Petroleum Geology & Exploration` 1

By:

Qunber Bilal

2014-PET-8

Petroleum & Gas Engineering

Department Uet Lahore

Petroleum Geology & Exploration` 2

Contents

1. Geologic Time Scale……………………………………………… 3

2. Introduction to Indus Basin………………………………………. 8

3. Introduction to Upper Indus Basin………………………………. 9

4. Stratigraphy of the Area………………………………………… 10

4.1 Makarwal Group

4.2 Rawalpindi Group

4.3 Siwalak Group

5. References……………………………………………………… 13

Petroleum Geology & Exploration` 3

1. Geologic Time Scale[1]

The time scale that divides the history of the earth based on life-forms existing during

specific times since the creation of the earth is called Geologic Time Scale.

These life-forms are now found in the form of fossils which help us in estimating their

specific time of existence. On previously described basis, history of earth is divided in following

scales.[2]

Eons:

This is the longest subdivision which is based on the abundance of certain fossils.

Eras:

This is next to longest subdivision, marked by major changes in the fossil record.

Periods:

Periods are based on types of life existing at the time.

Epochs:

This shortest subdivision is based on differences in life forms and can vary from

continent to continent.

Basic principles in construction of Time Scale

Time scale is based on some general and basic principles of geology and stratigraphy.

These principles are;

Principle of superposition:

That layer on the bottom is older than the upper one.

Principle of horizontality:

That all rock layers originally deposit horizontally.

Principle of original lateral continuity:

That originally deposited layers of rock extend laterally in all directions until

either thinning out or being cut off by a different rock layer.

The principle of biologic succession:

That each age in the earth’s history is unique so each fossil is unique. This

permits vertical and horizontal correlation of the rock layers based on fossil species.

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The chain formed by these time scales and their subdivisions is of this form.

Fig#1 Geologic Time Scale Key[3]

Description of all these stages (periods) and their significant events are as given below.[2]

1.1 The Proterozoic:

No life possible as the Earth initially forms 4.6 billion years ago.

Simple, single-celled forms of life appear 3.8 billion years ago.

Cyanobacteria begins producing free oxygen (photosynthesis)

Land masses gather to make up a continent called “Rodinia”

1.2 Cambrian:

Explosion of life in warm seas as oxygen levels rise enough to support life.

Dominant animals: Marine invertebrates; trilobites and brachiopods.

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Supercontinent Gondwana forms near the South Pole.

1.3 Ordovician:

The 1st animals with bones appear.

The beginning of the construction of South Carolina.

A very cold time in Earth’s history: there was a great extinction due to ice caps in

present-day Africa.

Four main continents: Gondwana, Baltica, Siberia and Laurentia.

1.4 Silurian:

First land plants appear and land animals follow.

Coral reefs expand and land plants begin to colonize barren land.

First millipede fossils and sea scorpions found in this period.

1.5 Devonian:

Pre-Pangea forms. Dominant animal: fish

Oceans still. Freshwater and fish migrate from southern hemisphere to North America.

Amphibians, evergreens and ferns appear

1.6 Carboniferous:

a) Mississippian:

First seed plants appeared.

b) Pennsylvanian:

Modern North America begins to form.

Lizards and winged insects first appear.

1.7 Permian:

Last period of the Paleozoic.

Pangea forms. Reptiles spread across continents.

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90% of Earth’s species become extinct due to volcanism in Siberia. This marks the end

of trilobites and most fish.

1.8 Triassic:

First dinosaurs (mammals) appeared.

Life and fauna re-diversified.

Rocky Mountains formed.

Pangea breaks apart.

1.9 Jurassic:

Pangea still breaking apart

Dinosaurs flourish “Golden age of dinosaurs”

First birds appear

1.10 Cretaceous:

First snakes and appear.

First flowering plants appear.

Mass extinction with the termination of dinosaurs and 25% of all marine life.

1.11 Tertiary:

First horses appear and tropical plants dominate (Paleocene)

Grasses spread and whales, rhinos, elephants and other large mammals develop.

Dogs, cats, and apes appear (Oligocene)

1.12 Quaternary:

Modern humans develop and ice sheets are predominant- Ice age (Pleistocene)

Holocene Humans flourish (Holocene)

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“Earth through ages”

Proterozoic Cambrian Ordovician

Silurian Devonian Carboniferous

Permian Triassic Jurassic

Cretacious Tertiary Quaternary

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2. Introduction to Indus Basin[4]

The Indus Basin stretches over 1.1 million sq.km and is shared by Afghanistan, China,

India, and Pakistan, with the upper portion resting in the Hindu Kush, Karakorum, and

Himalayan ranges. The main includes the flow of tributaries Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, Swat, Chitral,

Gilgit, Hunza, Shigar, Shyok, Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, and Kabul draining parts of Afghanistan,

China, India, and Pakistan.

The basin ranks among the most important in the world in terms of human dependence,

supporting about 215 million people, directly or indirectly. Indus basin is divided in three levels;

1. Upper Indus Basin

2. Middle Indus Basin

3. Lower Indus Basin

Fig#2 Representing the location of the area (GSP Pakistan, 1982)[5]

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3. Upper Indus Basin[7]

The Upper Indus Basin is separated from the Lower Indus Basin by Sargodha High. The

Upper Indus Basin is further subdivided into Potwar and Kohat Sub-basins.

This is a vast plain located on the east of Kirthar and Sulaiman mountain ranges and

south of Salt range extending up to the Arabian Sea. The upper portion of River Indus is very

fertile despite the fact that there is few rainfalls in this area, mainly because it comprises of the

soil brought by the rivers. Long chain of canals are spread in this area which help produce a good

quantity of crops. This canal system is one of a kind in the world. There are few hills of low

heights seen around Chiniot, Sangla and Sarghoda.

Fig#3 Area of Upper Indus Basin[6]

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4. Stratigraphy of the Area[7]

The rocks of Cenozoic Era (most abundantly of Paleocene & Miocene epoch) are widely

distributed and exposed in the Potwar-Kohar areas of upper Indus Basin of Pakistan. These rocks

are classified as;

4.1 Makarwal Group

4.2 Rawalpindi Group

4.3 Siwalik Group

Apart from carbonate and siliciclastic rocks coal, laterite, iron ore and bauxite are also found

within the Paleocene sedimentary sequence.

4.1 Makarwal Group

Makarwal group has following formations

a. Hangu Formations

b. Lockhart Limestone

c. Patala Formation

a. Hangu Formation[8]

In the Kohat area Hangu Formation consists of white, light gray and reddish brown

sandstone with gray colored shale intercalations and rarely conglomerate lenses. In the Salt

Range and Trans Indus Ranges this formation is comprised of dark gray sandstone, carbonaceous

shale and some nodular argillaceous limestone.

This formation unconformably overlies the various Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The

age of the formation has been assigned as an early Paleocene.

b. Lockheart Limestone[8]

In the Salt Range and Trans-Indus Ranges Lockhart Limestone is comprised of grey to

light grey, medium bedded, nodular with minor amounts of grey marl and bluish grey calcareous

shale in the lower part. It overlies and underlies the Hangu Formation and the Patala Formation

respectively.

Petroleum Geology & Exploration` 11

c. Patala Formations[9]

The Patala Formation is mainly comprised of shale and marl with subordinate limestone

and sandstone. The shale is dark greenish gray, carbonaceous and calcareous, splenetic and

marcasite nodules bearing. This formation has been assigned as a Late Paleocene Age

throughout its extent.

4.2 Rawalpindi Group

It consists of Murree and Kamlial Formation

4.3 Siwalik group

It consists of following formations:

4.3.1 Chinji Formation

4.3.2 Nagri Formation

4.3.3 Dhok Pathan Formation

4.3.4 Soan Formation

4.3.1 Chinji Formation

It consists of red clay with subordinate ash grey or brownish grey sandstone. It is only

confined to the southern half of the eastern Sulaiman Range. In the Sulaiman Range it

disconformably overlies the Nari Formation. It is conformably overlain by Nagri Formation. The

age is Late Miocene.

4.3.2 Nagri Formation

It consists of sandstone with subordinate clay and conglomerate. The upper contact with

Dhok Pathan Formation is transitional. The age is Late Miocene.

4.3.3 Dhok Pathan Formation

It consists of cyclic alternations of sandstone and clay beds. Its upper contact with Soan

Formation is gradational in the upper Indus Basin. The age is Early to Middle Pliocene.

4.3.3 Soan Formation

It consists of compact, massive conglomerate with subordinate interbeds of varicoloured

sandstone, siltstone and/or clay. The age is Late Pliocene to Early Pliestocene.

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Fig# 4 Comprehensive Upper Indus Stratigraphy[7]

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References:

1. Gradstein, F. M.; Ogg, J. G. (2004). A Geologic Time scale 2004 – Why, How and Where

Next!

2. Correlating Earth's History, Paul R. Janke

3. Levin, Harold L. (2010). "Time and Geology". The Earth Through Time. Hoboken, New

Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-38774-0. Retrieved18 November 2011.

4. Kadri, I. B. Petroleum geology of Pakistan, Karachi: Pakistan Petroleum Limited. 273-

274, (1995).

5. http://goo.gl/rSs89Z

6. Lutz, A.F., W.W. Immerzeel, P.D.A. Kraaijenbrink. 2014. Gridded meteorological

datasets and hydrological modelling in the Upper Indus Basin. Final Report. Future

Water report 130.

7. Shah, S. M. I. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Pakistan, GSP, 12, 79-80, (1977).

8. Davies, L. M. The fossil fauna of the Samana Range and some neighboring areas Part 1,

An introductory note: Geol. Surv. India Memoir, Paleont. Indica, New Series 15: 15-16,

(1930).

9. Davies, L. M. and E.S. Pinfold The Eocene beds of the Punjab Salt Range. Me. Geol.

Surv. India, Pal. Indica, New Ser. 24 (1), 1-79, (1937).