), and /oy/ (boy)

v/trat the Teacher Should KnowThe vowets in rrgh /^v/,hou /alv/, and boy /oy/ are diphihongs;these vowels

are also known as the pain Yowels-Ay! ow! oylAlthough both diphthongs (/ay/,/'dw/,/oy/) and glide vowels (,/iyl [see], /ey/

tstryl, /ow/ [so], xnd /\w/ [sue]) encl in glides' the glide ending in diphthongs is

easier for students to hear than in glide vowels.The distance the tongue travels in

moying between the two pafts of 2 diplrthong (for example , between /^/ and /y/ in

,/a,y/) is greater thari the clistxnce involYed with glide vowels (for example, between

/i) and /y/ in /i)'/). The greater distance creates a larller perceptlral difference,

making the two patts of a diphthong easy to hear'

Diphthongs /ay, aw, oy,/ clide Yowrls /iy. ey. ow. ttw/

(

Lv€i\rY"

pause, author, caution, llqndry

law, jaw, dawn, draw

coffee, off, on, song, cost

t4!k, always, salt, call

t5 The consonalls /s, z, r,/ arc eraltplcs 0l contln,lan$. \iifi conti ltutls. thc ,rir is obstructed but nol comllerly blocked

cH^prrR S Vowels 19'l

There are some dialect differences in the pronunciation of diphthongs. SomeSouthemers pronounce the glide ending of diphthongs weakly in informal speech;forexample, o/ may sound similar to "ole" or ,,all,', and time may x]iltnd a little Iike .Tom.,,

Few students have problems hearing or pronouncing English diphthongs.Chinese students may weaken the glide ending of ,/ay,/ (and to a lesser extent /aV)when these vowels are followed by nasd consonzurts, as in time or count. Ther-pronnnciation of time, fot example, may soru]d close to Tont (similar to theSoutherners' pronunciation). The phonetic symbol ,rai,/ is more effective than /avl ir.refrof coffection of this problem.

Diphthongs pfoyide an oppoftunitF ro pfactice r'owel-r'owel sequences andthe correct s]4labification of words liirie science (sci|ence). The lilicle ending of thediphthong acts as a linking sound, joining to the following vowel to create the nextsvllable'. scilence.

Activity 5,12 Vowel-vowel sequences: Fields of Etudy

level lntermediate/Advanced

Worksheet None

Tip Base communicative practice with problem vowels on words orgroups of words that contain those vowels.

Description This activity practices joining diphthongs Uay, aw, oyl) or glide vowels(/iy, ey, ow, uw/) to a following vowel (vowel-vowel sequences) in ihecontext of fields of study: biology, psychiatry, meteorology. Becauseof its connection with science, this topic is appropriate for lTAs orstudents in academic English programs.

1. 0n the board, write words containing a diphthong or glide vowel fo lowed byanother vowel: soctety, psychiatry, zoology.

2. l\4odel the words and ask students how many syllables are in each word(there are four syllables in socivety, zo*ology, and psychlatry). Students rnayerroneously identify soclety a foursyllable word, as a three-syllable word becausethey fail to hear or pronounce the glide /y/ which creates the additronal syl/able:socttety. lxplain that when two adjacent vowel letters represent different vowelsounds, the two vowels are in different syllables and the syllables are joined wjthan unwritten lyl (e.9., socivety, rylr!9u or twt (e.g., e-ggCI

3. Write a superscript y or ry between the vowel-vowel sequences on the board andmodel the words again, emphasizing the dtfferent syllables. Students repeat.

4. Elicit from students names of other scientific fields and/or terms (for example,meteorology, geology, nuclear medicine, sociology, political science, radiology)and add them to the board. Not aIl words must have vowel vowel sequences.

5. In pairs, students discuss which fields are lrkely to have the hlghest paying 1obs.

192 :HAPTER 5 Vowels

ERR0R C0RRECTI0N: Chinese students pronounce tirne like "Tor ," arrd explainas 'explen."1. Chinese students are unaware that they are weakening glide endings befofe /n/ or

/n/ ("s in time, explqin\.

2. Write the mispronounced word on the board, underlining the problem Yowel ( e.g ,

tlme, fi,nd, exptglln, trqln).under the Yowel write the phonetic symbol /ail (fortime an<lfinD or /ei/ (fot exptain ?;nd train).^lelJ the student that she is not pro-

flouncing dre second part of the vowel sound strongly enough whef' /m/ ot /,/ fol'lows. Model the correct and incorrect pronunciations.

3. Alternatively, model the word without the final nasal consonant; say "tie" instead of"dme," "tray" instead of "tlain," and "explay" instead of "explain." Ask the student

to repeat the shortened word seYeral times, iust as you said it.Then ask the student

to say the shortened word (e.g., "tie") and add,/na/ or / .

ffi "-aoto..d Vowels and z-colored vowels

strat the Teacher Should Know

,R-Colored Vowels. R-colored vowels ere Yowels followed by /r/ (e 8., are, or, ber)'

The tip of the tongue cuds up and slightly back (retroflexiofl) at the end of the

vowel and alters (colors) the sound ofthe vowel These vowels are difficult and their

mispronunciation can make wortls unclearThey should be taught at all levels

There are clialect differences in the pfonunciation of some r-colored vowels'

Some speakers from the Noftheast pfonounce merry and Maryl with the same

vowel (/meriy/) btt many with a different Yowel (/meriy/) A sm2tller number ofspeakers nake a three-way clistinction:J44ry /meyrry/ ' merry /meriy/' and marry

/meriy/. Most spezLkers of NAE, however, pronounce all three words the same, withthe vowel of merry.

Teachers may wonder whether retroflexion with these Yowels must be taught,

since there are r.less dialects of Engtish (British English ancl some dialects of NAI)'Howeyer, native speakers of these dialects do not simply "drop" /r/'so that four atTd

.HAprcR S Vowels 193

ifog for example , sound the same. The vowel which remains in r-less dialects isdifferent from its counterpart before other sounds.Thus, to achieve an accurare /-less pronunciation of thc vowels ii hear /ft/, bait /Er/, trer /ar/. haftt /o , more/or/,a'17d tour /ur/, tlte student needs to alter her pronunciation of six vowel sounds(the r-colored versions of /r, r, a, o, o, u,/). Learnin!! to pronounce a following /r,/ isan easier task itnd produces the reqrdred "cok)ring" of tlte l.owel. In addition. evenin rless dialects, final /r/ is pronounced as a linkir]g consonant when a vowelfollows, as rn heq_ansuter. .lenkins (2002) irlso recornmends teaching thepfonunciation of /r/ aftcJ these six vowel sour]ds, rather than their r-lesscor-lnterparts (see Lingua Franca Cofe, page 9).

Pedaliogicall,v, the three mosr important and difficult r-colored vowels are /ar/(.as in lser), /or/ (as in bard), and, /or/ (^s in rzore). Mispronunciations of thesevowel sounds are especially distorting. For many students, the vowel in lter is themost difficult.This \,.owel is really a unitary yowel eyen tlroulah it is represented wirhtwo phonetic symbols (,/arl).r7 The spellings ot /ar/, /or/,and, /arl also o\Iedap andafe anotlrer source of mispronunciation. R{css pfonunciations of thc vowels in t,eat,bair, and tour (/n/, /tr/, /ur/ ) are not as difficult to understand.

Certain sounds following /r/, especiallv /n/ and /1/, can make the r-coloredvowels more difficult. Students who ltave learned to pronolmce the r-colorecl\.owels in words like lJurt and first may still ha\.c difliculty q/ith learn, burn, andturn. One of the most difficr t sequences of sounds is that in u'ort(l and girl.'Ihepronunciation of these words is learned morc easily when thel/ a1e presented astwo-syllable words: ,/warald,/ and ,/garal/. 'the word squirrel, with the samesequence, is spelled as a two-syllable word. Pronouncing u.torld ,,nLl gid as t:wosyllable words gives students more time to m'tke the articrjlxtory chanlle from/r,/ to/l/. Early has a similar sequence, but is easier to pronounce because ,/l/ begins thelast syllable.

Spellings of /a , /ar/, and /ot/.Spellings of /arl.

rt Other slnbols for this rowel lnclude 4-/ $,hen the lo\rcI rs gressed ({s in ,?)2, and /a-l \rhen fie vo$,el is unstrssed (as in ,1qqa).

her, were , serve. alelt

hurt, turn, mulder, chqlch

filst, circle, dirty, birrhday

194 :HAPTER 5 vowels

SpellJngs of /crl.

Spellings of /orl.

The r-colordd vowels /at/, /a ,^nd /or,/ are acqlrired gradually They warrant a

fllll pronunciation lesson, in addition to error correction and review. R-colored

vowels should not be taught as part of a lesson on beginning ,/f/ (for example, the

13 Sonre speaken pronoun ce Ihe 'tawel

n loumtlnent ?s lat/ .

com, store, wore, moming

dgq1, floor

four, mourn

cHAprER S Vowels 195

/f/ in rou, red, and correct).Teaching approaches for,/r/ alter vowels (i.e., r-coloredvowels) and /r/ in beginning position (as in rou) atf. different. and thepronunciation problems associated with the two positions of h/ arc also different(for teaching beginning

^/, see Consonants, page 1.i1).1e

Z-colored Vowels. Vowels that occur before ,4/ at the end of a wo rd, (as it all) otsyllable (as ln allaays) are /-colored vowels. The vowel is pronounced with a shortglide ending, /a/.2o

feel

sell

cold /kow.ld/

Z-coloring of vowels is a topic for accent reduction and polishing, and doesnot have to be covered in most classes. Howeye! students may notice that a vowelbefore /l/ sounds different from irs .rcgular,' pronunciation before otherconsonants. When working with minimal palrs like feet_Jill, where yowels occurbefore ,/l/, students may comment that the vowels sound different from the vowelsin leaue-liue. The teacher can explain that the vowels sound a little differentbecause of the /l/ sorurct. In some textbooks, /l/ coloring may be part of a lessonon "diltk /l/" (see /l/,page 144).

Activity 5.13 R-Colored vowel* presenting r-colorcd vowels /ot/ (arc), /at/ (he.),and /or/ (o.)

fiifvlseeV

level Ail

Worksbeet Page 235

Tip Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels.

Description Students learn to pronounce /r/ after vowels by using a combinationof diagrams showing articulation and hand gestures that mimicretroflexion of the tongue"

1. Using the diagram on the worksheet, direct siudents,attention to the cross-sectional diagram of /r/. N4odel are. Explain the pronunciation of /r/: The tip ofthe tongue turns up and back a lit e.

(continued on fiext page)

19ltaching rchoflexion h-ihe pedagogical locus for the /-colorcd vowels. for beginring //, rchof]exion and the absence ofconta.t

betw€en the tongue tip and the top of the mouth arc both impoftnt.

'zo A1temativel11 tlrc /a/ glide can be consjdercd part of the ,'dark

/,, (see /l/, Consonants).

196 :HAPTER 5 vowels

Actiuit! 5. 1 3 continued

2. Use hand gestures to reinforce the retroflexed movement (up and back) of thetip of the tongue. This gesture is also useful for feedback and error correction.As you say are, start with your hand flat, palm facing up, and curl your

fingertips up. Tell students that your hand represents the tongue.21

3. Tell siudents to make a long "ahhhh" sound and then slowly turn the tip of thetongue up and back (this is the pronunciation of are). Use the hand gesture as

a visual model. Students may be able to pronounce /r/ more easily if they closetheir eyes and visualize the tongue tip turning up and back,

4. Ask each student to say are. Use the hand gesture to re nforce pronunciation.

5.

6,

Direct students' attention to the diagrams of the mouth shapes for lorl (are),

larl (her), and lorl (or). Remind students that inside the mouth, the tongue tlpturns up and back a little.

IVodel are again. Explain that the rnouth is open. Inside, the tip of the tongueturns up and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforcepronunciation of /r/.

7. IModel her. Explain that the mouth is nearly closed. lnside, the tip of thetongue turns up and back. Students repeat, Use the hand gesture to reinforcepronunciation of /r/.

8. l\4odel or. Explain that the lips are rounded, Inside, the tip of the tongue turnsup and back. Students repeat. Use the hand gesture to reinforce pronunciationoI lrl .

9. Ask each student to say are, her, and or. Provide feedback on pronunciation.

214 n:riewer suggests thalneadng a rcd milten adds an eLement oifun lo the prcscntxtlon.

CH \PIER 5 V,,$els 197

Activity 5.14 fhe Herc and Now

level Eegjnning

Wotksheet None

fip Use hand gestures to reinforce the pronunciation of /r/ after vowels.

Description This activity practjces /r/ after vowels in words referring to classroomobjects. The act,vity should follow presentation of /ar/,larl, and lorlbut js not restricted to words containing only these vowel sounds.

1. Ask students to look around the room and volunteer words for the thingsthey see.

2. Write the words on the board and circle those that have /r/ after a vowel;examples include door, floor, blackboad, purse, paper, shirt, skirt, chair, andwater (bottle). Students practice the words.

3. Provide feedback on pronunciation of /r/, using the hand gesture describedon p. 196.

CONCLUSION

The pronunciation ofyowels is difficr t for students partly because English hasa relatively large number of vowels.Teachers should focus on high-frequency vowelsand vowel contrasts, such as the front and central vowels. Among those, nonnativeEngish-speaking teachers should select vowels that they pronounce accurately andfeel comfoftable teaching. English vowels are also diflicult because of confusing anclinconsistent spellings. \We have provided some examples of actiyities which helpeliminate "spelling mispronunciations,', by focusing students on exceptionalspellings. Finally, vowel articulation is difficult for teachers to describe and forstudents to yisualize.We haye proyided some vowel presentation activities in whichteachers provide visual clues to vowel pronunciation. Hand Flestures that mimic thepfonunciation of ,/r/ after vowels are effective in presenting and giving feedback onthese clifficult vowels. The distinctiye mouth shapes associated with some yowelsalso simpli8. the task of presenting pronunciation.

In the classroom, students shoulcl have enough opportunity to gain skill witha particular vowel (or yowel contmst) in controlled activities. Once students are ableto pronounce a vowel reasonablv accurately in contfolled practice, the teacher canmo\.e to mofe communicatiye practice by selecting a key word or set of wordscontaining the vowel to establish a context fof less-scripted speaking.

ACTIVITY WORKSHEETS

The following pages provide directions forusing the worksheets with the activitiessuggested in Tips for TeachingPronunciation. The x/orksheet numbersmatch the activity numbers; if an activity isnot listed below. no worksheet is neededfor that activity. If a worksheet hasqu€stions for students to answer, th€answers follow the directions. In order tosave pape! teachers may elect to use theblackboard, slides, or transparencies topresent worksheets intended for the entifeclass. Materials intended for only onemember of a pair (or one team of students)should be provided as paper handouts.

Activity l.L Make a copy of Worksheet 1.1for each student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the paragraphon the audio CD (trdck 2). Then havestudents complete the trivia quiz.Ans.oers: 1. a; 2. c: 3. d;4. c; 5. b; 6. a: 7. c: B. d.

Activity 1.2: Make a copy of Worksheet 1.2for each student in the class.

Actiyity 1.3: Make half as many copies ofeach schedule as there are students in theclass. Give half the students Schedule A andhalf Schedr e B. Pair up students withdifferent schedules. If ]'ou choose, you cansubstitute different programs for those onthe schedule to reflect TV shows vourstudents like to watch.

Activity 1.4: Make half as many copies ofeach map as there are students in the class.Give half the students Map A and half MapB. Pair up students with ditTerent maps.

Activity 1.6: Make a copy of !trorksheet 1.6for each stuclent in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the audio CD(track 3). Have students work jn pairs todecide which came first.Arasuters: cell pbones, coml.)utcr games, desktops,e-mail, bard dir.Jes, searclr engines, confbtencecalk, liuer tu'anspl"1nts, ftnperprinting.

Activity 1.7: Make enough copies ofWorksheet 1.7 for half the studeltts. Cut thesets apart and distdbute Set I to half theclass and Set 2 t() the other half'

Activity 1.8: Make a copy of Worksheet 1.llfor every student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to tlte audio CD(track.1).Ansuters: 1.f (tbe);2. c (tbe);.). b (the);4..1 (the);i.b (the):6..i (notbing):7.k (the);8.I (Jout);9. g(your); 10.d (an); 11.e (an); 12.i (a).

Actiyity 1.9: Make a copy of W'orkshe€t 1.9for every student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the words onthe audio CD (track 5).

Activity 1.10: Make enough copies of\Vorksheet 1.10A for evcry student. Havestudents read along as they listen to theaudio CD (track 6). Nlake enough copies ofWorksheet 1.10B for half the studeqts. Cut1.108 ir half so every student gets one setof questions. The answers are part of theworksheet.

Actiyiry 1.11: Make a copy of Worksheer1.11 for cveq. student. Students work inpairs to answers the questio[s.Ans.4)ers: L the I95Os;2.tbe 193Os:3.tbelate192os and earl! 193Os;1. the 1910s; i. tbe1960s;6. the 1930s and 191Os;7. tlre 199Os;B. tbe 196Os;9. tbe 198Os: lO.tlte 1970s: 11.tbel92Os:12.the 1950s.

Activity 2.1: Make a cop_v of Worksheet 2. Ifor each student in the class. Haye studentsread alonEi as they listen to the audio CD(trdck 7).

Activity 2.4: Make a copy of Worksheet 2.4for each sudent in the class. Have studentsread along as th€y listen to the audio CI)(track 9).A su)ets: 1. h;2. c; 3..l;4.f;5. e;6. a;7. b; a. g.

Activity 2.6: Make a copy of Worksheet 2.6for every student in the class. Have students

"199

200 AppENDtx A Activity worksheets

read along as they listen to Part A of theaudio CD track 10. Pause the audio, thencontinue listening to Part B (track 1 1)when ready.

Activity 2.7, Marke enough copies ofWorksheet 2.7 for half the class. Give halfthe students Grid A and half the studentsGrid B. Students with different grids willpair up and work together

Activity 2.9t Make a copy of \trorksheet 2.9for each student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the audio CD(track 12).

Actlvity 2.10: Make a copy of worksheet2.10 for every sudent in the class. Havestudents read along as they listen to theaudio CD (track 13).Ansuers: 1. utben;2. and; 3. Or;4. if;5. that;6. tbat 7. hut; B. than;9. as; lO. as; I 1. wben;12. wben.

Actiyity 2.13r Make a copy of Worksheet2.13 for each student in the class. Haycstudents read along as they list€n to th€audio CD (track 14).

Actiyity 3.1: Make a copy of Worksheet 3.1for each student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the audio CD(track 15).

Activiry J.2: Prepare half rs mdn] copie\of each chart as there are students in theclass. The categories of comparison in thecharts can be changed to reflect )'ourstudents' situations. For example, if most ofyour students work, the information under"Location" might be specified as closenessto work rather than closeness to school.cive half the students Chart A and half thestudents Chaft B. Students with differentcharts will pair up and work together

Activity 3.3: Make a copy of \t9orksheet 3.3for each student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen the dialogue onthe audio CD (track 16).

Activity 3.7: Make a copy of Worksheets3.7A and 3.7B for each student in the class.Students will read along as they listen tothe dialogue on the audio CD (rack l7).

Actiyity 3.8r Make a copl' of Vorksheet 3.8for each student in the class

Activity 4.3: Make a copl of Wo*sheet 4.3for each student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the audio CD(track 18).Answers: pretU) ; ma tter: rneeting; inrlted: WbatA geftinll; later; betler;W)at do.

Activity 4.4: Make half as many copies ofVorksheet 4.4 as there are students in theclass. Give Chart A to hall the class andChart B to the other half. Students withdifferent charts will pair up and worktogether.

Actiyity 4.5: Make one copy of Worksheet4.5 for each student in the class.

Activity 4.7: Make a copy of worksheets4.7A. J.n(I1t.7B for each student in the class.Distribute Workslleet 4.7,4. before theactivity; have students read along as theylisten to the audio CD (track 19). Distribute\trorksheet 4.78 at the conclusion of theactivity. Explain that students may want tokeep the rules where they can easily referto them.4nsrrers.' r=ft\ t uo rd s. fi.( e.\pe n si ue. m k.Xerox, expdnd, tdxes, experl, dxiom,tttd.ximuln, context; x=gz uords: exhibit,evtminq eltist, exbibition, execLrtiue,exhausted, exdtn, execute; x=z uords: Xerox.

Activity 4.8: Make half as many copies ofVorksheet 4.8 as there are students in theclass. Give half the class 'Itam A questionsand half the class Team B questions.Tedm A Ansuters: L relnember: 2. rwle:3. fural; 1. red; 5. ra.lio; 6. riuers; 7. rug;8. utritu.Tearn B arrswers: L rlgbt; 2. relatiues; 3. repdif;1. (d) ring: 5. (a) rcoJ; (). roses;7. retunx;8. to

Actiyity 4.9. Make a copy of worksheet .{.9

for each student in the class.

Activity 4.11: Make a copy of Worksheet4.11 for eaclr student in the class. Hav€students read along as they listen to theaudio CD (track 20).P.t t 2 Anstuers: 9. aduise; 10. pig; I 1. rice;12.peas; 13. b.1ck; 11. (a) use; 1 5. haqe; 16. set.

lr(fivity 4.12r Ma.ke a copy of Worksheet4.12 for ezch student in the class.

Actlylty 5.1: Make a copy of Vorksheet 5.1for each student iri the class-

Activity 5.2: Make a copy of \forksheet 5.2for each student in the class, or simplypfesent minimal pairs relevant tostudents'leyel.

Lcttulty 5.4r Make a copy of Worksheet 5.4for each student in the class. Have studentsread along as they listen to the audio CD(track 21).Arrswers: /A/ uords: bead, steal, kq,, cheap,receiue, people, beliew; /eJ// utor*: break, Wtbq, take, eigbt, baw stays; /e/ unds: brcakflstinstead, medl.lne, says, /tta/rJ), egain, frierul.

AppENDtx A Activity worksheets 201

Activity 5.5: Make a copy of Worksheet 5.5for each student in the class.

Activiry 5.72 Make a copy of Vorksheet 5.7for each student in the class.

Actiyity 5.8: Make a copy of Worksheet 5.8for each student in the class.

Activity 5.9: Make a copy of \forksheet 5.9for each student in the class.

Acttvtty 5.13: Make a copy of !florksheet5.13 for each student in the class.

202 AppENDtx A Activity wotksheets

($ wonrsrnnt r.r PRTMARY sTRESS: Travel season Trlvla

Shoulder SeasonThe cost of traveling depends on when you trayel and where you travel. High season is

the most expensive time to travel. Low season is the least expensive time to travel. Shoulderseason is in between.

If you don't want to spend a lot of money, shouldet season is the best time to travel.Airfares and hotels aj:e not so expensive, and the weather is not usually too hot or toocold. Fof example, if you'rc tfaveling to Japan from the United States, the shoulder season isin winter

1. You want to go to South Africa. v/hen is the shoulder seasofl?

a. January to Aprilb. Summef

c. October and Novemberd. $finter

2, You want to go to Australia. When is the shoulder season?

a. Summef

b. May to July

3. You want to go to Turkey. when is th€ shor der season?

a. Winter c. July and August

b. March d. Fall

4. You want to go to Rio de Janeirc in Brazil. when is the shoulder season?

c. Summe rd. September to December

5. You want to go to Italy. When is the shoulder season?

c. June and Julyd. January to March

6. You want to go to Mexico. Vtrefr is the shoulder season?

a. June and July c. Fall

b. February to April d. Winter

go on a safari* in Kenya. When is the shoulder season?

a. Februaryb. Winter

a. Summefb. Fall

c. Springd. Octobef

c. June to Septemb€r

d. Wintef

7. You want toa. Spring

b. February and March

8. You want to go to Costa Rica. When is the shoulder season?

a. Srunmefb. July and August

c. Winterd. Mid-october to mid-December

* A trip to see wild animals lik€ elephants and lions.

Reprinted from rvorthstal 1, Rea.liltg qndr ritil?g b,v Joho tseaunont, Pcarson Longllran,20Oc). pagc I ti. Uretl with pcrmi.iion.

lind[ergn Did It!

WORI(SHF,F,T -I.2

Paris Exprcss Ng'ys-May 27, 1927

t PARIS, FRANCI, One week ago,Charles Lindbergh was just a handsome,zs-year-old ainnail pilot from a smalltown in the United States. "Ibday he is themost famous man in the world and themost importart man in the history offlying.

: Last week, Lindbergh flew solo iiomNew York to France. He i4'as the firstpe$on to Ily non-stop across tbe AtlanticOcean alone. He also set the record forthe longest non-stop flight.

.l Lindbergh took offon his historic flighton May 20th at 7152 A.M. People calledhim "'lhe Flying Fool." On that day, otherpilots in the contest waited in New Yorkbecause the weather was bad. Lindberghdid not wait. He took flve sandwiches, abottle of water, a notebook, a pen, and acompass. He didn't even have a radio. All

App[Nr?/\ A A.tiyit!, tyL]rlsh€.r/s 203

PRIMARY STRESS: Integrating Stress,Vocabulary, and Reading

he heard was the sound of the wind andthe noise flom the engine of thc plane.He was in the air all alone \,\'ilh histhoughts, his hopes, and his fears.

; After 3,610 miies, 33 hours and 30minutes, and no slcep, Lindbergh landcdin Paris on May 21st. At that mornent, hislife changed forever. Thcre wele 15U,000excited people waiting to greet him. Theinternational media wcre also there.Photographers and newspaper reporterswanled lo be the flrst to tell the storyabout l-indbergh. When he got out of h:splane and saw all the excjtemcnt, hckneh' that his life $'ould never be thesame again.

5 When he beSan lhis dangerous tlight,he was a quiet young man from a quiettown. Thjs mo.ning, "Luck,v l-ilid\"' letlI)arls as an international hero.

204 ApptNDtx A Acriv/tt' vvorl-sheets

WORI$HEET 1.3 L]I\ISTRTSSED VO\I'EI-S AIID VOWEL REDUCTION:Today, Tonigltt, and Tomor"rou

TONIGHT TOMORROW NIGHT

8:00 Ios, 8:00 l'r'ler2d.,i (rerun)

g:OO Ameican ldol 9:OO

5:O0 Live coverage of 10:00

the presideflt's addr€ss

TOMGHT TOMORROW NIGHT

1:O0 lron Man (novie) 8:00

3:00 Enro Cup Firals: 9:00

Germany vs. Spain

10:00 NBA Play-of1s: 1O:OO 2O/2O

Nets versus Suns

WORKSHEET 1.4

AppENDrx A Activity Wotksheets 205

SECOI\DARY STRESS IN 1\[[]MBERST How ManyPeople Live at 44Maifl. Street?

lAll StudentA map

The map shows apaitnent buildings on Mdn Stre€t, Park Ilne and First Street.The numbers in rhebuildtng shov how mary p€opl€ live ln tlat buildtng. If a building is empty, ask lour prrlner thequ€sdon below aid wite the answer on the map.

trnEE

How many people liv€ at

trtrEI@n

(address)

44 Mah Stre€t

42 Main Str€€t

36 Main Street

35 Main Street

46Pal*Lane

32 Pr* Ilne

30 PaIt Irne

24 Pffk Iln€

43 First Str€et

37 Flrst Stieet

33 Fkst Street

22 First Street

!:1

Et

Fz

ntrEnn

Hzrlll

F'4eFT

F*tr

IA2l Stud€ot B map

The mrp shows aparun€nt buildings on Mah Ste€t, Palt Ilne ard l1lst Sh€et.The numbers in thebuildiry show how tuy people li!€ Ln that builalha. IJ a buildiig is mptt ark your partner thequestton b€low and mite the ans*,er on the map.

n@nn

Hoq/ many people live at

trtrtrtl@

(address)

44 Main Str€et

42 Main StrEet

36 Maln Str€et

35 Main Str€et

20 Mdn Street

46 P,rk lr€

32 ?arklane

30 Park Iae

43 Fist Sheet

37 Fist Str€et

33 First St eet

22 First Street

2l First Street

FFlFl&Fz

trnEtrE

zII&

FFiH

F!r

206 Appr:NDix A Activity worksheets

@ womsrmrr r.6 coMporlllDS: v4rich came Flrst?

which came first?. cell phones-iPods. computer games-Web sites

. laptops-desktops

. e-mail-podcasts

. hard drives-flash drives

. YouTube-search engines

. conference calls-webcams

. heart transplants-live r transplants

. Ilingerprinting- blood typing

WORKSHEET 1.7 \'ERBS AND NOTTNS WITH PREPOSITIONALPREFD(ES: Why Do Women Outlive Men?

women outlive men because th€y experience less work-related str€ss than men.rfomen have a more positive outlook and more practical goals than man

Men are more likely than women to underestimate the dangers of risla behavior

In most societi€s. men oute?rn women and are the main source of farnily income .

(f womsnnnr r.s

1. US is

UK is

3. FBI is

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

CIA is

IRS is

IBM is

UN is

EIA is

DOB is

MO is

ATM is

\{P is

AppENDtx A Activity Wotksheets 2O7

ABBREVIATIONS: IntegfatingPronunciation and Grammar

a. "modus operandi," a Latin tefm used in police work fofthe method a particular criminal uses in his crimes.

b. the tax collecting agency of the United StatesgoYefirment.

c. a sovereign state that includes England, Scotland,lvales,and Northern Ireland.

d. the intelligence gathering agency of the United Stares

goYernment.

e. a machine that giYes cash.

f. the country located between Canada and Mexico.

g. the date and year a person was bom.

h. the police force of the United Stat€s govefllmenr.

i. a "Yery important person."

i. a large producer of computefs and other technology.

k. an international organization that aims to maintainwodd peace and solve wodd problems.

l. the time a flighr is expecled to arrive.

2.

208 AppENDtx A Activity wotksheets

@ womsunnr r.9 srREss wlfir suFFD(ES: wtrat's Presidential?

-iaU-wal

1. presidential

2. intellectual

3. controversial

-ian

4. politician

5. musician

6. academician

chocolate

Yegetable

miserable

beverages

practically

-ical

T.logical

8. identical

9. ecological

-ic

10. id€alistic

11. realistic

12. energetic

evening

federal

separate (adj)

favorite

accidentally

-lty

1 3 . responsibility

14. integdty

1 5 . passivity

-ious/eous

16.luxurious

17. iunbitious

18. courageous

farnily

general

every

cornfortable

awtully

@ womsrmnT 1.104 DrsAppEARrNG SvLLABLES: came

aspfin

tempefature

interest

laboratory

naturally

I

1. What are coffee, tea, sodas, and iuice?2. What's a singular adiective that means "all"?

3. What do you take to get fid of a headache?

4. $fhere do scietrtists work?

5. What's a word for "early night'?6. Your mother, fathef, bfothers, and sisters-what are they?

7. Iphat's a word tha: means "the thing you like best"?

8. Bfoccoli, peas, carrots-what are they?

9. ll(&at's a wofd that means "very"?

1O. What's a word that means "almost"?

AppENDtx A Activity worksheets 2O9

WORIGHEET 1.108 DISAPPEARING SYLI-{BLES: came

lAnss'ers: 1. bevreges; 2. evry; 3. aspran; 4. (in) labr3tories; 5. e\.ning;6. (youf) fafi y; 7. favret; 8. vegtables;9. awfly; 10. practaklyl

1. State government is one leyel of gov€ffrment. What's rhe highest ievel?

2. $fha:'s a s/o:d that means "very unhappy"?

3. What's a word for the money you earn on your sayings?

4. What's an adiective that means the opposite of"together"?

5. What's a word that means the opposite of 'on purpose"?

6. The weather report tells you about this.

7. What's the opposite of"artificia1ly"?

8. What's th€ opposite of"specific"?9. This is ahe traditional candy ofvalentine's Day.

10. This is how your favorite chaif feels.

lAnswers: 1. (the) fedral (level); 2. misreblet 3. intrast; .1. seprat;5. accadently; 6. (th€) temprature; 7. natchraly; 8. genral; 9. choclat;10. comftarbal

21O A?pENDIX A Activity Worksheets

WORKSHEET 1.11 STRESS SWTTCHING: What Happened inthe 199Os?

The 1900s: Name the decade when these events occurred:

1. The Soviet Union launched the first spacecraft (Sputnik 1)-

2. The fiIst Wodd Cup

3. The Gr€at Depression

4. The fust mas$produced automobiles

5. The fust time man walked on the moon

6. v'odd war II

7. Nelson Mandela was elected president of South Africa.

8. The first successfirl human-to-human heart transplant

9. The first diagnosed case of AIDS in the United states

10. The Oil Producing afld Exporting Countries (OPEC) embargo on oil shipmeflts tothe 'West

11. The word robot was first used.

12. The plastic bag was inYented.

ApptNDtx A Activity Worksheets 211

PRESENTING STRESS-TIMED RIIyTTIM: Limericks($ womsrunr z.r

Natural tree line

Apple orchard

The BIRDS aBANdoned the FORest.

They BUIIjI their NESTS in the ORchard.

There once was a man with a beaxd,Who said,"It is just as I feared!Some owlsr and a hen,Some larks2 and a wren,Are building their nests in my beard!"3

towl: a large night bird with big eyes'I-arks and wrenst r''pes of birdsrlimerick bv Edqrard I err

There once was a man with a beard.Who said,"It is iust as I feared!

andda DA d^

NNNN

da DA

da da DAda DA

Are building their nests in my beard!"

2"12 AppENDtx A Activity Warksheets

@ womsurnr 2.4

Matchlng

1. dotrom

2. Web site

3. outsourcing

4. cuttluoat (adj)

5. job market

6. job fair

7. headhunter

8. pink slip

LII\IKING ADJACENT WORDS: JObS

a. an event where businesses looking for new employees can

meet people lookng for iobs

b. an employment agency (usually for well-paid jobs)

c. cyberspace location

d. the practice of hiring employees located in other countries

e. available jobs

i very competitive

g. a notice that youte been laid off

h. technology business

Discusslon

1. What kird of work do you do or are you interested in doirg? How do people findjobs in that area? Do they go to job fairs? Web sites? Headhunters? What's the iobrnarket like in that area?

2. V/hat do you think of outsourcilg? Is outsourcing an issue in your country? How

can it hurt a country? How can it help a country?

Part A: Table MannersThere aren't as many opportunities to practice table manners as there used to be. In theUnited States, most families €at meals together only once or twice a week. Howel'e! onholidays or at dinner pafties, families afld friends still gather rogetfier at the same table toshare a meal. These are occasions when we can show off our table manners-if we canremembef them.

Part B: The Do's and Don'ts of Table MannersMatch pbrases on tbe W ultlr plrra;tes on tlJe liglrt.

@ wonxsuErr 2.6

Don't fight

Don't play

Don't talk

Don't lean

Don't shoot peas

Chew

Put your napkin

Keep your elbows

Don't eat

AppENDtx A Activity Worksheets 213

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: Good Manners

with your hands

on your lap

with your mouth firll

at your brother

at the table

on the table

- with your food

with your mouth closed

off the table

214 ,rr/'rNrrr A Activifl, ltbllsheets

WORKSHEET 2.7 ARTICLES: Food

)

1o -r--.- Xt-_;) ( )

I. ,t:lLrlU ldD

,i.

5i .t\,i

6.

13

14

t5s]L- /-llZ.$$\ l--lu,...:.:,:l [/\:,tr' (

8. 16.

Appf t'iDtx A Aclivity Warkshects 215

'f,

.D?

'gg14. tw,'IE

__'1 ti

216 AppENDtx A Activity Worksheets

S womsrnnr2.9 PHRASAI !'ERBS: Don't Put irff Until TomorrowWhat You Can Do Today

l

I

Ai

B:

A:

B:

\?hat are you reading?

An article about chronic procrastinators.

That sounds like me. I put evertthing ofiNo. Cfuonic procrastination is more serious. Chronic procrastinators put off filingincome taxes, cashing checks, even using gift certificates.

That's like throwjng money away. That's not me.

Yeah. They wind up losing their iobs because no one can put up with them. Theylet down their friends and family-

Speaking about putting things gq, have you made up your mind about going backto school?

No.I'm still up in the air about that.I don't know if I want to trade my iob in forstudent life.

A:

B:

@ womsnrrr 2.10 NorrcrNcuNsrrnssED co{fuNCfioNS:Medical Etlrlcs

Hov/ truth.frI should doctors be (1) they know a patient

is dying, (2) there's no cure? Should they tell the patient

iust his family? What (4) you'd iust heard

your eldedy father had teminal cancer? Would you tell him?

Imagine (6) two people need heart transplants to li.t.e,

there's only one heart a ilable. One person is a father ofthree young children;the other is a conyicted criminal. The convict is a tjttle higher

on the transplant list (8) the father. But is the convict

worthy (10) the father? Who should get

the heart? Who should decide?

How long should patients remain on Iife support (11)

Little hope fof recoyery? In the United States, the parient, thfough his instrucdons or his

family usually determines (12)

should make this decision?

the "plug should be pulled:'Who

DlscusslonHow would you answer these questions? In your country who makes these decisions?

AppENDlx A Activity worksheets 217

(3)

(5)

(7)

(9)

there is

218 AppENDIx A Activity worksheets

1. v4mddaya see?

\I4lerja go?

3. Whatcher name?

4. \Vherdaya wanna go?

5. I'll letcha know rqhen I can come.

6. vftadia see?

7. V4ratcher phone flumber?

8. Whydy ,/waydiy/ come?

9. I wantcha to go.

10. I can readjer mind.

6 womsnnrr3.r

AppENDtx A Activity worksheets 219

HIGHIIGIITING: Breakfast ln the ReaI Wodd

Ordering Breakfast

Waiter: What would you IIKE?,

)C I'll have EGGS.

Waiter: How would you LIKE them?

X: SCRAMBLED, please.

Waiterr Anlrhing ELSE?

X: Just COFFEE, with MILK.

*The waiter might also say,'Are you ready to ORDER?".CaI I iake your ORDER?,,,Ar. you READY?,,

220 /\PP.Ntr,\ A Activiry la/orksheets

WORI$HEET 3.2 CONTR4.STI\'aE STRESS: Wtrich Apartment is Better?

s750/month$)\U/mt'ntn

5-min. walk to campus20-min. bus ride to campus

AppENDtx A Activitv Worksheets 221

FINAI INTONATIONT Minimal Dialogues(9 womsrmnr t.:

Ar Finished?

B: Yes.

,4,: Dinner?

B: Sure.

Ar Italian?

B: No.

Ac Sushi?

B: Yeah.

A,: Where?

B: Tomo's?

A,: OK.

S womsrrnnr 3.7A PARENTHETTCATS: You r.ook Pretty Happy, Luke.

Dialogue 1:

Julian:Luke:

Julian:Luke:

Jullan:Luke:

Dialogae 2z

Julianr

Luke:

Julian:

Luke:

Julianr

Luke:

Jullan:

Luke:

Julian:

222 APPEND:r A Activity Wotkheets

You look pretty happy, Luk€. What happened?

This is from the law school. I got accepted, it says.

Congratulations.

Tharks. Now I'ye got to find a way to pay for it, though.

You'll be up to your eyeballs in debt, you know.

Yeah, but I'll be able to pay it back, I hop€.

How's law school,

It's OK, It's a lot of work,

I'm not suq)rised, The f1lst yeaf's the worst,

All I do is read and memorize,

Have you decided what kind of law you vant to go into?

Public interest law: But I haYen't had time to think

about it, . what brings you arorurd here?

I wondered if I could borrow your car this weekend,

Sure. Where are you going?

Well, Sue loves to hike so we're going hjking. It's an easy hjke,

l

.WORKSHEET 3.7B

NAMES AND FORMS OF A,DDRESS

names

sir, miss

mal-l

EXPRESSIONS TIIAT SHOW YOTIR

EVALUATION

I think

I'm aftaid

I guess

I'm sure

You know

it seems

^PPrNDil A A.lA,/Iv l4/ork-sheels 223

PARENTHETICALS: YOrl LOOK PfCttYHappy, Luke.

REPORTING E)PRESSIONS

it says

they said

she says

they say

DGNXSSIONS OF EXAMPLE

for instancc

lbr example

ancl so on

POLITE E)GRESSIONS

plcasc

thank )'ouif you could

if rhat's oK

ADVERBS

actually

luckil-v, fortunately

unfortunately

thoutih

in fact

224 AppENDtx A Activitv wotksheets

WORKSHEET 3.8 ATTITT]DES A]i[D EMOfiONS:Amblguous Dialogues

Dialogue

A: Let's go for a dfiye.

B: OK, but I have to do something fust.

Situatlons

1. It's an extremely hot and humid sumner day, and A and B, husband and wife, don'thave air conditioning in their apartment or car. They're both exhausted from theheat. They think that maybe the breeze coming in the car windows will make themfeel bette! but they re not very hopeful.

2. B is As motherfather B is teaching A to dfiye. B beli€yes that A is a terrible driverand always dreads helping A practice. A loyes to driye and nevq refuses anopportunity to practice.

3. A and B are newll.weds, very much in love. They're going to one of their favoritespots, a secluded lake whefe they fifst met and f€ll in [oye.

AppENDrx A Activity Worksheets 225

A

B:

woffied. What's the

Alex's parerits tomoffow. They

me to dinner-to their house.

don't like me?

A: V/hy would you thinl tlnt? You and Alex have been talking about

married.You'fe going to have to meet his parents sooner

B! I suppose so.I guess I'd bring a present.

you thifk, some flowefs?

they

(9 woRKsrfiET 4.3 REcocr\[zrNc FrAps

You look

I'rn

226 /\PPEND:r A '1ctir,if l,Vork5heers

WORIGHEET 4.4 SIBIIANTS: How Much OiI?

'' I hc clxlx on oil impor'ts comcs lroln the I J.S. Enerll.i lnfornatiolr Administration for 200.1: the exportintornxti(n reflects 2005 dxle (source: $.\\.$..eia.doe.go\').

..

IMPORTERS MILLIONS OF

BARRELS PER DAYE)(PORTERS MILLIONS OF

BARRELS PER DAY

1. The tlnitedStates

1. Saudi A-rabia

2. Japan t.l 2. Russia 6.7

J. Cl.fna J. Norw.rv

/r. Gefmany 2_5 .i. Iran '2.6

5. Sonth Korea 5. V€nezuela

(r- France 2.O 6. The UnitedArnb Emirates

2.3

7. Ital\' 7. Kuwait

8. Spain r.6 8. Nigeria 2.2

9. Inclia 9. Mexico

'IO. "laiwan 1.0 10. Algctia 1.7

APTEND/.\A A.tiyit!'|l/crrksheefs 227

IMPORTERS MILLIONS OF

BARREIS PER DAYE)(PORTERS MIIIIONS OF

BARREI,S PRR DAY

1. The United

States

11.8 1. Saudi Arabia 8.7

2. Jap^, 2. Russia

3. China 2.9 3. Norway 2.9

4. Germanv 4. Iran

5. South Korea 2.t 5. Venezuela 2.1

6. France 6. The United

Arab Emirates

7. llu'ly t.7 7. Kuwait 2.2

8. Spain 8. Ni{aeria

f. india 1.5 9. Mexico l.B

I O- Taiwan 10. Algeria

*'fhe data on oil imports concs fiom thc U.S. Efleryt Informatior Adn]inistratio[ lbr 200'1; llle cxporrinfolmation rcflects 2005 data (sourcer www.eja.doe.go\').

228 AppENDtx A Activity worksheets

WORKSHEET 4,5 /4/: Present Continuous a'ral -ing

sung

l

S wonxsrrnrf 4.7A pRoNrNcrAfioN oF x..spelling and sounds

Decide how "x" is pronounced in the words below. Write each word under the first, second,or third column below the words.

fL'( expensiye exhibit examine mix exist

Ierox exhibition executive exhausted exam expand

taxes expect execute axiom maximum context

r-&s t4=gz

AppitiDtx A At tivtt'/ Workshee' 229

WORI$HEET 4.78 PRONf]NCIATION OF r.'Spelling and Sounds

1. li. at the beginniflg of a word is prono'rnced /z/ (there are vcry 1ew of these words

in Bnglish).

x€rox xenotl

2. X at the end of a word is pronounced /ks/.

box tax

l. X preceded by a stressed vowel and followcd by another vowel is pronounccd

/ks/.1

exercise (eksercise) raxi (taksi)

4. x followed by a stressed vowel is pronounced /gzl.

exemple(egzample) exdggemte(eg:zaggerntc) ex,ct(egzact)

5. X is pronounced ,/ks/ before most consonants.

explain (eksplair) extinct (ekstinct)

lsome speakers pronounce exl, as "eksitt" while othcrs pronourcc it as 'c€lzit." Some speakers uscboth pronuncilrtions.

230 rpprND/.! ,1 ,l.tir,/r| i1.'orlrheets

WORISHEET 4.8 BEGINNING /t/: The R Game

Diagtatn of /t/

Questiofls for Team A:

l What s th€ opposite of./oryet?

2. V4nt's the opposite of polite?

3. \I{ut's the opposite of urb(Ln?

4. Mix blue with this color to get purple.

5. Befbre TV, pcople listenecl to lhe

6. Wlar are thc Mississippi and rlte Nile?

7. lgl.lat's a synonyrn fot cqrpet?

3. fise a pencil or pen to do this.

Diagran of /r/

Questions for Team B:

1. What s the opposite ()f a,ror?g?

2. \'ouf lrncles. cousins, grandparents, and nephew are yoru _.3. This is a \\''old that neans "fix."

,1. X)u wear this on your lcft hand when )'ou get married.

i. Thls is the top of a building.

6. These flowers are a sign of love.

7. 'l'his yerb means "!ao back."

8. \{&at's th.. oltpositc of to J.tlll

WORKSHEET 4.9

APPENDI{ A Activity Worksheets 231

PRACTICING THE /V-lV CONTRAST: HowDo You Spell Right?

Diagtarn of /U Diagan of /t/

Iight right

Minimal Pairs

light-right

late-rate

long-wrong

low-row

list-wrist

led-red

glass-grass

fly-fry

alive-arrive

play-pray

$ womsrrunr 4.11 RECocMrroN Ar\rD pRoDucrroN oF FrNALCONSONANTS, FINAI CONSONANTCLUSTERS, AND FINAI VOICED CONSONANTS

P?.rt ^l

A

1. beU

3. fax

5. pick

7. thant

9. advise

11. rise

13. bag

15. have

B

belt

faxed

picked

thanked

advice

rice

back

half

A

2. shore

1. dog

6. watch

8. plan

10. pig

12. peas

14. (to) use

16. said

B

short

dogs

watched

plant

pick

piece

(a) use

set

P^rt 2

232 AppENDtx A Activity worksheets

WORIGHEET 4.12 HOW WOT]LD YOU USE 2.7 TRILLIONDOLIARS?

How U.S. Taxpayers' Money was Used tn 2oo7

Social Security payments to current retirees 2O'/.

Medicare (health care for the eldedy) l9o/.

Aid to the poor (Medicaid, food stamps, housing subsidies, etc.) 16%

National debt (interest payments) lo'/o

Military Hometand security 30%

Other (federal highways, medical res€arch, FBI, etc,) a'

This sample shows the fedeial budget for 2007.

VORKSHEET 5.1 /iy/-/t/z Presentlng Pro unclatlon

Diagram of /1y/ ard /r/

@leave /iy/ llve /t/

AppENDtx A Activity Wotksheets 233

WORKSHEET 5.2 /ty/-/r/. How Do you Spell Liae?

Choose minimal pairs for this actiyity that are appropriate for your students'level(B = beginning level; LI = low-intermediat€;I = intemediate; HI = high-interme diate;A = advanced).

"/ eat (B)-it (B)

,,/ seat (Ll)-sit (B)

/ leaye (B)-liye (B)

reach (Ll)-rich @)

feet (B)-fit (LI)

v/ sleep (B)-slip (I)green (B)-grin (I)

reason (B)-risen (I)each (B)-itch (HI)

cheap (B)-chip (I/HI)

steal GD-still (LI)

/least (lD-list (LI)

field (I)-filled (Il)heat (I)-hit (B)

beaten (I)-bitten (I)heaL/heel (I)-hi[ (LI)

seek (I)-sick (B)

beater (I)-birter (I)relieve (I)-relive (I)Pete (I)-pit (HI)

asleep (I)-a slip (HI)

meal (I)-mill (A)

de€p (I)-dip (A)

feast (Hl)-fisr (HI)

seed (Hl)-gdd (A)

peel (A)-pill (LI)

st94

kgy

rhgr

ch94p

m4ny

take

a94n

/€,/ words

feceiYe

eight

b4bv

p99ple

stllS

friend

believe

/eyl ]trords

@ wonxsnrnf S.< /iy/-/ey/-/e/z Sorting Sound And Spelling

brg4k

b94d

breakfast

instead

medicine

says

say

/iyl Words

234 APPENDIr A Activity worksheets

\VORI$HEET 5.5 /e/'/e/; Presenting /e/ (IIad) and/e/ (Ilead)

Diagram of /r/ had artd /e/ head

bad /r./ he^d /E/

WORI$HEET 5'7 /e/, /e/, /a/, AND /o'/ (KEPT'CAP-CUP-CoP):What Bugs You?

Diagram of /e/, /n/, /a/, a'Jld /o/ kept-cap-cup'cop

kept /E/ cap /r/ cnp /a/ cop /o /

WORKSHEET 5.8 /e/ AND /o/: Presenting /a/ a'Jid /o/(Nut-Not)

Diagram of /a/ arl'd /o/ nut, t ot

fi /e/ not /o/

. AppENDtx A Activity WorksheeE 235

WORKSHEET 5.9 /a/: Luck or Sk l?

Quotations about Luck1. "People always call it luck when you'ye acted more sensibly than they have."

(Anne Tyler)

2. "I'm a great believer in luck, and I find the harder I work, the more I have of it:,Cfhomas Jefferson)

3. "1 say luck is when an opportunity comes along, and youte prepared for it.,, (Denzel\vashington)

4. "The only thing that orr'ercomes hard luck is hard work:, (Harry Golden)

5. "Luck always seems to be against the man who depends on it." (authof unlmown)Sou/cei www.quotationspage.com

WORI$HEET 5.13 R-COLORXD VOWEIS: presenthrgR-Colored vowels /st/ (Are), /at/ (Her),and /oil (Or)

Diagram of r

Iip Shapes

her

E npPENDtx B

PROBLEMS OF SELECTED LANGUAGES

On page 10, we list features of English pronunciation thxt are difficult for most students,:egardless of natir,'e-language background. In this appenclix, we describe problems that are]pical of stuclents from sclected nativeLanguage backgrorxlds: Ajabic, Chinese, Irrench,Haitian Creole, Japanesc, Korean, Poftuguese, Russian, South Asian languages, Spanish, Thai,lnd victnamese. Togethcr with the list of common problems on page 10, the information inIhis section car.r be usecl by teachers who want to anticipate the types of pronunciationproblems their students are likely to have. The teacher should also bc awa.re that theproblems described below are q?ical but are not experienced by every native speaker ofrhat language.

ARABICAnbic belongs to the Semitic family of languages, which also includes Hebrew, Ammaic,

and Assydan.It is spoken in Algcria, Bahrain, Chad, Diibouti, Eg)-pt, Eritrea, Iraq, Israel,.lordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, C)man, palestinian territories, eataqSaudi Afibia, Somalia, Sudan, S,yria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Western Sahara, and.l?mert.

aS well as in smitllef communities in othef countries aS a native or second language(L2). Because Arabic is the language of the Koran, many Muslims around the world arefxmili'Jr s\ ith \omc Arabic worcls and phrases.

Moclern Standard Arabic is a "pan Arabic,,dialect used in schools, by journalists, and forollicial purposes (swan and smith 2001, 19i). h addition, there are marry colloquial \.arieticsof spoken Anbic, which can differ substautiau,v from each other. 'l'he problems describeclbelow are comrton to most varieties of A1?bic.

Word StressSince stress placement in Arabic is regular anal predictable, Anbic students may be

unfamiliar with the varied stress placement in Enlalish and misplace stress when the,y speak.Arabic students should be taught predicrable stress associated with clir.sses of English words(begiming on page 30), and new vocabulary of more than one syllable shoul<1 be presentedorally. Arabic str.rdcnts may also be unfarniliaf with tlte English use of stress ro disringuishmeaning ir pairs like a rdcorcl-to rec1rd or Appb-aI)pdll.

Although Arabic and English are both stress-timed languages, unstressed syllables inArabic arc not as shofi relative to stressed syllables as they arc in English, and vo\lel qualiq.,in unstesscd sfllables is not as reduced as it is in English @enrabeh 199j . Zutalq and,serrcno 2007). studerlts should be encouraged to n.rake a greater length distinction bern'eenstrcs.etl rnJ UnstrcsscLl \owcl: (.(c page ,25).

Rhlthm and Ifltonationln connected speech, Arabic students may insefi a glottal stop (the sound separating

the two parts of uboh) trelbre words beliinning with a vowel, creat tg a choppy soundhgrhlthm. Students should prnctice linking final consonants to beginning voweG (seepage 55). Students may also stress more words in uttennces than native speakers would,resulting in oyedy emphatic speech. Students should work with highlighting, focusingemphasis on just one or fwo words in an uttennce (sce page 96). Likewise, students shouldwolk on givinEi less prominence to ftlnction words (see page !0).

237

238 rrrrND/,\ B Prtl:lens ti Stlcctcd lang,uagc's

Consonants1. /p/. h/:Tb,ere is no /p/ in nrost dialccts of Al'abic, so students ma) substitutc

^/ for

/p/. pronouncing wor.ls like I)eople as 'beoble.' Teach stLldenls to pronounce \l'ordsbeginning with the letterr' wilh a puff of xir (aspiration. see page 150)

2. / . /v/tThese arc variaDts of the sanrc sotlnd in Arabic. Focus on Ay' .tt tllebcginnings or i1l the miclclle of$'ords (see palie l21r)

l. /ll,/: ,\mbic has no /!/. so studcots maY substitute /n/ or /\g/ fttt /\/ (.see page 136).

1. /r/:1he /r/ in Artbic is a flaPPcd /1/ ancl students ma\-substitutc this sound for the

/r/ of Erglish. Teach the retroflexed articulation of English /r,/ (see page 141)

5. Consonant clustcrs: In ntost dialects of A1'abic. consooaot clusters do not occuf at

the beginnings of $.(]rds. Studcnts lnay ioscrt vo$'els bcfore or betwccn beginningElrglish cltlstcrs. Pron()uncing a wortl likefToor as if]oor' or "Iiloor" (sce page 15I)Final two membel consonant clusters tlre permittcd. Sttldents should work withpast ancl prcsent el-Idings to practice tjnal chlsters with two of nrore meflbcrs(sce page 159).

6 l/r sounds: These sounds occur in Modetn Standatd Anbic bu1 not in some of thccolbquial languagcs. SOme students havc no problem pronolrncinla the tJ sounds,br.rt others may substitute /t/ or /.1/ fot lhese sounds. a stilimatized pronLrnciation(see pagc 126).

Vowels\. /I/ . /E/: k1\b:1c students mit\' conftlsc these two vowels, prononncilf'g becl llke bid or

vice Yersa lsee pagc 175).

'2. /x/ , /T/ , /a/. /o/: Arabic has only one lo$' 1'owcl. so all of thesc Yowcls ma.v bedifficult fbr stuclenls to pcrccive:rnd prorlollllce (scc palie 178)

orthography'Ihcre is [o similarirr._ bet$-een thc Elrglish ancl Ar.rbic \t'ritinl] systcms, Arabic is written

liom rillht to leli ancl flequeutll omits vowels. E\rn aclvancecl Al'abic stuclents have

difficulty reading aloucl, often halting rtnnaturalh- and transposing letters;these studcntsshould practicc reading aloud.

CHINESEChinesc is ;t collcction ()f languages ard dialccts trnificd b]' a comnon $'riting s1's1c11

The sharetl \vriting s,vstcm allows written Chinese to be understoocl b,v Iitefatc speakers ofall varietics, cven s'hen the spoken varicties are mutualh' uDintelligible (lhincsc is spoken inthe People's Rcpublic of China (Clrina), the Republic ol Chira (Tai$'an), Hong Kong,

Singaporc. \{ala}-sia. Macau, thc Philippincs, Australix. tndonesia, Maurititrs. Peftr, Ciurada, theIlnited St:rtcs, and othcr reliions $'ith Chinesc communities.

There are substanti,tl linguistic clifterenccs betwcen Chinesc, a Sino-'libctan langtlage,'rnd English, an Indo Elrropcan languag;e. one of the most important Phonologicaldillerences betwccn Enlilish and Chincse is the trsc of pitch Chilcse is a tonc language:

an essential part of the pronunciation ol a par(icular worcl is a particuliu lcrel of pitch(or dircction of pitch). Pitch, thcreforc, clistingttishes worcls liom each other' Ilrrexamplc. Chjnese r1li. spoken on a high-level pitch (tonc), means "to hang oversomething;" spoken on a pitch that irlls sharplJ', r/.r mcxns "big.' (Stress iD Elglishpertbrrus tlris frnction in the pair (a) r'cud (to) tec6rel, for e-\arnple.) In English, pitch

AppENDtx B Prcblems of Selected Languages 239

patterns (intonation patterns) occur ovef phrases and utterances, structruing and addingdiscourse meaning.

In this section we focus on two varieties of Chinese: Mandarin and Cantonese. Mandaritis the standard form of spoken Chinese, used in journalism, education, and government.Cantonese is the ofticial language of I-Iong Kong and the mother tongue of many Chinesespeakers overseas. A major phonolotiic;rl difference between Mandarin and Cantonese isrhlthm. Mandarin is a stress-timed language , like English, while Cantoncse is a syllable-timedlanguage. Thc rhltl.rmic dissimilarity betweer.r Cantonese and English makes Englislt rhlthmmofe dilTicult fof Cantoncse speakers than for Mandarin speakers. Most of the otherproblems described below are comnon to both Mandarin and Cantonese.

Word StressMost Chinese words are monosyllabic;as a result, Chinese speakers are likely to lrave

difficulty with stress placement in polysyllabic words (see page 37).

RhythmBecause Cantonese has syllable timed rhlthm, Cantonese snldents may pronounce every

English q'llable with equal length and shess, creating a staccato or choppy eftitct (see Chapter2). Mandafir-speaking srudents have less difliculry with this aspect of English rh).thm.

Linking Adjacent WordsMost Chinese students have difficulty linking adjacent words appropriately. They may add

a vowel after a word that ends in a consonant to separate it from the next word or add anextra sound beforc words that begin with vowels. These ,,separation', strategies make theirEnglish sound choppy (see page 54).

IntonationBecause Chinese is a tone lanfauage, where pitch is an integral pa.rt of each word, Chinese

students may have difficulq'with the English use of pitch and intonation to structure themeanings of phrases, utterances, and discourse. problems with intonation are varied: Studentsmay use high pitch at unexpected places in a discourse, their. intonation mav sounci ovcdyflat, they may overuse falling intonation, or thcy may sound singsong (see Chapter 3).

Consonants1. t sounds: See page 126.

2. /v/, /w/: Chiaese students may sub stitrte /w/ for /v/, pronouncinla rrer1, like.wery',(see page 124).

3. /3/: Chinese students may pronowce /S/ so that LLsuall! sottDds like ,'us'ally', ormeqsure llke ?nayor (see Wge 112).

4. /r/, /w/, /l/: Chin€se students may pronounce riglJt llke u)bite or ligbt. Instructstudents who substitute /w/ for /r/ not to round their lips when they say /r/. t (Tor/r/-/l/, seE page 116.)

5. /l/-/rt/:Some Cantonese speakers substitlrte h/ fot /l/, creating odd,soundingpronunciations like night fot ligllt and vice versa (see page 1441.

tl-ip rounding crcates /w/. Although many narir-e speake$ prcnounce /r/ $,ith lip rounding, a1.l

acceptable /r/ can be produced withour lip rounding. Alter learning ro rerroflex Englisll /t/ (see page141), students who substitute /W for /r/ shoutd be instructed to.keep their lips flat,'when they iay /r/.

24O APTFNDIr B Problems ol Seleclccl I atlgua1es

6. ,4l/: (lhinese studcnts lnav substitutc a Yelar /h/ for Erglish gbttal /h/, prolouncing/h/ with a noisy sound (like the Gernan pronurciation of c,b in Bdcl,) Explain thatEnglish,/h,i is a soft sound,like the sound of heav) bretrthing (see page 140)

7. C(xrsonant clusters: (ihinese cloes not allow collsonant clusters at thc beginnings orcnds of words. Studcnts ma]- simplif,v clusters b)' dcletin!! a consonant (.e.9

'problemsounds like "poblem" or eve[ /poban]/) or bY separating consonants (e !a .2/e4.se

sounds like'palease') (see page 151).

8. Final consonants: Chinese allo$,'s a yery linitccl number rlf finlrl consoralts Final

consonants may bc dcleted, or a vo$'el 1nay be added fter the consonant (see

page 153).

9. Irinal Voicecl stops ancl fricativcs:In addition to the general problelns posed bY final

consonants, Chinese students ma,v "dcvoice final voicecl conson rtrts pronouncingbag ljke b6ck, or lJ like "iss"(see pagc 155)

10. Final ,/1/: Chincsc students often clrop /1,/ xt the end of a word or s)'llable, orpronounce it like /w/ ot /o/ (e.g.. r'rld souncls like ode, ?-nd /lttle sounds like "litto")(sec page 1'14).

11. Final nasals (/n /, /m/, /l / ): ("bfiese stuclents ma-Y omit linal res,ll consonants ancl

ftrsalize preceding vowels (e .g.. uirerr /go rna-r'' sor.lnd like /wJ,/ 1go) (see page 136)'

Vowels1. Frcnt vowels (/r,\'/ rneat, /l/ \llitl, /eJ-/ lltote, /E/ fiet, /E/ /,7171): Chinesc students

confuse most of these vowels and r1eed extensive practice with them Theynray pron()unce st?at as greet (or rice versa) and el'en s4ld as seerl (sec

pages 169- 179).

2.,R,coloreclvowcls:chineseEsLstudenrs$4rofirstlearnedanr-lessvafict-YofEnglishl]aYe a great deal of dillicultv with /r/ colored l'o$'els (sce pa€le 192)

3. /ey/,/^w/,ar.1 /a:'/ before /n/ or /fl7/: Chiftese students may omit the lalideerclings (/w/ or /y,D of tllese voq,'els whe n the-v occlu be fore /n/ or /r1/(e.g., train mav sound like "tren." toz{.", likc /ton/ (ot /t\/),and tlme llke Tou)(sec palie 192).

FRENCHFrench is a Romance language, rclated to SPanish, It,rlian, Poltuguesc. Catalan, and

Romanian. Because English has bornlwed man) s''ords from French, rnany English words

look si iler to French words,which sometimes leads students to use their Frcnchpronunciation in English.

French is spoken iativcly in Francc, Bclgium, S['itzedand. I-uxembourg, tbe \Vest Indies,

Haiti. anal (lar.rada, and as an L2 in man-Y of thc f<rrmer colonies of France The problems

described bekrw are common to lnost varieties of French

wof d StressA major differcncc betw-een Frcnch ancl English lies with $-orcl stless and fhythm. Ffench

words (and phmses) are usually stressecl on the last syllable, wlrich is also p'o'o'nced witha rising pitch;stress placement in English $''ords is much rnore varied Frencl] students

sl.roulJbe taught predictabte places of strcss associated witll classcs of English words(beginning on page 30), and iew vocabulary of morc than one slllable should be Prescntedu."iiy. fr.,

"aaitior.r, because Frcnch is a s_yllable timed language. where the lcngths of stressed

AppENDiX B Problems of Selectec| Languages 241

and unstressed syllables are approximately the same, French-speaking students need to learnto lengthen stresscd syllables (see page 21). Because the qualit_v of unstressed vowels inFrench is not reduced, Ftench students may have difficr ty hearing the short, reducedvowels of unstressed s,vllables in English.

Rhlthm and IntonationFrench-speaking students need to learn to make sfessLength distinctions between

content and frmction words (see page 50). They also have dilficulty recognizirg the reducedpronunciations of fttnction words.

Consonants1. t sounds:These sounds do not exist in Frencll. French-speaking students may

substitute several sounds for the th so:und,st /s/ or /z/ (preferred by students fromFmnce), and /t/ or /d/ (preferred by French Canadians). Swan and Smith (2OOl)report that /f/-/v/ slrbstitutions also occur (sce page 126).

2. /t[/, /d3/:'lhese consonants do not cxist in lrench. French-speaking students maysubstitute /t ior /tf, pronouncing che.tp llke sheep. for example, and /3/ for /d3/,pronouncingJu./ge like "zhuzh" (see page 132).

3. frt/:-lLle letter/, is nct-er pronounced in French. French-speaking students may dropEnglish /h/ when it should be pronounced (for example. pronouncing DearrT as"'eaq'"). Ol1ce they leafn that A,/ is pronounced in English, they may add /h/ towords beginning with vowels (for example, pronouncing aluays ltke bqllu'als).

4. /r/:French /t/,pronounced witl.r the back of thc tongue, may be substitut€d forEnglish retroflexed /r/, which is pronounced wirh th€ front of the tongue (seePage 711L).

Vowels1. /iy/, /l/.See page 169.

2. /a/, /o/, /a/tFrcnch-speaking students often confuse these vowels (sec page l7g).

HAITIAN CREOIIHaitian Creole is an official languagc of Haiti (together with French) and is also spoken by

Haitian emigrants living in the Ilnited States, Canacla, and otl]er Caribbean. CentralAmerican, and South American countries. Haitian Creole is a mixtlue primarily of Frenchand West Afiican lanlllrages, but also has influences liom Central African lanliuages,Portuguese, Spanish, and English.

Word StressIn Haitian Creole, as in French, the last svllable of a wofd or. phrase is stfessed, a pattern

which can interfere with irtelligibility and be disrracting to listeners (pclez-Applc 2001).Teachers should point out the differcnt stress patterns of English word classes (beginningon page 30) and introduce new vocabulary orally, emphasizing the sffessed syllables. HaitianCreole speakers sl]ould also be instructed to lengthen stressed vowels.

Rh]-thm and IntonationHaitian Creole speakers may transfer their native language pattern of stresshg the last

syllable of a phrase and pronouncing it on a higher pitch into English. This pattern disruptsexpected English rh]-thm and intonation patterns. Haitian Creole spcakcrs should work withhighlighting (see page 96) and with final intonation patrerns (sce page lO0).

242 ApprNir/,\ B Prohlcns ai sele(led t anguaies

Consonants1. t sounds: Scc page 126.

2. /t/.ln Haitiai (lreole, thc letter / is prollonDced /\ry' before back vo$'els (forcxalnple, /uw/ an<1 /ow, and elsewhere like a French /r/ (see Frcnch. Page 240).Stuclcnts should lbcus on the retroflcxed plomnlciation of English /r/ (sce page 141)

J. /n/rln final position, /n/ rua] be olrittccl and pronotrllced as a nasalization of the

lrrc<rrling \o\\'cl {\cc P.lgc lto'Vowels

l. /i\'/. /\/: Sec Page 169.

2. /e/, /J/, /o/:Tbcse arc new Yo\lrels tbr Haitiao Creolc speakers (see pagc 178)

JAPANESEJapallesc may be related to Korc.rn and lllso to Mongolian. Manchurian, and'I'urkish lt

diflers liom English in almost all linguistic irspects.

Word StressJapancse js a pitch accent language:pitch placemcnt, rather than stress as in English, can

diiltrcntiate one word fiom anotherJapanesc stLrdents need to learn to lengthen stressecl

vowels. Ilnaccented syllables in Japanese worcls are not s'eakencd as the,Y are in Englislt (by

shortcning thc sylhble and reducing the yowel), and Japanesc students need practice inhearing and proclucing the short, redtrced s-vllables of English (see page 25)

Rhlthm and IntonatioflJ;ipanese studcnts tend to prollounce all words $'ith equal prominencc and necd practice

using pitch to highlight ne$'or important information (sce pagc 96) Ttre)-may also haye

difliculty recognizinll tlte reduced pronullciatiolls of nrnction worcls like cdn of at (see

pagc 72).Because D)ost sl'llables in.Japanese crcl in vo$'cls,Japanese students have difficulry

linking Enlilish words that clrd in consonants to fbllo$'il]€l words (see pagc 5'1).

Japarcse students also have di1ncult]' learning English intonation; thcir pitch range

sometines souncls too flat, and pitch changes fla,v scen too abrupt They maY also beunfamiliar s'ith the use of intonatiol-r to strtlcturc meaninla and discolrrse in English; in

Japan€se. particles and adverbials Perfornl some of the discourse ftuctions (e.9 ,

distinguishinEi ne$'frorn gil'en ifformation) that intonation does in English Japanesestudents should ltave ample pr.rctice listening to English inlonation as it occufs in autllenticspcccb to gain a better understandinll of its discoursc functions (see Chapter l)

Consoflantsl. /t/. /l/:Th.. Dnglish /r,/-/l/ contrasl is one of the most clifficult firrJapancse speakers

to learn. Their mispronunciiltions of /t/ aliLd /l/ are stereotl'pecl (e g ."flied lice")' and

.lapanese students are yeflr concerl]ed abolrt leiuilin!l to prollollnce the two sounds'

The.Japarcse coLrlltcrpart to tsnglish /t/ an(l /V is describcd as a flap collsonalrt'similar to the North American English (NAE) pronunciation of t in zrrrlelPerceptually, English /r/ may sound more dilTerent from its.Japanese counterpartthan /1/.leachers shollld tcach the articulation ol /r/ and /l/ and Provide amplepractice with botll sounds (See pagcs 1/+l-117).

2. /D sounds: See page 126.

AppENDtx B Problems of Selected Lanfluages 243

3. /wu/:Japanese students have difficulry pronouncing the,/w/ in /wu/,as in uouldrnd uoman (see the error correction techoiques on page 149).

1t. /v/:Jap^nese does not have a /v/ sound. Students ma], substitute /b/ or a voicedbilabial fricative (,ip, where the lips are almost closcd as the air passes betweenthem). (See page 12.i.)

5. /s/, /[/, /7,/: ln Japanese, /s/ is pronounced /l/ before /i/, and learners may transferthis pronunciation into English words, pronouncing see lile ,!re for example; withthe word c/41 this pfonunciation can be very embarmssing (see pages 132 and 135).Japanese /7./ is pronounced like /dzl before /i/, ancl Japancse students may transferthis pronunciation into words like museutt or zlppex A similar phenomenonoccurs with Japanese /t/ before /t/,which is pronounced /{/ (like the clr 1.n cheap).In ESI- settings, the mispfonunciadon of /ti/ as /tfi/ d:\s ppears quickly, whileproblems with words like sce are more persistent.

6. /y/:In the word lcar; where /]y' is followed by a high front vowel,Japanese studenrsmay omit /y/, pronouncing J.,ea,, like ear (.see pa.ge 149).

7. /h/ before h/tJapanese stude nts may substitute an /f/-like sound for /h/ when itoccurs before the vo\r'el /u/, so tlrLJt ubo. for ex,.ntple. sounds like "foo."

8. Consonant clustefs:Japanes€ allows very few consonant clustefs. Beginning studentsmay add separating vowels between tl-re consonants in a clustef, pronouncing grrrstfor example, lile "gurass" (see page i51).

9. Final consonants. Final consonants (except for a nasal) are not permifted inJapancse. Students may drop filal consonants or adcl a short vowel alter a finalconsonant (see pa€ie 15J).

Vowels1. /er/:Japanese str.rclents have persistent problems pronouncing /arl, often

pronouncing zr.,o/ft, for example,like ualk td vlce versa. They should work bothon /ar/ and on the contrast of /a/ ard /o/ (ot /a/ and /J/, depending on theteacher's dialect). (See page 192.)

2. /a/, /o/, /E/:Jrtpanesc students confuse ,/a,/ and /o/, using almost the samepronunciation for words like n,/t and l?ot Tl]ey may also confuse /e/ with /a/ or/e/ with /o/.

KORNANKorean may be an isolate (not linguistically related to any other language), part of

the Ural-Altaic family (Tr.rrkish, Mongolian, and others), or related to Japanese. MostKorean speakers live on the Korean pcninsula or surrounding islands, or in smallercommunities abroad.

vord StressKorean does not have word stress. The tirst syllable of a wotd in a phrase is often

pfonounced on a higher pitch, to function as a phrase boundary markef, but otherwise,syllables are more nearly equal in length, loudness, and pitch. Korean-speakinli students,thefefore, nccd to learn to lengthen stressed s1'llables il English (see page 21).

Rhythm and IntoflationThe use of suprase€imentals in Korean and English is very different. Korean students

benefit from practice with English rhlthm and intonatiolt.

244 App[Nu/{ B Pft)blems al selected Lanluages

Korean is usuall] classified as a sl'lhble-timed language, ancl Korean srudents shoulcl betaught to make lergth distirctions between contcnt and function $'ords in English (sec

pagc 50).Korean students may need instruction on th€ use of pitcll to highlight inportant words in

discourse, a ftrnction which is accomplished in Korean b-y adding x suffl\ or ending. Thc,Y

may also use high pitch on the first word of a phrasc, creating an odd-sounding intonation.Korean students may also speak Enlilish with an overlv narroN'pitch ranlie. naking then1sound uninterested or botecl.

Consonants1. tD sounds:See page 126.

2. /p/,/ -, /v/:There is no /b/,/f/,orlv/in K(xean Korean students need to lcarn thearticulation of these sounds (see page 12.1).

3. Voiced stops:Kore;Ln has voiceless aspirated stops and voiceless ur.Iaspirated stopsKorean learners ma1-have problcms producing and llearing tlle loiced stoPs ofEnglish, especially ir1 the middle or at thc ends of rvords (see page 155).

1. /s/,[/:lnKore \./s/ af'd /f/ arc yariants of the same sound.4,/ occurs bcfore higl)and mid-front vowels (as in s€e and sa1), ?:nd /s/ occuts elscwhere. Korean studentsmay pronounce words lik€ see as -sre and need practice pronouncing /s/ belbrethese vowels (see page 135).

5. /7,/:voiced, /z/ (as In zoo) aloes not occru in Korean. Korean students may substitute/dz/,/d3/,ot B/ for /z/ in words lLke museutn ald result (see page 131).

6. h/, /l/:Thesc two English sounds are variants of the same sound in Kore,rn. Koreanstudents may substitute /1,/ fbr beginnjnla /r/, pronouncirg rigbl. for example, likeligtJl, and, h/ for /l/ b€tween vowels, pronouncing collectillg, tbr example. likecorrecliug (:ee !)agc l4t)).

7. Fhal /t[/, /d3/,4'/,and /3/:Kore^n stlrdents may add a sh()rt /i/ vowel whcn theseconsonants end words, pronOunci:ng uhich, for example , Iike "whicl4 " or.larlge like"iuclg_y" (see page 131).

Vowels1. /iy/, /IL See page 169.

2. /at/: Korean students have persistent problems Pronouncing /Jrl, olien pronouncingttork likc ualk i\tLI vice versa. The)' should work both on the /arl and on tllccontrast ofla/ and /c/ (ot /e/

^nd /J/, depending on the teacher's dialect). (See

pages 192 ancl 180.)

3. /€/, /e/tKorc^n lacks /a/, so students tcnd to sobstitute /E/ for this vowel,pronouncing bod so tbat it sounds close to bed, for example. Sttldents shouldbe instructed to open their nouths more when the,Y say words with /ze/ (see

pJge 1 lr ).

PORTUGI.,IESEPortr.rguesc is a Rornance language closely related to Spanish. There are two major

varieties of Portuguese: European Portuguese (EP) and Brazilian Portuguese (BP)

European Poftuguese has stress-timed rhythm, like English, while Brazilian Portlrguesebas syllable-timed rh)'thm.

AppENDtX B prablems oi Selected Languales 245

Word StressStress placement in portuguese is very regulat so str.ldents may have difficulty with the

\-aried placement of stress in English. students should become familiar with word classesIhat have predictable stress, and new vocabulary should be presented orally, with thcstressed syllables emphasized (see pages 30-3g).

Because BP is a syllable-timed language, Bp students may pronounce unstressed syllables$,'ith too much length. Ep students may pronounce unstfessed syllables too weakly and maynced to gi\c them more prominence.

Ithlthrn and IntonationtsP stud-ents may have difficulty perceiying the reduced function words of English and

may give function words too muclt prominence in sp€aking (see page 72).In Portuguese, fbcus words (highlighred words) teld to be ptaied at the end of a

sentence, so Portuguese students may harve difficulty perceiving and producing higltlightedwords in non-final positions (see page 96).

Consonaflts1. Final ,/l/: Portuglrese students may pronounce /4/ after vowels as /w/ or /u/; for

example,people may sound like ,,peopu" (see page 144).2. Final nasal consonants /m, n, r]l: Final nasal consonants in words like soz e an(l sun

may be omitted and the preceding vowel nasalized;soze may be pronounced /se/(sce page 138).

3. /tl/, /d3/:Ep lacks rhese consonants. /tfl may be pro noltnced, [/ (.e.g., che4p sourdsbke sbeep), a.nd. /d3l may be proflou niecl 13/ G.g-iust n.ny bd pron-ouncei,,zhust,,).(See page 135.)

4. t sounds: See page 126.

5. /s/ + consonant clusters: portuguese speakers may add a vowel befbre,/s/ +consonant clusters, pronouncing steam, for example, like esteem (see p^ge 151.).

6. Final consonants: Fewer nnal consonants are permitted in portugu€se than inEnglish. Portuguese studer.rts may drop final consonants or weakin them. makingthem hard to heal or they may add a vowel after final consonanrs (see page 1i3).

VowelsI . /iy/ , A/ . See page 169 .

2. /E/, /e/,/a/,/o/:See page 178.

3. Unstressed final vowels: Unstressed final vowels may be prono'nced so *.eakh-thatthel secm to hc omiltcd.

RUSSIAN

_ Russian is a Slavic language, part of the family of Indo_European languages, of whichEnglish is also a member.

Word StressStress placement in Russian is varied, as it is in English. Russian students mav nor

sufficiently lengthen Engrish stressed syllabres and shourd work on trre English lengthdistinction between stressed and unstressed vowels (see pages 21_27). Thiy shoLrl-d alsolearn to pronounce vowels with secondary stress with morJ length.

246 AppLi'it)tx B Pft)blems oi Sele( t--d L,lnguagcs

Rhlrhm and IntonationRussian students appear to givc ncarl,v equal stress to content 1lnd ftlnction words. They

should \\.()rk on lengthening the stressed syllablcs of content \\,ords and shortening thosc offtrnction words (see page 50).

In Russian. final consonants are morc forcefull,v articulated than they are in Enfilish. wllenthis is ca1-ricd over into English. Russian speakers may sccm to be aclclitrg a short vowel tothe ends of \\'ofds cndirlll io consonants, especialll stop consonants. Russian speakingstudcnts benetit frorl $rork on linking adjaceDt wo|ds and kecping final consonants short(sce prge 5,1).

In lltrssi:rn,Jre.r-ro qucstioDs end with a sharp rise fbllos'ed bl' a stecp fall. Thc use offalling illtonation on jrcs"/ro questions can sound ulfricndl,v or rucle? (see Page 101).

Consonants1. tJ soun(lsi See page 1 26.

2. /w /. /v/:'lhcse l rc not separate sounds in Russian, so Russi.rn students haveclifficulq' distinguishing between them; ,rr"l, 1'or example, ma) be pronounced .,etand \'ice versa (sec page 12,1).

a. /\/: /\/ (the final sound in arltg) clees not occur in Russian. Russian students maysubstitutc /n/ (pror]oLl1lcin!! ?.r,/rg like uii?t). /lg/ (pronoLtncing sl[g with a "hard g"at thc end), or even /g/ (pronouncing u'itlg llke arrg). (Sce page 116.)

l. (lonsonants beforc front vowels (/i]', I. cl', €,8/) a\\d /ar/ (as in./ir'.st): Russiancortmsts "palatalizcd" or "soft" consonants \\'ith unpalatalizeal or "hard"consonants ($'ith palatalized consonants, the middle part of the tongue risestoward the hard palate). When speaking Englisb, Russiltn students maypalatalizc Erlglish consonants which occur before front vowels. Sometimes thispronunciatior sounds xs though a /!y' sound has been added aftcr the consonant(c.g., dee\ ma,v sound like 'd-vcep"), in other cases, the consonant ma,v souncl likea diffcrent sou]nd (deep n]a-y sound like "dzeep" or cvcr' Jeep). Students are oftenunaware that they are palatalizing English consonants and thc error shor.rld bepointed out to the!n.Instruct students to use the "hard" Russian equivalents whenpronouncin!! Englislt consonants.

5. /h/;Russian students may substitute a velar /h/ for English glottal /h/, pronouncing/h/ with a noisy souncl like the (ierman pronunciation of c/:, in Baclr. Explain thatElrlilish ,/h/ is a soft sound.like thc sound of hcavy breathing (see page 140).

6. /r/: Rnssians ma), substitutc a rollecl /r/ for English retrol'lex,/r/ (scc page l'il).Vowels

1. Russian lacks tlrc tense-lax vos,'el conffast of Englisl]: /iy/-fi/, /ct'/'/e/ xnd /v"\/-/1J/.Russian stlrdcnts' pronunciation of the tensc vowels maY sound too short orclil)pccl. Students should focLrs on pronolrncinla thc glidc cnding of thesc vo\r'els(see pages 169-17i and lti3):rnd o{r lengthening sttessed vowels generall)'.

/Jrl: 'l his vo\r'el sound is particularl] difficult fbr liussian students, whomx)' pronounce rff ltke flur or.feqr (see page 192). English v-ords spclled

rIt should be notcd that 1lative'Eoglish spexkcrs use fal'ing intonation F'ith some types ofJ]e.s-roquestiors (see pagc 101).

AppE.\Dtx B Ptoblems of Selected Lanlua+es 247

u,o/ + consonant (e.9., uord, uork, worlcl, worth) are particularly difficult (seepage 194).

3. /t/, /e/:Rttssiar lacks /a/,so students tend to substitute ,/t/ 1br tlis vowel,pronouncing Zra4 1br example, so that it sounds close to bed (see page 176).

SOI]TH ASIAN IA.NGUAGES: HINDI, URDU, BENGALI' PLIryABIHirdi, Urdu, Bengali and Punjabi are languages spoken in lndia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and

other areas of south Asia. They are members of the kldo-Aryan family of Indo-Eulopeanlanguages. A characteristic accent feature for speakcrs of these languages is the retroflexedpronunciation of English /t/ ard /d/ (the tip of the tongue turns up and back whenpronouncing /t/ and /dD. Another source of accent is intonation. which has a singsongeffect when transfirrrcd into Entilish.

Indian English is a dial€ct of English spoken mostl,v as an L2 in South Asia but b)' sonle as

a first language (L1). The dialect developed durirg the tsritish colonial period, and itspronunciation has been influenced by the indigenous languages of the ;Lrea. Teachers shouldbe sensitive to the fact that Indian English speakers may feel that their pronunciationreflects a different dialect of English rather than a foreign accent.

Given the largc areas in which thcse languages are spoken, tltere is a great deal of dialectvariation in each of these lan{auages, as well as across languages.

Word StressIn English the stressed s]'llable of a word is usually pronounced on a high pitch.In Hindi

and Urdu, the stressed syllable bcgins on a low note and then rises. Carricd oYer intoEnglish, this pattern may sound as though stress has been misplaced and will also contributeto a singsong effect. \Vord stress in Hindi, tlrdu. tsengali, and Punjabi is not contnstive as it isin English, so students may be unianiliar with the use of stress to distinguish pairs like (a)rdcord-(to) reca.,rd. ln H\r.di, a.nd Urdu, word stress is regulaq which creates difficulty withcorrect stress placement in En[ilish. Students should be taught the placement of stress indifferent classes of English words (see pages 30-3{J), and new vocabulary of more than onesyllable shoulcl be presented orall-v. Students should also learn to pronouncc stressedsyllables with greater length tlnn unstressed sl'llables (sce page 21).

Rhythm and IntoflationHindi, tlrdu, Bengali, and Punjabi are syllable-timed languages, so students ma-Y have

difficulty recognizing the reduced pronunciations of furtction words (see page 72). lnllengali,les-no question end with tallhg intonation; the use of falling intonation withEnglish iues-zo questions may make the speaker seem mde (see page 101).

Consonants'1. /t/, /d/:Hindi,Urdu, Bengali, and Punjabi have si-x to eight t/d sounds, whercas

English has two. Native speakers of these languages often substitute theirretroflexed /t/ and ,/d,/ for English alveolar /t/

^t'td /d/ (.for a retroflexed /t/, the tip of

the tongue turns up and back and the underside of the tongue makes contact withthe top of the mouth).

2. /,1: sounds. See page 126.

3. /p/, /t/, /k/:Native speakers of Hindi, urdu, Bengali and Puniabi nlay not pronounce/p/, /t/,or /k/ with enough aspiration beforc stressed vowels;for example,ptg maysourld like big, tie like .lie, and come like g&t ? (see page 150).

248 APPENDII B Problems oi Selectecl Languages

).

6.

/w/. /v/:Tilere is only one consonant that corresponds to English '/w/ and /v/ inHinJl, ttrdu, eengali, and Puniabi, so students often confttse pairs like uet and aet

(see pagc 124).

Consonant clusters; Students may insert vowels to make unfamiliar consonant

llusters easier to manalie; for example ,.sllp may be pronounced "silip" or "islip" (see

page 151).

Final consonant clustefs: Students may omit the final consonant of a clllste\ mixed

for example, may be pronounced mlJr (see page 153)'

Vowels1 . /€/ , /e / : Sludents may substitute /€/ for /a/, Pronoun cirrg bdd llke bed' fot example

(see page 176).

2. /eyl: Students may pronounce this as a pure vowcl /e/ (see page 173)

SPANISHSpanish is a Romance language, closet)-rel3tcd to Portugues€ Spanisll is spoken in many

corirtrics ancl thcre is substantial diatecr l ariJtion. Tht problems described below are

coflrmo1l to speakers of most varieties of SPanish

word Stress' ifta fngfith, Sp^nish uses worcl stress to contrast meanings (e'g

' amo /emol' meaning "I

lovc" versr.rs am6 /ffi6/, meaning "he loved") However' stress placement in Spanish is much

iore .egular than in English, ancl irregulirr stress Placemcnt is marked orthogmphicall-v'

;;;;-t"rd";,. ;"y -is.t..ss th. second worcl ol compounds llke Siruriend xnd

bolfriend (see P ge 33).iit. rnori syliable-timed languages, Spanish stressed and unstressed vowels do not differ

gr.",ly ii; length, as they do in En;lish ln lddition, Sp;rnish does not rcduc€ th€ r'owel

[""ri( "rr.ttiit.*etl vowels, so Sfanish studelts nmy bxse their pronunciation of

Joriii"r.a lto*.rt on spanish spilling-sound correspondences (see page 25)

Rh]-thrn and Intonationlianish-speaking students may not pronounc€ highlighted words with enough

prominence and may pronounce ftlnc'tion words with too much prominence They may also

ilave difficulty highligirting content words that occur toe'ard the beginning of a sentence

(see pages 96, 98 and 72).' if]'. io. of iinal rising ancl falling intonation with s€ntence rypes is very similar in Spanish

and fnglish. The range -of intonation in Spanish, however, is narrower than in EngLish' ancl

the traisfer of Spaniih pitch range into cnglish nlay make Spanish srlrdenis sound bored

or disinterested.

Coflsonants1. t sounds:The Preferrecl substitution for thcse English sounds is /t/ ot /d/'a

stigmatized pr;unciation in English (see page 126)'

2. /b/, /v/:ln Spanish ,/b/ and /v,/ are variants of the same sound' so Spanish students-

-"y' p..r,1o.t,r." l)er! ltke bert'J) afrd hobbr- a little like "howy" (see page 124')'

3. /t[/, /l/: Stu<]enrs may pronounce muclt (/tl/) like mush (4D This is a stereotyp€d'

pion ,-n.i"tiotl -hicir shoultl be ad<lressed (see page 131). tugentinean students may

ir.rake the rel'erse substitution, p{onouncin!! 'tl'eep like cheap'

AppENDtx B Problerns of Selected Languages 249

4. /y/, /d3/: Sp"\'tish-speaking students may substitute /d3/ tbr /y/, pronouncing.llLles like

/ess', a stereotyped promrnciation (see pag€ 149).

5. /s/, /z/.Ifi most varieties of Spanish,,/2,/ is a l'ariant of /s/, occurring only beforevoicecl consonants. spanish students rnay pronounce Ia4/ like loc! or He is astudent hke "lf.e iss a student." Speakers of Castilian Spanish may pronounce theletter z as ,/e/ (see page 155).

6. /f/: Spanish stuclents may substitute a tapped or trilled /r/ for English retroflex,/r/This iubstitution disappears rather quickl-v in ESL settings (see page 141).

7. /s/ + consonant clusters: Consonant clusters be[iinning with /s/, as in stdte or special,

are not permitted in Spanish. Students oftcn add a short /e/ vowel at the beginning ofthe clustet pronouncing st lle like estdte, and special lite "especial" (s€e page 151)'

8. Final consonants: Because Spanish permits few final consonants and consonant

clusters, Spanish students may drop final consonants in English words (see page 153)'

9. Final nasal consonarlts /n/, /m/, and /r)l: Students may substitute final nasals for each

other. Final /m/ especially may be replaced with final /n/ or /!/, or even vowelflasalization (e.g.,someone sotLncls lite "sungwung") (see page 1]6 )

10. Regular past tense:spanish stuclents may ovcrgcneralize the /ad/ pronunciation ofthe -ed endlng in verbs, pronouncing words like listened a\d ansu)e7'ed as "listen-ed"

and "answer-ed" (see page 159).

Vowels and SpellingBecause of the spelling irregularities of English vowels, spanish stlrdents need 1(] be aware

of both the reg'lai sound-spelling corfespondences in English and the unusual spellings ofvowels (see Chapter 5).

THAIThai, a member of the Tai family of languages, is the national language of Tl.Eiland

Althor.rgh th€re are important regional varieties of Thai, Central Thai (also the language

spoken by most people in tsangkok) is considered the standard \?riety

Word StressMisplaccd word stress is an important source of efrors for Thai-speaking students who

tenci tb stress the last syllable of English words. Teachers should present classes of words

wh€re stress is predictable and present new vocabulary orall]', emphasizin!! the stressed

sytlables. Thai si'dents, wh' tend to pfonounce stressed and unstressed syllables with equal

length and stress, should also practice lengthening stressed vowels (see Chapter 1)'

Rhlthm and IntonationTirai students olten insert a glottal stop (the sounal separating the two parts of uh-ob)

before rvords beginning with aYowel, creating a choppy sounding rhlthm Students shouldpractice linking words enciing in final consonants to words beginning with vowels (see

bage 55). Stuclents sho.ld also practice lengthening the stressed syllables of content words.'

in Thai, a tone lang'age witli mostly monosyllabic words, the '.rain

function of pitch is to

distinguish one s/ofd liom anothef. Thai uses sentence linal particles to express politeness

and iiieractional functions which are oftcn conveyed in English by intonation. Beca.se they

are unfamiliar with the use and meanillg of English intonation, Tl.ni students sometimes

sound abrupt. 'Ieachers should provide students with opportunities to listen to English incontext and call attention to its functions (see Chapter 3).

250 AppENDtx B Ptoblems of Selected Languagcs

Consonants1. tl, sounds: Thai students often substitute /t/ ot /d/ fot tlTese sounds. which are

stigmatized pronunciations (see page 126).

2. /l/, /(B/:These consonants do not exist in Thai. At tlte beginninll of a word, 'I'haistudents nray substitute /tl/ fot /l/ and ,/dsl, pronouncing srlp like chip or Jeep Llkecheap. At the end ofa word,[/ and /d3/ may be pronounced /t/ (e.g., rr.,rs, soundsli]de ui\ and age sounds likc dte). (See crror correction techniques fbr sibllants onpag€ 135.)

3. /gJ:yoiced /gJ ls not a Thai consonant and may be pronounced as /k/ (e.g.,g4mesounds lite c,7nx e). Students should practice voiced voiceless minimal pairs likcgame-came, goat-coa, and gum-con1e (see page 155).

.{. A'l:Thai students often substitute /v{/ for /v/. prono\ncing r]€st like u)est (seepage 124).

5. /r/, /l/:In spoken Thal, h/ is being replaced by /l/ , ttn<1 stlrdents may substittfte /l/ fot,/r/ in English (see pages 141-147).

6. /s/+coosonant clusters:Thai students nlay add a vowel to separate the consonants,pronouncing .s/eep, for example, as sdleep (sce page 151).

7. Beginninla clusters: Thai students may deletc the second consonant in the clustcr;p/at sounds like 2 ay, antJ glass sounds like gas (see page 151).

8. Final consonants: Thai students may drop or change final consonants. f'hey necdboth focused pronunciation work on prol.rouncing final consonants and frequentcorrection of linal consonant errors. fhc,v should also work on final consonants inthe context of linking adjacent words (see pages 54 and 153).

VowelsL /ey/ ."fhai students often substitute a pure 1'owel /e/ or /€/ for /eyl, proneuncing

bait like bet. Enphasize the Eilide ending of,/e)y' (see page i73).2. /e/:This is anew vowel for Thai students, who often substitute /s/,e.g.,bad sounds

like Z2ed (see page 176).

3. ,?-colored vowels:See page 192.

\IIETNAMESEVietnamese is a member of the Austroasiatic language family, spoken primarily in Vietnam

but also within communities in the tJnited States, Australia, xnd other countries.

wofd StressMost Vietnamese words are rnonos,vllables. As a result, Vietnamese students haI'e clifficult_y

with stress placement in polysyllabic words.In addition to learning about word classeswhere English stress is predictable, new vocabulary should be presented orallv (see pages

3o- 38). Vietnamese students should also be taught to make length distinctions bet$-eenstressed and unstressed syllables (see pages 21 27).

Rhlthrn and IntonationBecause Vietnamese stlrdents often gi\''e equal prominencc to all syllables, their English

rhlthm may sound staccato. They should be instructed to make length distinctions betrveeilstressed content words and unstressed function words (see page 50).

ApptNDtx B Problens ol Selected Lanluages 251

Vietnamese students should also practice linking words ending in final consonants toboth following vowels and following consonants (see page 54).

A primary function of pitch in Vietnamese, a tone language, is to differentiate words,rather than to structure discourse meanin!1. As a result, students need pmctice listening toEnglish intonation in contextualized speech to learn the discourse meanings structured bypitch. Students should work with highlighting imporrant words (see page 96) and finalintonation patterns (see page 100).

Consonants1. Final consonants: English final consonants are a majer source of pronunciation

errors forVietnamese students. A linited number offinal consonants (/p,t,k/) arepermitted in Vietnamese, but they tend to be pronounced very weakly. Finalfricatives (e.g., /f/ and /s, are not permitted inVietnamese. When speaking English,Vietnamese students often appeaf to omit final consonants (.e.g.,bank card maysound like "bah kah"). Both focused promrnciation work on final consonants andfrequent error correction are useful (see page 153).

2. Final voiced and yoiceless stops: Final voiced stops (^, d, g, are not permitted inVietnamese. Sh.ldents should practice lengthening the vowels prececling Englisl.rvoiced stops (see page 155).

3. Final sibilants /s,l tf:These consonants in final position are a source of manyproblems. Students may substitute /t for final /tt, prono djacing catclr L]ldie casb, forexample. Sometimes /t is substituted for finaI /s/ (e.g., krss sounds like "kish")(see page 131).

4. Beginfling /p/: /p/ does not occur in begtuning position inVietnamese Q)et, forexample, may sound like ,er). Students should be instructcd to pronounce wordsspelled $.ith beginningp with a puff of air (see page 150).

5. t sounds:Vietnamese studenrs usually substitute /t/ or /d/ for the t/? sounds, astigmatized pronunciation (see page 12ar).

6. Consonant clusters: Consonant clustefs afe not pefmitted invi€tnamese, so studentsmay omit one or more members of a clusterj for example, green may sound like"geen;'and street may sound like "seat" or "steat" (see page 151).

7. Letter Jc.'Vietnamese uses a modified Roman alphabet and the letter r in ispronounced as /s/.Vietnamese students' pronunciation of words like expldin as"esplain" or "espain" may reflect both transfer of the Vietnamese letter-soundcorrespondence of tr and difficulty with consonant clusters (see page 139).

Vowels

2.

I Tenselax vowels: Although Vietnamese has a complex vowel system, it does notdistinguish vowels on the basis of tenseness, so pairs like sedt-.r/, are difficult forstudcnts to pronounce (see pages 169, 173, and 183).

/e/, /E/: /e/ is not a vowel inVictnamese, so students may substittte /e/ for /E/,pronouncing b.td, for example, so that it sounds like bed (see page 176).

SUFFIXES AND ASSOCIATED STRESS PATTERNS

-ee employee, trainee, en{aineer, career, volunteerException: cornmittee , c6ff€e

Chirese, Japanese, Portuguese

-ain (uerbs onb)) enteftain, maintain, obtain

cassette, kitchenetteExcef) tion.

'tiqLtette-esque/ique: picturesque.grotesque,antique,unique,techniquc

millionaire, doctrinaire, billionaire

-i?'U-cia'l/'sial/-tiav-ual

trivial, presidentlal, artificial, commercial, contro!'ersial.confidential, substantial, individual, intcllectual, factual

-ian/-cian/-si^n pedestdan, sectarian, agrarian, musician, politician, physicjan,

{sian. lndone\ian

companio11, opinior.r, production, deceptior.r. occasion. cohesion,possession, pef missionException: t'tevision

-ious/-cious/-eous/ cufious,mysterious,deliciol"ls,superstitious,ambitious,-gious/-eous/ prestigious, courag€ous, outrageous-geous/-uous

effi cient, omniscient, ilnpatient

-ic/-ical com€dic, geognphic, psychological, technologicalExceptions: p()litics, linatic. -Arabic, rh6toric

abiliqv, opportuniq', originaliry

solidi$., identify, disquali4

impressive, possessive, obsessiYe

fepetitive, sensitive, competitiv€

attitude, multitude, rectitude

geology, astrology, archeology

-graphy photogaphy, ofthogaphy, telegraphy

254 AppENDtx C sut'fixes and Associated slress Prtlerns

-ale Uett/ ?pith uerbs, duplicate, associate, appreciate

/aV xattlr nouns/adjectiues)

apologize, rationalize, recogflize

-ary Q)ronounced /efiy/ secretary vocabulary s€col1dary

or /ariyD Exceptions: elem'ntary supplem6ntary

accuracy, intimacy. legitimacy

category, allegory, salutaf Y

adaptable (adapt), defensible (defense)

ExcePtions: c6mparablc (comPare), dem6nstrable(demonstrate), idmirable (admire), pr6femble (prefer)

sleepiness (sleepy), politeness (polite)

goyemment (govern), amusement (amuse)

beautiful (beauty), mast€rtuI (master)

merciless (mercy), mothedess (mother)

Cotnnxon sulfixes like -y,-ly,er/o{are and uerb endings do nol cbqnge stress.

DIAGNOSTIC TEST

Students should record a one-minute description of the picture story below Students shouldtell the story in their own words.

The fofm on the next page can be used to make a broad €valuation of pronunciation,

256 APPENDI{ D DiagnosticTest

Name :

GENERAL CI.{RITY

_ Mostly clear

Unclear in parts

_ Mostly unclear

RIIrIIIM AND FLUENCY

SPEAKING RATE

Too fast

Natural sounding: clear phqses

and clear linking of words

Some unnatural pausing/choppiness

sounds choppy, halting

Appropriate

Too many pauses

INTONAflON

Natural sounding

Flat sounding

Some uflnatural

rises/falls in pitch

Other problems (errors with word suess, errors with sounds, mispronounced words):

INSTRUCTI

SENDING A

ONS FOR RECORDING AND

SOUND FILE

RECORDING1. Plug in the microphone.2. START J ALL PROGRN.MS -+ ENTERTAINMENT J SOUND RECORDER,

3. with the microphone plugged into the computer, click dre red RBCORI) butto[ ,mcl speakintothemicrcphone.'fherccorderrecordsoneminuteofspeech.ClicktheredRECORI)button again to continue rccording-

SA\TNG

4. Open rhe FILE menu and cllck SAVE AS. Compress the file if it is large: On the SAVI AS

window. click the CFIANCE button.In the SOUND SELECTION window urder FORMAT,

select MPegla).er 3 (MP3). Close the SOUND SELEC'IION wiidos'. Nane the file and save it.

SENDING

5.The file can now be attached in an email and sent.

RECORDING AND SAI'ING

l. Plug in the microphone.2. Sli\RT --+ AIL PROORAMS -r ACCESSORIES J SOUND RECORDIR

3. Click the red START RECORDING button arid speak into the microphonc.4. Click the STOP RECORDING buttor when you firish. A Sal-e box \!'ill appear. Name the file

and save it-

COMPRESSING AND SENDING

l Right click on the saved souod ile. SEND TO J COMPRtsSSHD (ZIPPED)

2. A,ttach the comprcs$ed file to an email and send it.

1. Open any existing Sound Recording applicafion on your NIac. If you do not have a SoundRccording application installed, dovnload and install the ftee version of Audacit)'lM soundrecorder (httpr//audacitlsourccforge.net/dowdoadr. lt is very easy to use.

2. After the iastallation of Audacity, open the application liom )'our desktop and then use therecording tools to Record, Stop, Rewind, Pause, or Fast'forward.

3. To save the recorded file, click on the FILE mellu and then c]ick on ExPoRT AS MP3..1. Choose the location to saye the file and then click on SAIE.

257

Affricate consonants

dveolar consonants

Alveolar ridge

Appositives

A.fticulation

Aspiration

Assirnilations

Audiolingual approach

Back rzowels

Bilabid

Blends

Centfal vowels

Citation fof(nCleat /VClosed syllables

Cognate words

complex consonants consisting of a stop consonant andfricativejin English, the first sounds in ihair and jazzconsonants produced when the tongue appfoaches of touchesthe alveolar rid€ie (rhe top of the mouth just behind the topteeth); in English, /t/ and, /s/ are alveolar soundsthe top of the mouth just behind the top teeth, before the loofof the moutlt rises

phrases fbllon'ing a noun providing additional information: forexanple, in the se\tence Rudy GiutianL one_time nqlor ofNeu York CitJt, ran unsuccessfullJt.for president in ZfiOS. ti,replTrase one-time mayor of Neu york Cit! is an appositivemovements of the vocal organs that produce consonantsand vowels

audible puff of aif that accompanies pronunciation of someconsonants;in English /p, t, k/ are aspirated wlten a stressedvowel follows

modification of soulds so they become more similar to adjacentsounds;for examplc, in the phfase ,/ aa n't belieae !ou, ma;yspeakers assimilate rhe last sounds of can't (/nt/)io the /bf ofbelieue ("I camp believe you,,), modf(ing /rt/ so rhat botl.rsouncls are pronounced with the lips (like ,4ril)method for teaching language based on behaviorist vic,w oflanguage learning as habit formation; strong r€liancc on pattcrndrills and dialofis

Vowels produced with the body of the tongue pulled back in themouth;in Engtish, these inchtde the vowels rn i,uke, took, boat,cougb, and in some dialects,lotConsonants made by moving the lips togetherj in English,/p. h. m. w,/

ovedappinti pronunciation of the encl of a word and thebeginning of a lbllowirlg word; for example,,,didj a.' for (lid !ou.vowels pronounced with the body of the tongue in tlte center ofthe mouth, rdther front or back;in English these include thevowels in crr, and, in some dialects. the vowel in cotpronunciation of a word in isolationpfonunciation of /1/ at the beginning of a word (toue)syllables that end in one o[ more consonants;for example, thewords 4og and 4uck consist of one closed syllablewofds from tx.o different languages with a com]Iron ancestfy; forcxample, English 4ualit!

^ttd, Sp nish cati.tqd are cognares

259

260 ck,ssarv

Communicativeapproach

Cornpounds

Consonant clustersConsonants

Content wofds

ContinualrtsContrastive stress

Da,tk /V

Deductive rulelearningf)evoicing

Diphthongs

Discourse markers

Epenthesis

Flap

Fricati\.e coflsonaflts

Front Yowels

Full yow-el

Function words

approach to thc teaching of second languages that emphasizcsme,rningftrl language use as both thc means and goal oflanguagc learning

worcls conrposecl of two words; the rneaning of compoundsoften differs from the meaning \a.hcn the two \41)rcls do notftrnction as compounds ((r greenlJouse \s.6 green ltouse,

groups ol c<rnsonanls (bclt, speqk)

sounds like /p/ or /s/ that are produced b,v obstnrctinli the flowof air

worcls with cle1Ir lne aning, usuall,v nouns, r'crbs, adjective s

ancl adr.'erbs (.table, run. big, sloul!): cofilent $'ords areusuall) stressed and contrast with functioll words (usuall)grammar words) w'ith more abstract meanings (.the, lo) alf'dwithout stress

consonarts tlut can be prolonged (non-stops)

use of stress and pitch to contrast t$'o words (ls it BIG orSM4LLh

pronunciation of /l/ at llrc end of a word or s'vllable (c.9., rrell,o/d); tlre back of the tonliue rises to creatc this pronunciatiur

learninli general rules ar.rd then applying thcD to Particular cases

pronouncing yoiced sounds as !'oiceless sounds (.c.g., b.rue \s

prononnced like bu[)complex vo\r,elsj in English, /aw/, /ay/ a]nd /oy/,the vowels inhow, biglJ, and Do:).! respectiyely

linguistic expressions showing thc rclatio0ships of differcntparts of discourse to each othcr; linking words like Bat or WellJrc c\!ntPlcs uf discottrsc ntrtrlcrs

insertion of a vorvel

North American pronunciation of /t/ and /d/ in $'ords likeuctter irttd ladde\ flaps have thc sound of a /d/ prorounccclrcry quickJl-

consorants producecl by obstructin€a the air but not completelystopping it, examples of linglish ftrcatives arc /s/ afld /z/Yowels procluced with the b(xh of the tonllue pushed fror.It inthe mouth;in English, thes€ includc the vo$'els in leqLe. liue,late, Iet, utd cat.

an unrcduced rro\\'cl;lbr txample, the volvel in con in thc wordconsul.ult ts a ftlll vowel: in thc $ofd col1t1rl tl is rcduced

words with abstftrct lirammatical mcaning, Iikc articlcs (a, on,llle) and short prepositions (4-t to): function words are usuall-vunstresscd ancl coDtfirst with contcrt worcls that have clcarmeanin€i (e.9., t/rle, rttn, big, sktu,ly)

Gtossary 261

Functional load the frequency of linguistic features in a language;for example,the vowel contrast in liue-leaue h^s x higher functional load thanthe yowel conttast rL Luke-look because there are many moreword pairs like liueJeaue in English than pairs like luke-look

Glide vowels vowels ending in /w/ or /y/Glides /w,/ and /y/ in English

Glottal consonants consonants produced at the vocal cords;in English,,zh,/

Glottal stop the sound separating the two parts of ub-olt

Glottaltzed /t/ the sound oflt/ in ,nountainGlottis the space between the vocal cords

Heary syllables syllables that are often stressed;in English, closed syllablesending in two of more consonants; syllables with long vowels

High vowels vowels produced with the body of the tongue high in themouthiin English, the vowels it1 leaue, Iiue, Luke, and look

Highlighting use of pitch,length, and/or loudness to make a word moresalient to listeners

Inductive rule infefring general rules from particular caseslearningIntefdentah consonants produced with the tongue between the te€th;in

English, the "th" sounds of tbink ^n(l

tben

Inteflocutef conversational partner;person with whom one speaks

Intonation meaningful use ofmelody in speech

Intonatlon contour melody or tune of a phrase

Isolated fh)'thm English phrases whose syllables are replaced by nonsensepatterns syllables (e.g., daDA is the isolated rhlthm pattern of at home),

rhl'thm patterns are easier for students to hear when both thephrase and its isolated rhlthm pattern are nodeled together

IIAS international teachin€i assistants

Labial consonants consonant articr ation than involves the lip(s); in English, /p, b, Iv,m,w/

Labiodentals Consonants made by contact of the teeth and lips;Lr English, /i v/Larynx cartilage structures containing the yocal cords (Adam's apple)

I-ateral consonant air passes out over the sides of the tongue;in Englisli, /1,/

Lax vowels Vowels produced with less muscula! tension causing them to beslightly centralized compared to their tense counterparts; inEngllsh, the lax vowels include the vowels in liae, let, afld look.

l-colored vowels vowels followed by s1'llable final /l/ (e.g.,uell)

kxlcal pertaining to words (vocabulary)

L€xical stress Stress within words

Light /U pronunciation of /1/ at the beginnin€i of a word (/ore)

262 clossary

Liquid consonants /l/ and h/ in English

Low vowels vowels produced with the bod,v of the tongue low in the mouth;in English, these include the vowels ir.r cat, cot, and cough

Major stress syllable with hcaviest stress

Marked, less rnarked, pairs of linguistic firatures that differ in ease of learning ormore marked natrfalnesst "more marked" rnexns 'morc dificult/4ess natural"i

for example, a consonant at the end of a word (oat) is moredifficult to prononflce (or learned later by first languagelearners) than the same consonant at the be[iinnin€i of a word(roe), making word-final position for consonants more markedthan word-initial position

Mid vowels r.orvels produccd with the bod,v of the tongue in the middle ofthe mor.rth, neither high nor low;jn English, these include the\owels in mate, ntet, cttt, l'j].d boat

Minirnal pairs pairs of worcls that differ in or y one sound (fot example,go4,a$d co.tt ?rc a mininal Pair)

Mfuror stfess vowel that is stressed but not the most heavily stressed (pitch islow on vol\'els with secondary stress); secondary stress

Monosyllables words consisting of one s,vllable (.e.g.,man)

Nasal consonants consonants prodlrccd with air going out through the nose ratherthan mouthjin En€ilish, the last sounds ir some, son, ancl sung

Nasalization air passes through the nose as a sound (often a vowel) isprolouncecl, crcating a "nasal" solrnd

Non-final ifltonation intonation ovcr a phrase which does not cnd an utterance

Obstruents in English, stop, tiicative and atfricatc consonants

Opefl syllables s_yllables that end in \-owels;for example, both syllables in .so;fa

are open svllables

Ordinal numbers numbers inclicating ordcr (t/.st, second, tlrird, etc.)

Pvl^t^\, pa,latallzed consonants pronollnced with the bod,v of the tongre near the palate

Palate, hard palate the bonl, front part of the roof of the mouth

Paratone wid€ning of pitcll range at thc bcginning of a new discourse topic

Pafefltheticals expressions set apart f1'om thc rest of a scntence; in the sentenccthat follows,l gres-r is a parenthetic^l: It's time to start uorkinS,/ g//css.

Phonetic symbols symbols usecl to represent one and onl,v onc sound (e.g., /iylrepresents thc v()wel so:ufld in lneet, brief, and key

Phonology study of the sound s-Ystem of a language, languages

Pitch a notc (hi€ih pitch,lo{' pitch)

Pitch leYel average pitch

Pitch range dilferencc bcts'cen the highest and lowest notes in an utt€rance

Polysyllabic words with nlore than one syllable

Pfilrrary stfess

Pronunciationspellings

Prosody, prosodicPure yowel

r-colored vowelsr-droppingReduced voweVsyllable

Reduced words

Retroflex

Rhy.thm

Schwa

Secondary stress

Seglnentals

Sibilants

SpellingpronunciationsStop consonant

Stf ess-tirned languages

Suprasegmentals

Syllable structure

Syllables

Syllable-tirnedlanguages

Tense vowels

Clossary 263

prominence given to a syllable/vowel by length, loudness andsometimes high pitch; healy stress

respellings of words to mak€ their pronunciation clearer; €.g.respelllng pbilosopr:l as "filosofy"

rhlthm or intonation

vowel produced withour a glide ending Uw/ ot /yt)vowels followed by /r/ (c..r; four)not pronouncirg /r/ after vowels

unstressed vowel that has an indistinct sound (often /a,O; forexample , the vowel in con in the word control h rcd\ced;in thewotd consonan' it Ls notwords pronounced with less prominence (with less stress andlorlength, with low pitch, with reduced vowels);grammar wordslike a ot the typically have reduced pronunciations

the front of the tongue turns up and back; in English, /r/ is aretroflexed consonant

alternation of strong and weak syllables/words in connectedspeech; pausing; linking of wof ds

reduced vowel sound /J/ (e.g., the pronunciation of the boldletters in ago, Iesson, jealous)

vo$/el that is sttessed but not the most heavily stressed (pitch islow on vowels with secondary stress); minor stress

consonants and vowels

"s" like sounds; the bold sounds in the following words aresibilants:so, zoo, sltoe, tneasure, chair, jazzmispronunciations of words because of confusing spellings;pronunciations based on spellilgconsonants produced by a complet€ stoppage of ah; English stopconsonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g/

languages with a large variety of sllable rypes; stressed syllablesare usually longer than unstressed syllables; vowel reduction inunstressed syllables may also occurpronunciation features involving stress, rh]'thm, or intonationtypes of syllables (e.9., open syllables, closed syllables) that arepermitted in a language

units of spoken language that consist of a vowel, possiblysurrounded by consonants; ?lslt has two syllables

languages with few closed syllables; syllables are often neadyequal in length, regardless of sifess

vowels produced with greater muscular tension; in English, theseinclude the vowels in leaue, late and sr?on.

264 clossaty

Thought groups meaninllful groups of words pronounced together (phrases)

Tone languages languages which associate a particular pitch or pitch patternwith individual words; i11 tone languages pitch is an integralelement of each word; Chinese is a tone language

Universals features of language that are found in many languages and arelearned early or morc easily [r]- first-language learners

Unstressed vowels/ in English, vowels/syllables that ar€ short and often indistinct;forsyllables example, the iirst \.owel in ago is rn.rstresscd

Uttera{rce speech prececlecl and followed by pauscs

Uttefance boundaries beginning or end of an utterance

Velars consonants produced by moving tlte back of tlte tongue uptoward the soft palate;in English, the first sounds in oo4t and

8o4t ltld t]|re last sound in s/l?g

velum soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth

Vocal ofgafls structrJres used to produce speech sounds (fo[ example, thetongue, thc vocal cords)

Yocal tract nouth ancl upper throat

Voic€ quality features pronunciation features that are generally present in nativespeech, such as average level of pitch (some languages arespoken with a relati\''ely higher overall level of pitch, others witha relatively lowcr ovemll level of pitch)

Voiced sounds sounds produced with vibration of the vocal cords;/z/ is avoiced sound

Voiceless sounds sounds producecl without vibration of the vocal cords;/s/ is avoiceless sound

Yowel quality sound of a vowel;in this book vowel quality rcfers to whether a

vowel is reduced or not

vowels sounds like /o,/ produced with very little obstruction of theair flow

Vowel-vowel sequencc of two adjacent vowel sounds (e.g., the bold vowelssequences i\.t rideAWord list pronrurciation of a $'ord in isolationi citation fornpfonuflciatioflword stfess prominence given to one or lllore syllables in a word, realized in

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\Yord-to-word linking the way in which final sounds and beginning sounds of adjacentwords are pronounced

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