the_role_of_narrative_in_nepalese_buddhi.docx

7/25/2019 The_Role_of_Narrative_in_Nepalese_Buddhi.docx

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UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

Stories of Success: The Role ofNarrative in Nepalese Buhist

Vrata!iterature"#$hil %lassical Inian Reli&ion Thesis

Candidate Number: 580304

'or count: ()(*(

+,stract: This paper loo-s at the .a/s in .hich the narratives ofNepalese Buhist vratakathliterature have ,een revise since theirearliest -no.n versions in other &enres in orer to account for thein0uences of local Ne.ar culture1 the ritual itself1 an ho. authorit/ is

lent to the ritual via the te2t# E2a3ples use are theTr Vrata1AamVrata1gabher Avadna1 the stor/ of Si4halas5rtha,5hu1 an the

Ahortra Vrata#


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%aniate Nu3,er: 6)*7*8

Introduction to Vratas

9/a ;lo-a35tra3 ap/ as/5 -atha/i


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literature have ,een revise since their earliest -no.n versions in orer to

account for the in0uences of local Ne.ar culture1 the ritual itself1 an ho.

authorit/ is lent to the ritual via the te2t#

+s a ritual on the ver/ frin&es of Veic thou&ht1 an perhaps,ecause it is 3ostl/ perfor3e ,/ .o3en1 the vratatraition has ,een

3ostl/ overloo-e ,/ earl/ 'estern scholars# 'hen it i &et so3e

attention1 it .as consiere a curiosit/ 9$iri/a Q + %urious Fol- RiteAH or a

ritual .hose ai3s .ere supercial 9Bratas in Ben&al: + %ult of Beaut/AH#

$erhaps the 3ost .ell-no.n &ure .ho perfor3e vrats .as "ohanas

Cara3chan anhi# Je -ept the Prdoa anEkda Vrats1 ,oth of

.hich .ere traitional vrats -ept ,/ his fa3il/1 as .ell as nu3erous e2trafasts#7Vratais often translate as 9vo.A1 ho.ever there are not 3an/

conte2ts .here to translate vrataas 9vo.A is correct# $erhaps the

si3ilarit/ of the t.o .ors has encoura&e acae3ics to use it1 ,ut a

3ore thorou&h an correct ter3 .oul ,e 9o,servanceA# Translatin& it as

9fastA also has the sa3e pro,le31 as fastin& is onl/ one aspect of a vrat1

an espite ,ein& one of its 3ost enin& characteristics1 the ter3 9fastA

oes not incorporate the 9vo.A sie of the ritual# There is a fast1 a vo.1stor/tellin&1 &ift &ivin&1puja.orshipH as .ell as an/ aspects a specic

vrat3a/ entail1 such as pil&ri3a&e to atrthasacre forH# +ccess to the

vratao,servance is traitionall/ open to all1 9not ust .o3en an ;=ras1

,ut outcastes1 o&s sicH an lepersA1 ,ut this is not al.a/s the case1 as

.ill ,e e2a3ine later#8

The cultural area ofNepal has pla/e a 3aor role in the histor/ of

,oth Buhis3 an Sans-rit literature# +fter the (thcentur/ ecline inBuhis3 in "a&aha an Bihar1 a vast a3ount of Sans-rit Buhist te2ts

fro3 Inia .ere preserve in the Cath3anu Valle/ for centuries#6

'herever possi,le this paper has avoie co3parisons to 3oern Ne.ar

$earson1 p# XV

7 $earson1 +#1 "#1 !e"au#e $t %$ve# &e Pea"e o' &$nd() *$tua+ ,a#t# $n the *e+$g$ou# -$ve#o' .$ndu /omen0State Universit/ of Ne. Yor- $ress1 +l,an/1 (1 pp# (

8 TulaharDoul&as1 '#1 Re3a-in& Buhis3 for "eieval Nepal: The Fifteenthcentur/ refor3ation of Ne.ar Buhis3# Routle&e1 +,in&on1 **1 p# (6

7


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practises1 ho.ever 3ost recent scholarship tens to approach vratas fro3

an anthropolo&ical1 ethno&raphic perspective1 an .ith an acae3ic

ri&our that cannot ,e i&nore# 'here a Sans-rit .or is .ell-no.n in

En&lish or is a proper noun it has ,een left nonitalicise# +ll Nepal Bhasater3s an phrases have ,een italicise unless other.ise specie# The

Sans-rit ter3 vrata is use .hen referrin& to the historical o,servances

containe in the $ur5>as1 vratakathan so on1 an the Jini ter3 vratis

use to enote the 3oern a/ Jinu practise# The Nepali ter3 bartaor

an/ other alternatives are not use in orer to facilitate consistenc/

throu&hout the paper# The lan&ua&e of this issertation is -ept &ener

neutral1 ho.ever in cases .here a ritual that onl/ 3en1 for e2a3ple1 can

perfor3 occurs then the 3asculine pronoun is use#

The history of Vratas in the Brahmanical tradition

The ter3 vrata,ut note not the corresponin& ritualH is seen in the

olest e2tant literature fro3 Inia the Veas# Thus the ter3 itself is at

least 7*** /ears ol# The 3ost .iel/ accepte root for the ter3 vratais

v1 3eanin& to choose or select# This is the preferre root for $#V# Cane1.ho in volu3e ve of his 3onu3ental .or- The .$#tor1 o' 2harma#a#tra

evote 8 pa&es to vratas#This is also seen in the Niru-ta of the

in0uential le2ico&rapher Y5s-a1 ate as ,ein& .ritten in either the fth1

si2th or seventh centur/ B%E prior to the &ra33arian $5>ini#In the W&

Vea the ter3 appears ust over ** ti3es#)In this1 the olest of the

Veas1 the .or vrata is lin-e .ith the 3ta4 the ulti3ate founation of

ever/thin& an the natural orer .hich re&ulates the operation of the6TulaharDoul&as1 p# (

Cane1 $#1 V#1 .$#tor1 o' 2harma#tra 5An"$ent and &ed$aeva+ *e+$g$ou# and 6$v$+ -a78#ovt Oriental Series1 %lass 71 No# # Vol# V1 ne# Bhanar-ar Oriental ResearchInstitute1 $oona1 (71 p# (

+ fth centur/ reference can ,e foun in 'internit1 "#1 + .$#tor1 o' 9nd$an -$terature1Vol# (1 "otilal Banarsias1 Delhi1 (1 p )1 an a seventh centur/ reference can ,efoun in %o.ar1 J#1 #1 an Cununni Raa1 C#1 es#1 The Ph$+o#oph1 o' the %rammar$an#1Vol# 6#1 "otilal Banarsiass1 Delhi1 (*1 p# (*

) $earson1 p# 86

8


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Veic universe# One passa&e of the W& Vea sa/s that the various

occupations .hich 3en en&a&e in are their vrata# This is si3ilar to the

later senti3ents of the Bha&ava @t5 .here Ca i3plores +runa to

accept that to o the ri&ht thin& is to o .hat his caste is enoine to o1.hich is to &ht in a ust .ar re&arless of .ho is on the other sie1

.ithout attach3ent to the results of his action# In the W& Vea this

inclues occupations such as ,ein& a priest or a ,ar#

!ater in the Sa4hit5s1 Br5h3a>as an Upani


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Vrata appears several ti3es in the Upani/a-a

Upani/5ccaiv5p5n/5cca# Nen35 p5p35 3t/ur5pnavaiti#A Therefore

a 3an shoul unerta-e a sin&le o,servance Q he shoul ,reathe in an,reathe out .ith the thou&ht 9"a/ evil eath not capture 3e#AH(This

associates the ter3 vrata.ith a -in of /o&ic activit/# The conte2t of the

verse is unerlinin& the i3portance of .in for the eities1 an ,reath for

hu3an ,ein&s1 e2plainin& the universal la. that ,reath is the 3ost

po.erful of all the vital functions of the ,o/1 as eath in the for3 of

.eariness cannot conZuer it# The Taittir@/a Upani


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lon&er refers to the 2e uties of all livin& ,ein&s1 ,ut ,eca3e 3ore

e2plicitl/ relate to reli&ious o,servances1 rules of conuct an ritual

foo#(It also too- on a ne. 3eanin& of a penance one for ,rea-in& a

vo.1 such as in the "anus3ti ((#((: 9But after he has full/ perfor3ethe penance vrataP1 he 3ust &ive to those leane in the Veas ten co.s

an a ,ull###A(+n in the Y5Gaval-/a S3ti 7#68: 9'earin& a .oollen

&ar3ent an 3atte loc-s he shoul perfor3 the penance of

,rah3anicie brahmanat1vratamP: Je shoul eat1 in the ni&ht1 ca-es of

sesa3e sees or particles of rice for three /ears#A()

Then in the "ah5,h5rata vrata,e&ins to ,e associate .ith a -in

of vo. .hich ,e&ins to loo- 3ore li-e a structure reli&ious o,servance#Thou&h often left inistinct1 throu&h conte2t the/ can ,e seen to ,e

,ehavioural restrictions for set perios of ti3e or rules ta-en for life#(The

ter3 3ost often appears in the for3 of the epithet 9#uvrataA Of &oo

vo.sH or 9n$t1avrataA Strict vo.sH for certain t/pes of iniviual1 usuall/ a

Was#(+s the "ah5,h5rata is so

popular an .ell-no.n1 this stor/ .hen use in vratakathis unli-el/ to( $earson1 p# 6*

( I,i#

() I,i# For other e2a3ples see "anu: ((#(*1 () an Y5#S3: 7#6(1 61 1*1 )71 7*(#

( $earson1 p# 6(

* !an3an1 %# R#1A =an#kr$t *eader 7$th Vo"abu+ar1 and >ote#1 inn an%o3pan/1 Boston1 ()))1 p#

( $earson1 p# 68


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,e su,ect to a ri&orous eitin& process .hich tries to reene her n$1ama

as a t/pe of vrata# This is also helpe ,/ the fact that the ter3 n$1ama

alrea/ i3plies a perfor3ance of a vratao,servance to a later auience

.ho -no. the $ur5>as# S5vitr@[s stor/ also hints at the evelop3ent1 atleast in literature1 of an act of eter3ination or resolution in valiatin& a

vrata# She states: 9I shall nish the vo. for it is one .ith resolve

v1ava#1aH1 an resolve is the reason#AThis is a senti3ent e2presse

,/ 3oern Jinu .o3en .ho sa/ that it is the resolve or intention .hich

3a-es a si3ple act of austerit/ into a vo.#7S5vitr@ also 3entions her

intention #a?ka+paH to co3plete the o,servance1 .hich in 3oern Jinu

vratas is a reZuire spo-en thou&h in rare cases so3eti3es ust 3entall/

spo-enH part of the ritual#

$earson ar&ues that there is a clear relationship ,et.een the

austerit/ of a vrataan tapa#1 the &urative 9heatA of the spiritual

3ortication of an ascetic#8In the 3oern a/ Jinu traition tapa#

infor3s .o3ens unerstanin& of the i3portance of the vratas that the/

unerta-e# The iea of re an heat ,oth actuall/ an rituall/ chan&in&

.hat it ca3e into contact .ith in the Veas .as so si&nicant that .hat

.as ra. an uncoo-e coul not ,e use as a suita,le oMerin& to the &os

or use as a suita,le part of a 3eal for hu3an consu3ption# To eat ra.

foo such as roots an fruits then .as a traitional .a/ of eatin& .ithout

,rea-in& a ritual fast# In his auto,io&raph/ hani state that as a rule1 a

Jinu allo.s the3selves 3il- an fruit on a fastin& a/#6In the Sa4hit5s

vratahas the 3eanin& of 93il-A1 as livin& on 3il- alone .as so3ethin&

one for penance# Socalle fast foo1 -no.n aspha+har[fruit foo\riceHin Jini1 can al.a/s ,e consiere accepta,le urin& a fast1 an inclues

.ater1 roots1 fruits1 &hee1 3il-1 an/ foo .ith the per3ission of ones

preceptor1 an 3eicine# This is also seen in "oern Jinu an Ne.ar

I,i#

7 I,i#

8 $earson1 p# 6

6 $earson1 p#

)


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vratas .here the fast,rea-in& 3eal is usuall/ ,ase on air/ su,stances#

It 3a/ ,e note ho.ever that in the aru?a $ur5>a1 .hich &ives an

e2tensive list of .hat is an is not to ,e avoie urin& a fast1 perfu3es

an orna3ents are an e2ception .here .o3en are concerne1 as their3ost i3portant vratais theirpat$vrata1 a vo. 3ae to loo- after her

hus,an an ,e the ,est .ife1 a state .hich all .o3en shoul cultivate1

an so are allo.e to -eep usin& these other.ise for,ien ite3s urin& a

vratato loo- &oo for their hus,ans# +nother relationship to tapa#can ,e

seen in the ter3 mahavrata3eanin& 9consecrationA dkaH in Br5h3a>a

te2ts# This consecration is to stop the1ajamnaperfor3er of the

sacriceH or dk$tathe initiate\consecrate oneH fro3 9,ein& 3elteA

.ith the heat of his ascetic po.er1 ust as ra. cla/ is re into a pot or

,o.l ,efore it can ,e use to .ithstan the heat of sacrice# Thus1 vratas

have a -in of transfor3ational po.er over the vrat$n# !ater in the

$ur5>as vratas are escri,e as a for3 of tapa#1 an the po.er of S5vitr@s

austerities1 an thus the po.er of all vratao,servances1 $earson ,elieves

can ,e e2plaine in this .a/#In the $ur5>a s there can ,e no ou,t that

Jinu vratas are one of the irect heirs of the Veic sacrice as the

perfor3er of the vratavrat$n8is calle the1ajamna4 a ter3 use to

3ean the sponsor of a Veic sacrice1 an the authors of the $ur5>as tr/

har to 3a-e the escriptions of various vratas soun si3ilar to the Veic

sacrices escri,e in the Br5h3a>as#

B/ the ti3e of the $ur5>a an Ni,anhas1 vratas ha ,eco3e a t/pe

of reli&ious ritual .orth/ of attention an iscussion ,/ pa>?its1 as the/

are foun in these te2ts as a pro3inent topic1 appearin& in al3ost all ofthe $ur5>as an there are entire Ni,anhas evote to the iscussion an

escription of the3#The a3ount of vratas present in the earlier $ur5>as

.as not ver/ e2tensive1 ,ut it increase e2ponentiall/ in the .or-s ate

fro3 the ninth to the fourteenth centuries1 .ith te2ts even fro3 the

ei&hteenth centur/ such as the Vratarja,ein& evote entirel/ to vrata

$earson1 p# 6

$earson1 p# 7


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o,servances alone#)In 3an/ cases the vratakathstories acco3pan/in&

the3 are also present1 alon&sie the escriptions of the vratas

the3selves# +lso espite ,ein& epicte in these te2ts as km1a

optionalH rites1 the 3oral i3ension of vratao,servances is 3uch 3orepronounce than in previous literature1 .ith the eitors of these

pro3inent .or-s on har3a usin& the3 to pro3ote har3a;5stric values

an ,ehaviour .hich is ethical an sociall/ responsi,le#Throu&hout the

histor/ of vratas that .e have e2a3ine so far1 it is .orth notin& that

.o3en rarel/1 if ever1 feature in an/ of these te2ts e2cept so3eti3es in

the vratakath1 espite ,ein& the 3aorit/ &ener that practises vratas

toa/ an1 3ost li-el/1 the &ener of the 3aorit/ of vratapractitioners

throu&hout their histor/#

The t/pical section on a vratain a Ni,anha te2t usuall/ ,e&an .ith

praise for the o,servance1 the &eneral rules an re&ulations for

unerta-in& it1 an then a escription of the vratain Zuestion# The/ .ere

usuall/ arran&e in ti3erelate cate&ories1 such as ,/ t$th$lunar a/H1

3onth1 .ee- an a/# +ccorin& to the Ni,anhas1 the ele3ents of a

vrataconsist of1 &ive or ta-e: The #a?ka+pastate3ent of intentH1 #nnaritual ,athin&H1japa3eitational recitationH1 homasacrice1p@j

.orship an 3a-in& the m@rt$i3a&e of the eit/H1 the maapaa ritual

enclosure .here the vrat$ns resieH1 upa"ra rites to honour the eit/1

so3eti3es n1#aproectin& ivinit/ onto parts of the ,o/H is perfor3e1

upav#afastin&H1 kathstor/tellin&H1 dna&ivin&H1 esi&nin& ritual art

such as 3a>?alas1 /antras or +pans1 an nall/ the up1pananal

concluin& rite of a vrataH#7*

Ni,anha te2ts &enerall/ consier the#a?ka+pa to ,e an inte&ral part of a vrata1 .hereas the $ur5>as

e3phasise the i3portance of the iscipline an restraint of n$1ama#7(

) I,i#

$earson1 p#

7* $earson1 p# 6

7( $earson1 p#

(*


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Newar Buddhism and the Newar textual tradition.

The Ne.ars are an ethnic &roup ini&enous to the Cath3anu valle/ area1

historicall/ calle the Nepal "a>?ala# $honeticall/1 the ter3s 9Ne.arA an

9NepalA are relate1 the latter co3in& fro3 the Sans-rit >ep+a1 .hichalthou&h it is o,scure in ori&in1 3ost scholars a&ree that it is a

Sans-ritisation of the $ra-rit ter3 >e7araB>e7ra#7Thus their Ti,eto

Bur3an lan&ua&e .as -no.n si3pl/ as Nepal Bhasa >Cp+ bh84 .ith

the ter3 Ne.ari arisin& in the (*s to iMerentiate it fro3 the recentl/

rena3e an Ino+r/an Nepali lan&ua&e1 .hich .as itself previousl/

-no.n as Chas-ura1 or-hali\ur-hali or $ar,ati/a# It is i3portant to note

these iMerences as Buhis3 onl/ 0ourishe in the Nepal "a>?alaa3on& the Ne.ars# For centuries1 it has onl/ ,een .ithin the Cath3anu

valle/ that "aha/ana Buhis3 still e2ists in a South+sian cultural

environ3ent1 an onl/ there can ,e foun Buhists .hose ritual te2ts are

still .ritten in Sans-rit toa/#77+3on& scholars there has ,een 3uch

e,ate over the status of Ne.ar Buhis3 in re&ar to its relationship

.ith Jinuis3# Davi Snell&rove has ar&ue that Ne.ar Buhis3 oes

not iMer su,stantiall/ in practice fro3 its surrounin& Jinuis3#78

Theoreticall/ too Ne.ar Buhis3 has fallen ,et.een the crac-s1 .ith

"a2 'e,er for e2a3ple e2a&&eratin& the iMerences ,et.een 9ancient

Buhis3A an "aha/ana1 an uneresti3atin& the role of the lait/#76The

suppose ichoto3ies ,et.een Jinu an Buhist an ancient an

revise Buhis3 i&nore -e/ characteristics of Ne.ar Buhis3 such as

the continuities .ith its istant relation Theravaa Buhis3 in the case

7 "alla1 C# $#1 9Nep5la: +rchaeolo&/ of the 'or(4 ori&inall/ pu,lishe in The >epa+.er$tage =o"$et1 =ouven$r 'or PATA 6on'eren"e1 Cath3anu1 ()71 pp# 777# Onlineresource: http:\\...#-p3alla#co3\]attach3ent^i_)61 p#

77 ellner1 D#1 N#1 &onk4 .ou#eho+der and Tantr$" Pr$e#t) >e7ar !uddh$#m and $t#.$erar"h1 o' *$tua+# Nu3,er )8 in %a3,ri&e Stuies in Social an %ultural +nthropolo&/#%a3,ri&e Universit/ $ress1 %a3,ri&e1 (1 pp# (

78 ellner1 p#

76 ellner1 p# XVII

((
http://www.kpmalla.com/?attachment_id=285http://www.kpmalla.com/?attachment_id=285


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of the :poadha vrataan the inclusive nature of ,oth Jinu an

Buhist rituals#7

Davi ellner has ar&ue that1 the En&lish ter3 [reli&ion has no sin&le

eZuivalent in Ne.ari1 instea it correspons to three istinct ter3s1 all of.hich have a Sans-rit ori&in: 2harma4 mrgaan mata#7&rgaan mata

are use al3ost e2clusivel/ in the e2pressions buddhamrga4

buddhamata4 $vamrgaan $vamatato refer to the path an octrine

respectivel/ of Buhists an `aivites# 2harmais a ter3 .ith 3ore

nuance 3eanin&s1 incluin& reli&ion1 ritual1 ut/1 teachin& or reli&ious

3erit#7)2harma1 ,ein& such a ,roa ter31 covers three ieal t/pes of

reli&ion for the Ne.ars# The rst is the soteriolo&/ of mrgaan matareli&ion# The re3ainin& t.o t/pes ,oth co3e uner the heain& of

[this.orl/ reli&ion1 the secon ,ein& social reli&ion1 .hich inclues

festivals1 lifec/cle rituals an guth$local reli&ious &roups for3e for the

sa-e of social reli&ious uties such as arran&in& rituals an pil&ri3a&eH#

The thir an nal t/pe is calle instru3ental reli&ion S-t# km1a4 Ne.ari

#vrth9SelshA1 9selfinteresteAH#7Instru3ental reli&ion is an/ reli&ious

action unerta-en in orer to 3a-e so3ethin& ,enecial happen for thepractitioner1 .hether positivel/ in the for3 of .ealth or a,unance or

ne&ativel/ in the case of .arin& oM isease or overco3in& a sic-ness#

Unli-e the secon cate&or/ of social reli&ion1 it oes not occur re&ularl/

accorin& to a social calenar1 ,ut is unerta-en accorin& to esire or

nee in the case of sic-nessH# This threefol fra3e.or- can ,e further

Zualie ,/ the istinction ,et.een optional an o,li&ator/ rites# In

&eneral1 .hat is o,li&ator/ falls into the cate&or/ of social reli&ion1 ,utalso inclues optional rites .hich &enerate lon& ter3 o,li&ator/ eMects1

such as tantric initiation# Optional inclues all instru3ental reli&ion an all

that fall into the rst cate&or/ of soteriolo&/1 as ,oth the .orll/ an

7 ellner1 p#

7 ellner1 p# 6

7) I,i#

7 ellner1 p#

(


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spiritual 3otivations for these aMect the iniviual alone#8*Vrata

o,servances fall into the optional cate&or/1 ,ut .hether the/ are a part of

instru3ental reli&ion1 soteriolo&ical reli&ion or even social reli&ion is

iLcult to eter3ine co3pletel/# !i-e social reli&ious rites the/ are oftenplanne an perfor3e ,/ a guth$4follo. a social calenar or at the least

the ti3es the/ can ,e perfor3e are restricte to certain atesH an

unli-e so3e Jinuvrataal.a/s reZuire the presence of an oLciatin&

priest#8($earson notes that 3oern Jinu vrats are epicte onl/ as

km1arites#8She notes that althou&h the/ are instru3ental in nature1

the/ o not nor3all/ ta-e the for3 of a ,ar&ain 9if o oes X I .ill o

YAH ,ut usuall/ in the for3 of a vo. that hi&hli&hts the charita,le nature of

the o 9I .ill o this vrataan 3a/ /ou o1 please ,/ 3/ evotions1

o YAH#87Inee there is a stron& instru3ental 3otivation in Ne.ar

Buhist o,servances as .ell1 as seen fro3 the 3/ria of ,oons liste in

the vratakathliterature1 .hich is covere later in this issertation#

$ur5>ic vrataescriptions evote a lar&e a3ount of e2planation to the

,oons pro3ise to the votaries1 an are often so e2a&&erate that it le

$#V# Cane to e2press the opinion that vratas .ere 9perfor3e for the

purpose of securin& so3e o,ect in this .orl or so3eti3es the ne2t .orl

or ,oth# "ost of the vratas are reall/ secular thou&h uner the &ar, of

reli&ion#A88The re.ars for perfor3in& or even ust hearin& a,outH a

vrataare lavishl/ etaile in the $ur5>as1 ho.ever the/ are not ust

characterise as a 3eans of acZuirin& bhukt$ earthl/H re.ars espite

,ein& consiere km1arites1 ,ut 3a/ also allo. the perfor3er a 3eans

to attain li,eration in the current ka+$ 1uga#86In the Buhist conte2t

vratas can also prouce 3erit an li,eration an thus can ,e classe as

8* ellner1 p# (7

8( ellner1 p# (7)

8 $earson1 p#

87 $earson1 p# 7

88 Cane1 Vol# 6#1 p# 66

86 $earson1 p# 7

(7


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soteriolo&ical reli&ion#8The ,oon of theAam Vrataat the en of the rite

is 3erit an li,eration#8Ulti3atel/1 althou&h the varie nature of a vrata

3a/ not ,e classie easil/ accorin& to an ieal version of .hat reli&ion

shoul loo- li-e1 in practise it is eas/ to see ho. its iniviualistic anoptional nature allo.s it to ,e ,oth si3ultaneousl/ km1a an

mrga\mata0

Ne.ar Buhis3 is nor3all/ cate&orise as "ah5/5na or Vara/5na

Buhis31 ho.ever it is i3portant to note that in the case of Ne.ar

Buhis3 this oes not 3ean that the Therav5a\J@na/5na path is

co3pletel/ left out# Inee1 the traition reco&nises at least three vali

paths to enli&hten3ent that of the 3on-1 the householer an the tantricpractitioner1 .ith correspon in turn to the three paths of Therav5a1

"ah5/5na an Vara/5na#8)In the Nepalese conte2t Therav5a is currentl/

use locall/ to enote 3oern Therav5in practitioners fro3 eastern +sia

.ho arrive in Nepal fro3 the (6*s an their Nepalese converts# There is

currentl/ an on&oin& lar&escale conversion rive ,/ Therav5a in Nepal1

possi,l/ helpe ,/ the traitional inclusion of 3onasticis3 in Ne.ar

Buhis31 a perceive &reater authorit/ ue to the a&e of the t.otraitions an the ecline in the a3ount of Var5c5r/a priests1 .ho are

neee for 3an/1 if not all1 "ah5/5na an Vara/5na rituals# The ter3 that

is use to 3ean the 3onastic sie of Ne.ar Buhis3 is `r5va-a/5na# +

Therav5in convert in Nepal .oul not o,serve a vrata1 an there is

harl/ an/ crossover ,et.een the t.o &roups#8In a t/pical lifeti3e1 a

Ne.ar Buhist 3ale .ill cross in succession these three sta&es of

reli&ion# +t a /oun& a&e1 he is su,ect to a co3in& of a&e ritual in .hich he,eco3es a 3on- for a short perio of ti3e1 ,efore returnin& to the la/

co33unit/ havin& iscovere a [,etter path to enli&hten3ent in

"ah5/5na# In su33ar/1 the three .a/s can ,e escri,e thus: The

8 ellner1 p# (7

8 ellner1 p# 7

8) ellner1 p# 8

8 Davi ellner1 personal co33unication#

(8


15/56


`r5va-a/5na co3prises of 3onasticis31 asceticis31 an ,asic .orship of

the `a-/a3uni Buha# It is also consiere to ,e a su,set of J@na/5na

.hich also inclues the $rat/e-a,uha/5na1 .here a person attains

enli&hten3ent ,/ the3selves .ithout havin& hear the teachin&s# The"ah5/5na path inclues the .orship of all the ,ohisattvas1 festivals1 life

c/cle rituals1 acZuirin& 3erit via onations1 an the ,ohisattva vo.#

Vara/5na inclues the .orship of specicall/ tantric eities1 initiation into

the Tantric cult of a eit/ dkaH an the acZuisition of 3a&ical a,ilities

fro3 evotion to po.erful eities an their 3antras#6*

'hen approachin& a te2t .hich contains etaile instructions an

stories it 3i&ht ,e pruent to thin- that the 3ost i3portant thin& /ou cano .ith it is to rea it# Inee1 this is .hat 3ost scholars o .hen face

.ith a te2t# But this is not the onl/ thin& the/ are for in the South +sian

conte2t1 an .hat the Ne.ar people the3selves o .ith ph/sical copies of

reli&ious te2ts is al3ost an/thin& ,ut rea the3# "ore often1 the/ are

recite1 a practise rather iMerent than reain& as it can involve aspects

such as a pu,lic litur&ical perfor3ance an a lac- of unerstanin& of the

3eanin& of the te2t or a lac- of re&ar to conve/ itH# +lso1 copies of thete2ts are 3ae to &enerate 3erit for the sponsor an sho. reli&ious

conviction# The te2ts the3selves are .orshippe .ith aro3atic po.ers1

un&uents an pastes an are carrie in procession an seen ,/ onloo-ers#

E.ar Di3oc-1 .hen his atte3pt to &et access to an ol an valua,le

Ben&ali te2t nall/ succeee1 iscovere that all ,ut one1 the colophon1

of the 7* folios .ere co3pletel/ unreaa,le ue to three centuries

.orth of .orship .ith un&uents an po.ers#6(

This is not a sin&ular eventli3ite to Ben&al Ne.ar .orshippers o the sa3e thin& .ith their sacre

te2ts Q precisel/ ,ecause the te2ts the3selves state that the/ shoul#

re&or/ Schopen 3a-es the point that 9there is Zuite clearl/ no su,stitute

for livin& conte2tsA .hen it co3es to te2tual stu/1 an this can ,e seen

6* ellner1 p# ((8

6( !e.is1 T#1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Tee7ar!uddh$#m0SUNY1 +l,an/1 Ne. Yor-1 ***1 p# IX

(6


16/56


Zuite .ell in the South +sian cultural environ3ent#6There is a ris-

ho.ever that treatin& a 3oern culture as a lin- to the istant past traps

it in ti3e an oes not allo. it the historical co3ple2it/ it 3ust certainl/

have# "oern South +sian rituals are ol1 ust as the Eucharist is ol1 ,utever/ current 3oern version of the ,rea an the .ine re0ects a lon&

histor/ of chan&e an reli&ious e,ate# The sa3e can ,e sai of South

+sian traitions1 as even thou&h the rituals are etaile thorou&hl/ .ithin

the 3anuscripts the3selves there is roo3 for chan&e or i3prove3ent#

%urrent Ne.ar traition can ,e use to put a face to these ancient rituals

,ut it cannot ,e the sole &uie#

One of the enin& characteristics of the content of Ne.ar te2ts is aprocess To !e.is calls o3estication1 .hich he enes as 9the

ialectical historical process ,/ .hich a reli&ious traition is aapte to a

re&ion or ethnic &roups socioecono3ic an cultural life#A67!e.is ar&ues

that the historical survival of reli&ious traitions is less in the 9&reat

traitionA 3issionise ,/ the 3ain ,ranch of the faith ,ut 3ore in its

a,ilit/ to ,e 93ultivocalicA1 3eanin& it &ains a lar&e spectru3 of te2ts1

rituals1 fol-lore an so on for later follo.ers to ra. upon#68

Je ar&ues thatto stu/ 9reli&ious o3esticationA /ou see- to e3onstrate the unerl/in&

reasons for the selection process as the traition evolves in specic places

an ti3es 9to the 9lo&ic of lifeA in a localit/A#66uotin& %harles Jallise/1

he notes that one of the ,asic historical Zuestions for locatin& an

unerstanin& the role of te2ts is the Zuestion of .h/ it .as chosen to

enure an not fae into o,scurit/#6Buhis3s e2pansive success .as

,ase on a 3/ria of vernacular te2ts for lait/1 not ones ai3e at anauience of 3onastic #a?ghaan philosophers# 'ith this in 3in1 .hat

can ,e consiere the 3ost in0uential of Buhist te2tual sources shoul

6 !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+4 p# 7

68 !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Te


17/56


not li3ite to a canon of te2ts hien a.a/ in a 3onaster/ ,ut 3ust also

inclue vernacular1 popular narratives# "ost Buhists have ,een .or-in&

lait/1 na3el/1 far3ers1 artisans or 3erchants1 not 3on-s1 nuns or

intellectuals#

6

'ith acae3ia often focusin& on the Buhistphilosophical .ritin&s it is so3eti3es for&otten .ho1 in fact1 are the

Buhists# +n iealise portra/al of Buhis3 .hich i&nores1 3ostl/

unintentionall/1 the lar&e a3ount of .ritten 3aterial prouce for the

,enet of the la/ 3aorit/ of the Buhist population runs the an&er of

,eco3in& ahistorical#

The earliest narrative literature of Buhis3 escri,es the

avanta&es of rituals one in a la/ settin)

This sho.s that fro3 theearliest ti3es1 la/ practise .as e3phasise in Buhist literature an .as

not a later evelop3ent# Narrative an the use of stories too .as a

co33on earl/ &enre# Even the historical `5-/a3uni Buha is sho.n

usin& para,les to illustrate octrinal points# So3e of the earliest e2a3ples

of Buhist art.or-1 especiall/ architecture1 sho. scenes .hich epict

several of these stories in etail#6The narrative literature of Buhis3

.as ivie into t.o relate cate&ories +va5na an K5ta-a# K5ta-a9Belon&in& to a previous ,irthAH are stories a,out the Buhas past lives

.hen he .as usuall/ a hu3an or an ani3al1 .hereas the topic of +va5na

literature tens to ,e the past lives of sa&es or other nonenli&htene

ones# These cate&ories o not have a ver/ strict ,ounar/1 an li-e.ise

the content shoul not ,e ri&il/ u&e ,/ the pastlife &enre# In 3an/

cases1 especiall/ in +va5na1 the fact that the stor/ is conclue .ith a

su33ar/ of the 3ain characters future incarnations1 it is seconar/ tothe 3ain plot of the stor/ an usuall/ onl/ consists of a for3ulaic enin&

etailin& ho.1 for e2a3ple1 the &oo -in& eventuall/ attaine

enli&hten3ent# !e.is notes that 9fa3iliarit/ .ith these narratives an .ith

their pu,lic recitation eventuall/ ,eca3e a reco&nise 3onastic

6 !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+4 p#

6 !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Te


18/56


avocation1 as one te2t notes si2 such roles .ithin the #a?ghathat inclue

fol-lorists t$ra#"akath$kaH#A*The 3onasteries1 ,ein& the ,earers of

literac/1 .ere the collectors of la/ stories an pu,lic stor/tellin& events

.ere co33on1 an the nuns an 3on-s also use these storiesthe3selves to e2plain octrine .ithin the 3onastic co33unit/# To stu/

popular narratives such as vratakathis to stu/ not onl/ one of the

earliest &enres of Buhis3 ,ut also to stu/ the 3ost .iesprea

literature that travelle ever/.here Buhis3 sprea1 an .as the

concern of all practitioners ,oth la/ an 3onastic#

The relationship between ritual and doctrine in Vajrayna

Buddhism

It is not ust .ith vratakaththat Buhis3 ai3s to 3a-e the lin-s

,et.een octrine an practise -no.n to its practitioners# But in the case

of tantric ritual it is philosoph/ rather than the use of narrative .hich is

3ore i3portant# Buhist ritual te2ts fro3 the Vara/5na traition are in

so3e .a/s li-e a chi3era# The/ contain 3an/ iMerent features .hich all

to&ether 3a-e a ver/ uniZue t/pe of 3onster# +s .or- ,/ Sanerson hassho.n1 one of these parts is the overall fra3e.or- .hich is ,orro.e fro3

àiva rituals1 .ith 3an/ portions of the Buhist te2t ,ein& irectl/

reacte fro3 àiva 3anuals#(

Base on a .ie ran&e of evience1 via te2tual criticis31 the

evelop3ent of the Yo&in@tantras an à4varatantras of Vara/5na

Buhis3 can ,e trace ,ac- to earl/ àiva Tantras# +le2is Sanerson

critiZues the .iel/hel vie. that all -no.n [tantra can in so3e .a/erive fro3 a co33on Inian reli&ious su,stratu31 an h/pothetical ,ase

for ritual1 te2t an icono&raph/ that sits ust ,elo. all of our -no.n e2tant

* I,i#

( Sanerson1 +#1 9Jistor/ throu&h Te2tual %riticis3in the stu/ of àivis31 the$aGcar5tra an the Buhist Yo&in@tantras#A In: -e# =our"e# et +e temp#0 =our"e# andT$me) A 6o++oDu$um1 $onicherr/1 (((7 Kanuar/ (1 eite ,/ Franbois ri3al#

$u,lications u parte3ent dInolo&ie (# $onicherr/: Institut Franbais e$onichr/\cole Franbaise dE2tr3eOrient **(H1 pp# (8#

()
https://owa.nexus.ox.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?C=fZ138VaweEeYYGQkvZJFC-T90Bbcns8IT2qmXcQCSzlX3jZ_NXxCzdMappkCkFeNe71X6UVIz3E.&URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexissanderson.com%2Fuploads%2F6%2F2%2F7%2F6%2F6276908%2Fsanderson_2001_history.pdfhttps://owa.nexus.ox.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?C=fZ138VaweEeYYGQkvZJFC-T90Bbcns8IT2qmXcQCSzlX3jZ_NXxCzdMappkCkFeNe71X6UVIz3E.&URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexissanderson.com%2Fuploads%2F6%2F2%2F7%2F6%2F6276908%2Fsanderson_2001_history.pdf


19/56


[tantra literature fro3 all traitions# Je ar&ues instea that Buhist

3aterials have a irect epenence on the àivite 3aterials# Je

conclues that al3ost ever/thin& in the Yo&in@tantras is nonBuhist in

ori&in1 espite ,ein& .holl/ Buhist in function#The ter3 9TantraA refers here to a particular set of rituals

istin&uishe fro3 the rest of Buhis3 ,/ the use of 3antras an the

visualiation of 3antras as eities1 an that access to this ritual is open to

noone1 not even 3on-s1 e2cept those .ho have ta-en an passe the

e3po.er3ent ritual initiationH# Throu&hout histor/ Buhist Tantric

initiation has ,een availa,le for la/3en of all t/pes1 an in 3an/ cases1

incluin& the 3oern era1 also oraine 3on-s an nuns espite its oftense2ual content# +n i3portant note here ho.ever is that in 3oern Nepal

a3on& Ne.ar Buhists all Tantric rituals have ,een strippe of an/

e2plicit se2ual ele3ents1 /et references to thin&s such as 3eat an

alcohol re3ain#

The su,stratu3 theor/ is e3onstrate here ,/ Stephan Be/er

.ritin& a,out the eities of the Yo&in@tantras:

9+lthou&h there are icono&raphic variations a3on& these &eneralhi&h patron eities1 the/ share instantl/ reco&nia,le si3ilaritiesthe/ are all erive fro3 the sa3e cultic stoc- that prouce theìva &ure###A7

The 3ain pro,le3 .ith this .a/ of thin-in& is that this h/pothetical

co33on ancestor is onl/ ever inferre ,ut never perceive# 'hat e2ists

are àiva1 Buhist an Vaiava te2ts or te2ts fro3 other specic cults#

Derivation fro3 a co33on stoc- cannot therefore ,e the 3ost lo&icale2planation for the si3ilarities ,et.een these te2ts1 as there is no positive

evience in this irection# +lthou&h not all Yo&in@tantra is ientia,le .ith

specic àiva tantra1 evience inicates that the author of the Buhist

te2ts re. fro3 3an/ 3aterials fro3 a certain area of the àiva canon to

Sanerson1 +#1 9Vara/5na: Ori&in an Function#A In:!uddh$#m $nto the ear FGGG#International %onference $roceein&s1 Ban&-o- an !os +n&eles: Dha33a-5/aFounation (6H1 p

7Sanerson1 9Vara/5na: Ori&in an Function#A p

(
https://owa.nexus.ox.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?C=fZ138VaweEeYYGQkvZJFC-T90Bbcns8IT2qmXcQCSzlX3jZ_NXxCzdMappkCkFeNe71X6UVIz3E.&URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexissanderson.com%2Fuploads%2F6%2F2%2F7%2F6%2F6276908%2Fsanderson_1994_vajrayana.pdfhttps://owa.nexus.ox.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?C=fZ138VaweEeYYGQkvZJFC-T90Bbcns8IT2qmXcQCSzlX3jZ_NXxCzdMappkCkFeNe71X6UVIz3E.&URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexissanderson.com%2Fuploads%2F6%2F2%2F7%2F6%2F6276908%2Fsanderson_1994_vajrayana.pdfhttps://owa.nexus.ox.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?C=fZ138VaweEeYYGQkvZJFC-T90Bbcns8IT2qmXcQCSzlX3jZ_NXxCzdMappkCkFeNe71X6UVIz3E.&URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexissanderson.com%2Fuploads%2F6%2F2%2F7%2F6%2F6276908%2Fsanderson_1994_vajrayana.pdfhttps://owa.nexus.ox.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?C=fZ138VaweEeYYGQkvZJFC-T90Bbcns8IT2qmXcQCSzlX3jZ_NXxCzdMappkCkFeNe71X6UVIz3E.&URL=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.alexissanderson.com%2Fuploads%2F6%2F2%2F7%2F6%2F6276908%2Fsanderson_1994_vajrayana.pdf


20/56


asse3,le te2ts .hich .ere not irect copies of an/ one source# The

evience in particular is that it .as o,vious to conte3porar/ àivas that

these Buhist reactors .ere cop/in& àiva scriptures# In a àiva 3/th

fro3 Cash3ir fro3 the thirteenth centur/1 the Jinu &os are ,ein&oppresse ,/ three e3ons# The/ can o nothin& to stop the31 as in an

e2traorinar/ turn of fate1 evotion to the ìva cult has 3ae the3

invinci,le# Bhaspati invents the follo.in& solution:

9I shall propa&ate the follo.in& s/ste3 an call it Bauha Qtruthfull/ enou&h1 since it .ill ,e no 3ore than the invention of 3/intellect# In it the fa3ous Buha .ill ,e represente as 3aster overthe &os### I shall a certain 3antras culle fro3 the àiva Tantras

an liftin& various passa&es out of these scriptures of ìva I shallfa,ricate an propa&ate a s/ste3 of BuhistP Tantric ritual#A8

Fallin& for this ne. an i3prove Tantric eal1 the e3ons of course coul

,e Zuelle# In another version of this earl/ propa&ana 3/th1 the three

e3ons are Jevara1 à4vara an the gi,uha .ho have estro/e all

orthoo2 reli&ion in the .orl# This clearl/ sho.s that at least at the ti3e

of the creation of this 3/th1 the Buhist .or-s the author has in 3in are

the Yo&in@tantras1 as it is there .here Jevara an à4vara are foun#+lthou&h of course hi&hl/ ,iase1 these t.o 3/thical accounts of

Buhis3 ,orro.in& fro3 àiva te2ts rests on facts easil/ visi,le if one

reas the Yo&in@tantras there are e2tensive parallels ,et.een these te2ts

an parts of the àiva canon# There are in fact si3ilar 3/ths fro3 the

Buhist sie# The rst 3aor Buhist Tantra1 the

&ahva$ro"anbh$#a?bodh$1 .as selfconscious a,out the fact that it

coul ,e accuse of a,sor,in& nonBuhist practises into "ah5/5na:

9O Varap5>iP !or of the Ya-


21/56


9I have tau&ht this "antra of ìvaP .hich to&ether .ith the trient"ura estro/s all e3ons### Those livin& on the earth .ill sa/ thatits ancient Calpa1 that I tau&ht in for3er ti3es1 .as tau&ht ,/ ìva#ButP the various e2cellent e2tensive CalpasP in the àiva Tantras

are in fact 3/ teachin&s#A

Jo.ever the tone of these ar&u3ents is iMerent to the ones 3ae on the

àiva sie# Not onl/ .as the for3er foun in the rst 3aor Buhist

Tantra1 .orr/in& a,out ho. the future .oul ta-e these ne. teachin&s1

,ut it specicall/ 3entions that people 3i&ht co3e to sa/ it .as not

ori&inall/ Buhist# The seventh centur/ source oes not specicall/

ene these others as àiva1 ,ut .e can rule out the iea that these

others .ere part of a co33on reli&ious su,stratu3 ,ecause of the -no.npopularit/ of àiva rituals at that ti3e# Interestin&l/1 an account of the

3/th of the three e3ons oppressin& the &os appears in at least t.o

vratakath collections for the Tr Vrataan theAhortra Vrata# In the

Tr Vrataone of the e3,ee narratives tells this stor/:

9Once .hen the e3ons ouste !or Brah351 Viu1 "aheshvaraan Inra fro3 their thrones1 these &os .ent to ta-e refu&e in U&ra

T5r51 a &oess .ho in turn as-e the3 to pra/ an to recite themantraof gr/a T5r5#

Strai&ht a.a/ the &os .ent to the present site of the Tr trthaan recite the mantra of gr/a T5r5 as irecte# +fter the recitationof the mantra,/ the &os1 the gr/a T5r5 3ae her appearanceri&ht at the trthaan li,erate Brah351 Viu1 "aheshvara1 anInra fro3 their 3iseries# O entle !a/ You also 3a/ perfor3p@jto U&ra T5r5 Barao&in@ then &o to ,athe at thisP Tr trtha.here/ou shoul also 3eitate an oMer pra/ers#A

This vratakathis enitel/ a version of the three e3on stor/1 .hich .as

create in orer to ,rin& authorit/ to one tantric traition over another#

6 Sanerson1 +#1 The àiva +&e: The Rise an Do3inance of àivis3 urin& theEarl/ "eieval $erio# In: %ene#$# and 2eve+opment o' Tantr$#m1eite ,/Shin&o Einoo# To-/o: Institute of Oriental %ulture1 Universit/ of To-/o1 **#Institute of Oriental %ulture Special Series1 71 p()

Sanerson1 9The àiva +&eA1 p(7*# See also p(*( for reference to ate#

!e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Te


22/56


Jere ho.ever an/ secret tantric ritual for initiates onl/ is replace .ith a

pil&ri3a&e to the Tr trtha4 an inte&ral part of the Tr Vrataif it is

possi,le to o4 an in the te2t this stor/ is calle the ori&in 3/th for this

particular pil&ri3a&e an the reason people ,e&an to &o there# The for3of T5r51 U&ra T5r5 Barao&in@1 is a local Nepalese for3 of the eit/ fro3

B5&uv5l1 near the to.n of S5n-hu .hich has a popular te3ple to the

&oess#)This inicates that the reason for incluin& this stor/ into the

Tr Vratakath 3a/ ,e to &ive authorit/ to a local version of the eit/ ,/

su,vertin& 3ore fa3ous &ures# The &os .hose authorit/ is uner3ine

are all nonBuhist &ures1 as it .oul not 3a-e sense for a Bohisattva

to nee the help of another Bohisattva1 ,ut the e3phasis here is on

pro3otin& a local reli&ious &ure usin& a popular stor/ rather than

uner3inin& the Jinu &os# It shoul ,e note ho.ever that Buhist

lait/ in Nepal are often inclusive rather than e2clusive .hen it co3es to

rituals such as vratas1 an .ill often perfor3 a popular ritual .hatever

reli&ion it ,elon&s to# The 3essa&e that Buhist rituals are superior

.oul not ,e lost on the perfor3ers of the rite .ho hear this stor/1 ,ut

.hat it is ulti3atel/ tr/in& to o is 3a-e people perfor3 the full version of

the vrataan travel to the Tr trtha at B5&uv5l#

There are parts of tantric te2ts .hich o not o.e their inclusion to

`aiva ,orro.in&s1 ,ut serve to incorporate Buhist ,eliefs into the ritual

in orer to 3a-e the resultin& function of the te2ts entirel/ Buhist# This

can ,e seen in the inclusion of 3eitations on e3ptiness1 ta-in& the

,ohisattva vo.1 the transference of 3erit1 an the incorporation of lists

of corresponin& philosophical attri,utes to so3e of the ph/sicalco3ponents an 3ental visualisations of the ritual# This is calle the

v$uddh$process# It is i3portant to unerstan ho. Buhis3 utilises

iMerent 3ethos of reactin& ritual te2ts other than vratakath1

especiall/ as this v$uddh$process is visi,le in tantric te2ts use in Ne.ar

Buhis3# It shoul not ,e assu3e that the use of either v$uddh$ or the

narrative traition to len a te2t a specic Buhist or local authorit/ that

) !e.is1 T#1 9"ah5/5na Vratas in Ne.ar Buhis3#AJ9A!=1 (1 (:(*7)1 ()1p# (()


23/56


it int possess ,efore is e2clusive1 in fact the t.o 3ethos or at least1

the resiual eMects of one or the otherH can often ,e seen in the sa3e

conte2t# "eanin& 9puricationA1 these v$uddh$ corresponences

accorin& to Elia,eth En&lish are 3eant to esta,lish1 or reesta,lish1 the/o&ins union .ith the eit/#'e 3ust unerstan then that i3purit/ is

an o,stacle to the full ,enets of such a ritual# This is a 3ental i3purit/1

.hich coul ,e escri,e as the practitioners 3ental state ,ein& outsie

of the ritual ti3e# $h/sical 9i3purit/A in the rituals1 such as the use of

culturall/ irt/ su,stances1 is constantl/ challen&in& the 3eanin& of purit/

an i3purit/ for the rituan1 ,ut this purposefull/ provocative nature oes

not e2ten as far as his 3in#*Je 3ust re3ain certain an steafast in

his conviction that1 for e2a3ple1 the amta# urine1 faeces1 se3en1

3enstrual ,loo an phle&3 or 3eatH are in fact pure su,stances1 an he

3ust &ratefull/ receive his &urus se3en after he has copulate .ith the

consort &irl# Overall1 the v$uddh$process can ,e escri,e as the 3eans

,/ .hich the practitioner retains his lin- .ith the eit/ in orer to 3a-e

the ritual vali# It is a construct to -eep ritual ti3e an ritual space in

eMect1 often throu&h nu3,ere sets of concorances lin-in& the ritual to

Abh$dharmater3inolo&/#

The ter3 v$uddh$ appears in Vara/5na te2ts alon&sie other

freZuent ter3s such as uddh$4 odhana4 par$odhana4 u"$4 v1avadna

anadh$v#ana4 .ithv$uddh$ and uddh$,ein& the 3ost use0'e also

n 9chapters on puricationA1 v$uddh$paa+as1 in the Jevara Tantra1

%a>?a3ah5roa Tantra an Buha-ap5la Tantra#(Sferra notes that

there are t.o .a/s in .hich this ter3 an its var/in& s/non/3s appear inVara/5na literature1 one ritual an the other speculative#It is i3portant

,efore continuin& to 3a-e clear in .hat .a/ this stu/ unerstans the

En&lish1 Elia,eth# Vajra1og$n) .er v$#ua+$#at$on#4 r$tua+#4 and 'orm#1 'iso3$u,lications1 **1 p# ((

* B/ 9irt/A I o not 3ean to ,e colloZuial1 I a3 referrin& to "ar/ Dou&las oftZuote e2planation that irt is 3erel/ 93atter out of placeA fro3 her .or- Pur$t1and 2anger#

(Sferra1 F#1 [The concept of $urication in so3e te2ts of late Inian Buhis3A1 inJourna+ o' 9nd$an Ph$+o#oph1 (\H:)7(*7 (H1 p# )8

7


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ter3# The speculative .a/ in .hich v$uddh$ appears shall not ,e

e2a3ine here# In that conte2t the ter3 enotes the 9purenessA of

Buha nature1 or 9puricationA as a process lin-e to the essential nature

of thin&s1 not to ,e confuse .ith the v$uddh$ process of encoin& anpurif/in& ritual# This speculative purication1 as a philosophical concept1 is

su,ect to reenition over ti3e .ithin the iMerent Buhist schools1

lin-e to the relationship ,et.een 3in "$ttaH an i3purit/ ma+aH#7In its

ritual sense1 the ter3 9puricationA 3eans iMerent thin&s at iMerent

sta&es of the ritual# In rituals .hich have to ,e perfor3e ,efore the

ra.in& of the 3a>?ala an urin& the initiation cere3on/ the ter3

si&nies 9eli3inationA1 as an/ t/pe of purication at this sta&e is a,out

re3ovin& i3purities present in the 3in an ,o/ of the practitioner1 in

the initiation su,stances1 an the platfor3 for the ritual#8+t this sta&e

purication is one ,/ ph/sical actions such as fastin& or ,/ recitin&

3antras# Durin& initiation1 .hich itself is often escri,e as a process of

purication1 purit/ is achieve throu&h 3antras or cleansin& aspersions1

#eka# Interestin&l/1 the ter3 for initiation is abh$eka4.hich espite the

retro0e2 erives fro3 the sa3e root #$"9pour outAH#6

Davi Snell&rove notes that the ter3 v$uddh$in the instru3ental

can also 3ean so3ethin& represente ,/ so3ethin& else# So1 In the

.evajratantra1 the initiation of the 3aster is purie ,/ a s3ile1 3eanin&

that the initiation is s/3,olise ,/ a s3ile#Jere the ter3 ,e&ins to shift

a.a/ fro3 purication an into its nal use to 3ean a s/3,olic

relationship1 a corresponence ,et.een see3in&l/ unrelate levels of

realit/# To s/3,olise an to purif/1 in this sense1 is essentiall/ the sa3ethin Deities1 3a>?alas1 3antras1 colours1 e3otions1 parts of the ,o/1

I,i#

7 Sferra1 p# )

8 Sferra1 p# )6

6'hitne/1 '#1 D#1 The *oot#4 VerbH'orm# and Pr$mar1 2er$vat$ve# o' the =an#kr$t-anguage# !o. $rice $u,lications1 Ne. Delhi1 **1 p# ()

I,i#

8


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reli&ious an philosophical concepts are all 3utuall/ relate in so3e .a/#

There is not al.a/s co3plete a&ree3ent in .hich .a/s the/ are relate1

the/ 3a/ overlap an a part of a 3a>?ala 3a/ have 3ore than one

philosophical relationship1 or to .hat e2actl/ a certain list is relate to3a/ chan&e1 for e2a3ple fro3 a set of &oesses to the colours on a

3a>?ala# +n e2a3ple of this v$uddh$process can ,e seen in the

=aptkara#dhana:

S3tisa3,oh/aG&a3 r@heru-a1har33apravica/asa3,oh/a>&a3 Sr@heru-@1 v@r//asa3,oh/a>&a3

Vara,hairav@1 pr@tisa3,oh/a>&a3horaca>?@1prasra,hisa3,oh/a>&a3Vara,h5s-ar@1sa35hisa3,oh/a>&a3Vararaur@1upe-&a3Vara?5-in@#

Ca>jhi-5 ruca-a4 ratna4P-u>?ala3 ,has3a s=tra-a3#kajp5ra3it5vi;uh/5,oh/a>&a3###

Sr@heru-a is the ele3ent ofenli&hten3ent of 3infulness1Sr@heru-@ is the ele3ent of

enli&hten3ent of penetratin&investi&ation1 Vara,hairav@ is theele3ent of enli&hten3ent ofener&/1 horaca>?@ is the ele3entof enli&hten3ent of o/1Vara,h5s-ar@ is the ele3ent ofenli&hten3ent of enurance1Vararaur@ is the ele3ent ofenli&hten3ent of concentration1

anP Vara?a-in@ is the ele3ent ofenli&hten3ent of eZuani3it/#The cro.n1 ,racelet1 e.el1 earrin&s1ash an the sacre threa# Thesesi2 orna3ents of the eit/P shoul,e unerstoo as the si2perfections#

The si2 perfections of dna4 +a4 knt$4 vr1a4 dh1naanprajI

ver/ rou&hl/ translate as &enerosit/1 virtue1 patience1 ili&ence1

concentration an .iso3 respectivel/H are liste in "ah5/5na te2ts such

as the =addharma Puarka =@tra1 the fa3ous !otus S=tra1 an 3an/

others# Jere in the =aptkara#dhanathe/ correspon respectivel/ to

iMerent parts of the icono&raph/ of the &oesses# The &oesses

the3selves correspon in turn to one of the !odh1aIgas4 the Seven

Ele3ents of Enli&hten3ent# Jere .e have a sli&ht overlap1 .ith

Vara,hairav@ herself ,ein& the ele3ent of vr1a as .ell as the eit/s

earrin&s# The 3ost i3portant factor in choosin& .hich corresponences to

6


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aopt .as the nu3,er1 not the content# There .ere seven &oesses for

the Seven +ncillaries of Enli&hten3ent an si2 selecte orna3ents for the

Si2 $erfections# $erhaps if there happene to ,e one 3ore &oess1 the

corresponin& list .oul chan&e to the Ei&htfol $ath of the No,le ones#+lso nota,le is the use of ash in the icono&raph/1 a traitionall/ ver/ àiva

s/3,ol .ith no Buhist connotations# Borro.e irectl/ fro3 ori&inal

àiva te2ts1 here it is eno.e .ith Buhist 3eanin& via this v$uddh$

process# 'hat .as ori&inall/ a ver/ 3unane icon1 irectl/ ta-en fro3

another traition .ith no Buhist relevance1 has ,eco3e another 3eans

to the path of enli&hten3ent# Nor3al o,ects ,elieve to contain no

special relationship to enli&hten3ent1 .iso31 or .hichever concept it is

later lin-e to1 .hen use in the ritual space1 via this process ,eco3e

tools to attain enli&hten3ent# +nthon/ Tri,e points out that this even

.or-s for ne&ative conitions such as sa4s5ra1 3eanin& that i&norance

an suMerin& the3selves can ,eco3e tools to reach enli&hten3ent via

this process of purication#

This purication process ulti3atel/ see3s to serve t.o purposes#

$racticall/1 it is a tool to help sustain ritual ti3e# B/ en&a&in& the 3in ofthe practitioner an/ ou,ts as to the nature of the thin&s he is ealin&

.ith is ispelle# The erce &oesses1 .rathful1 se2ual an unorthoo21

are &iven a ne. la/er of reli&ious 3eanin& .hich not onl/ eies the

concepts1 ,ut lin-s the3 .ith the nonTantric "ah5/5na teachin&s# The

other purpose is to 3aintain Buhist authorit/ over the te2t1 .hich it

shares .ith other Ne.ar Buhist te2ts as .ell1 such as the Vratakath

literature an its 3an/ stories aapte fro3 +va5na te2ts# In this casethe authorit/ is apt ue to1 as .ith the àiva ash in the

=aptkara#dhana4 vratas traitionall/ ,ein& a Jinu practise# +nother

e2a3ple .oul ,e the use of fra3in& narratives in the

%uakraav1@ha1 .hich althou&h &ot 3ost of its content fro3 the

raav1@ha1 .as less intereste in the content an care 3ore a,out

,orro.in& authorit/ fro3 a fa3ous an presti&ious te2t# This is re0ecte

'illia3s1 $#1 an Tri,e1 +#1 !uddh$#t Thought1 Routle&e ***1 p#*(


27/56


insie the te2t ,/ the inclusion of a ne. fra3in& narrative1 a

characteristicall/ 3eieval Nepalese narrative feature1 that allo.s it to

,eco3e the irect escenant to a linea&e of i3portant .ritin&s#)In the

%uakraav1@ha4 the overarchin& fra3in& narrative is a -in& ,ein&tau&ht ,/ his political avisor an rjaguru1 .ho is in a linea&e of teachers

&oin& ,ac- to the follo.ers of the Buha# The te2t follo.s a series of

teachin& ialo&ues1 each lin-e to its enclosin& fra3in& narrative ,/ ,ein&

the .ors an ees of the earlier outerH fra3es narrators teacher# +

successful fra3in& narrative can ,rin& the te2t authorit/ fro3 past

teachers an Buhas1 ,ut the/ are not consiere inepenent fro3 the

neste te2t# Events in the fra3in& narrative can aMect the e3,ee

narrative1 an vice versa1 for e2a3ple in a Nepalese version of the

Va?va+ `iva atte3pts to narrate his recent teachin&s fro3

+valo-ite;vara to his .ife $5rvat@ an thus create a fra3in& narrative1 ,ut

she falls asleep# 'hen he is 3ae a.are of this1 his i33eiate reaction is

not to consier the fra3in& narrative lost1 ,ut to thin- that ,ecause he

has ,een spea-in&1 there 3ust have ,een a listener# Je .as ri&ht1 an

+valo-ite;vara ha ,een listenin& in the for3 of a near,/ sh1 ,ecause

9the a,sence of a listener .ithin the fra3in& narrative is intolera,leA#

This is use to &enerate authorit/ in the %uakraav1@ha1 .here the

listener in one of the fra3in& narratives1 havin& ,een tol a,out

+valo-ite;vara in e3,ee narrativesH1 .ants so ,al/ to 3eet hi3 an

3ove his o.n ialo&ue to an e3,ee narrative1 .hich is usuall/ set in

the past an thus 3ore respecta,le# Je is nall/ re.are .ith a

visualisation of +valo-ite;vara1 .hich serves to ,rin& the sa3e level of

authorit/ to the /oun&er1 outer fra3in& narrative that the oler1 inner

fra3in& narratives have# The purpose of creatin& narrative tension in the

outer fra3e .as to ,rin& the entire te2t the authorit/ .hich oler

Buhist .or-s have#)*

) TulaharDou&las1 p# 8

TulaharDou&las1 p# (*

)* TulaharDou&las1 p# 7


28/56


Localisation and authority in Nepalese narratives.

In ever/ Ne.ar stor/1 .ithout an/ -no.n e2ception1 a t/pe of

localisation of the stor/ content can ,e foun#)(The events an places

feature in Buhist stories are 2e &eo&raphicall/ an ethnicall/ to the

local co33unit/1 thus also 2in& &eo&raphic an ethnic ientication .ith

the stories the3selves# Throu&h such stories1 local Buhists not onl/

unerstoo the si&nicance of an/ i3parte reli&ious teachin&s1 ,ut also

esta,lishe their local nei&h,ourhoos as the sites of reli&ious an

3iraculous events1 as .ell as securin& the reli&ion r3l/ .ith their o.n

ethnic ientit/# Kust as across Nepal an Ti,et there are 3an/ caves sai

to have ,een inha,ite ,/ the &reat sa&e uru Rinpoche1 stories have

&iven authorit/ not onl/ to the rituals an philosoph/ the/ contain1 ,ut

also to local spiritual lan3ar-s1 t/in& reli&ion to the local lanscape# +ll

vratakathcontain so3e for3 of fra3in& narrative or internal reference

that lin-s the stories .ith the historical Buha1 3a-in& e2plicit clai3s for

the authorit/ of the ritual#)So3e stories also clai3 that the prota&onists

are the ethnic ancestors of the co33unit/1 seen for e2a3ple in the

gabher Avadnaan the 6aturda Vrata#

The gabher Avadna is si3ilar to vratakathliterature an in

so3e cases is use as vratakathH in that it is a narrative .hich e2pouns

the ,enets an 3eanin& of a ritual1 ,ut in this case the ritual is a for3 of

"a$t1aveneration# The te2t is the ,asis for a specic ritual one in its

honour1 ,ut is also use as an e2a3ple of the ,enets of "a$t1a.orship in

other conte2ts1 such as .hen it is a part of another ritual# The gabherAvadnais so3eti3es foun in the vratakathte2t for the -aka"a$t1a

Vrata9hunre thousan "a$t1ao,servanceAH1 .hich as its na3e

su&&ests involves the 3a-in& of a hunre thousan or so s3all1

te3porar/ "a$t1as ,/ a fa3il/1 an is conclue .ith a reain& fro3 the

)(!e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+1 p# ((6

)


29/56


gabher Avadna0KLThis is not a sin&ular e2a3ple ho.ever1 an the

3a-in& of s3all "a$t1as 3ae 3ost often of cla/ or san is a reZuire3ent

of several Ne.ar vratas#)8+ "a$t1a Sans-rit1 9re3iners1 3e3orialsA fro3

the ver,al root "$t1 9thin-1 -no.AH4 often consiere a s/non/3 for #t@paSans-rit1 literall/ 9heapAH1 is a 3onu3ent constructe to contain Buhist

relics1 usuall/ the ashes or other re3ains or possessions of an i3portant

Buhist &ure# The/ have a &eneral appearance consistin& of a sZuare

,ase1 roune roof an taperin& spire1 thou&h other &eo3etric shapes are

use# !# e !a Vallee $oussin notes ho.ever that a Dhar3a&upta

co33entar/ on the V$na1a3onastic coe su&&ests the e2istence of a

technical istinction1 .here a #t@pa contains relics .hereas a "a$t1a oes

not#)6Re&arless of this the t.o structures are inti3atel/ relate as the/

are treate essentiall/ the sa3e in practical reli&ious .orship# Other for3s

of "a$t1a.orship in Ne.ar societ/ inclue d1aMth1eguNe.ari 9"a-in&

the eit/AH .here special ,lac- cla/ "a$t1as are ispose of at a the sie

of a river urin& the Buhist hol/ 3onth of u>l51 an nor3al san

"a$t1as are 3oule ,/ a river as part of certain raddha p@js1 an in

,oth of these cases the gabher Avadna 3a/ ,e rea alou#)

The ,asic content of the gabher Avadna can ,e eter3ine

throu&h co3parison ,et.een iMerent versions# !e.is &ives an En&lish

translation of a 3oern version .hich clai3s the Sans-rit 6$trav$?#at$

Avadnaas its source# This a&rees .ith Raenralala "itra1 .ho in his

catalo&ue of Sans-rit Buhist 3anuscripts fro3 Nepal foun t.o versions

of the gabher Avadnaa3on& 3anuscripts collecte ,/ the naturalist

an ethnolo&ist Brian Jou&hton Jo&son# One clai3s to ,e a chapter ofthe 6$trav$?#at$ Avadna4 ate un-no.n1an contains escriptions of the

"a$t1a#a?varaan gabher rituals as .ell as a narrative .hich closel/1

)7 !e.is1Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+1 p# 7)

)6 !e.is1Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+1 pp# 7)


30/56


if not ienticall/1 rese3,les the 3oern version#)The other is si3ilar in

content althou&h 3ore a3plie1 is ate as Nepal Sa3,at )8) aroun

() +DH1 an clai3s to ,e a part of the Vratvadnam+1 3a-in& it

e2plicitl/ a vratakathte2t#

))

"itra also has a source for theVratvadnam+1 ,ut it is onl/ a fra&3ent1 containin& three chapters of

the stor/ of Suvar>avar>a in praise of the -aka"a$t1a Vrata4 ho.ever in

other conte2ts the te2t is -no.n to contain 3an/ iMerent vratakath

stories an ue to it containin& -aka"a$t1a Vratakath the full version

pro,a,l/ i contain the gabher Avadna0KN

Usin& the evience presente ,/ !e.is an "itra a su33ar/ of the

,asic stor/ of the gabher Avadna can ,e su33e up as follo.s# Thestor/ is rst &iven a fra3in& narrative .hich clai3s it .as tol ,/ the

`5-/a3uni Buha at the reZuest of his fa3ous isciple `5riputra1 .ho

as-e the Buha to relate ho. it is possi,le that so3e people are a,le to

attain li,eration throu&h "a$t1a.orship acco3panie ,/ ,lo.in& a ,uMalo

horn instru3ent# There is also a secon fra3in& narrative at this point1

.here the `5-/a3uni Buha narrates that it is $ua# This shoul ,e

one after ,athin The &ivin& of &ifts1 sittin& in front of a "a$t1a.hile

) "itra1 R#1 The =an#kr$t !uddh$#t -$terature o' >epa+# Eli,ron %lassics1 **81 p#

)) "itra1 p# 7(

) "itra1 p# 6

* "orris1 R#1 e#1 9XXVII: !ist of the BuhasA1 The !uddhavam#a1 $ali Te2t Societ/1!onon1 ())1 pp# Q

7*


31/56


see-in& refu&e in the three e.els1 .hite.ashin& a "a$t1a.ith li3e1

ecoratin& one .ith &arlans an 3a-in& oMerin&s to a "a$t1aall result in

&ainin& 3ore 3erit an virtuous re,irths# Durin& this 3onth one .ho

.ishes to o this gabherrite shoul also 3a-e s3all votive cait/asever/ a/ until the/ have 3ae over a hunre thousan of the3 the

-aka"a$t1a VrataH# These can ,e 3ae of co. un&1 cla/1 sanstone or

3etal accorin& to the availa,le 3eans of the practitioner# 'hen this is

one alone it is -no.n onl/ as the -aka"a$t1a Vrata4 ,ut to&ether .ith

the 3usic an circu3a3,ulation urin& `r5va>a it is calle the gabher

rite#(+n appeni2 fro3 an earl/ nineteenth centur/ cop/ of the

Buhacharita also conr3s that there is a lon& traitional association

,et.een these t.o rituals#

The Buha then relates the stor/ of Cin& Si4ha-etu .ho live

happil/ in the cit/ of `a;ipra,h5 .ith his lovin& .ife Sula-5# !e.is lists

the na3e of the cit/ as `a;ipajjana an the na3e of the Zueen as

S=ra-@1 ,oth ver/ si3ilar .ors to the oler versions1 asprabh

splenorH anpaanacit/H are co33on enin&s for cities an to.ns# +s

has ,een seen ,efore in this issertation .ith the Nepal\Ne.ar e2a3ple1 a$ra-rit R can 3utate into the Sans-rit ! an as seen in the case of

Sula-5\S=ra-@ the reverse is also true#7Both >5 an >@ are

co33on fe3inine na3e enin&s an their chan&e over ti3e reZuires no

aitional e2planation# The -in& hunte constantl/ an -ille 3an/ livin&

creatures1 3uch to the istress of his .ife1 .ho counselle hi3 one a/ to

&ive up his love of huntin&1 concerne a,out the retri,ution he 3ust

surel/ face in his future ,irths for ,ein& the e2ter3inator of so 3an/ lives#She Zuotes so3e verses on the virtues of ah$?#nonviolenceH to hi31

an a3on& the 3ethos she su&&ests to counter his trans&ressions is

circu3a3,ulatin& a "a$t1a# I&norin& his .ifes avice1 the -in& eventuall/

( "itra1 p# 7*

%o.ell1 E# B#1 an others1 !uddh$#t &ah1na Te


32/56


passe a.a/# So istrau&ht .as she at the passin& of her hus,an into

.hat 3ust ,e a terri,le ne2t ,irth1 she i33olates herself on her

hus,ans funeral p/re# Note that the traitionall/ Jinu practise of .io.

selfi33olation #atH is feature pro3inentl/ here1 in a Buhist stor/1.ith onl/ &oo 3oral conseZuences# The#at rite also appears in so3e

Tr Vratakath4 ,ut in a ne&ative .a/1 .ith the .o3an .ho co33its

suicie &oin& strai&ht to hell#8It see3s stran&e that this shoul happen

after the Zueen has ust ,een Zuotin& scripture a,out the virtues of non

violence1 an /et this stor/ coul not continue .ithout the .io.

i33olation havin& ta-en place# The inclusion of #atin a te2t .ritten for

la/ co33unities sho.s that there .as a practise of reli&ious s/ncretis3 in

Ne.ar co33unities si3ilar to the afore3entione 3ethos1 such as

v$uddh$4that tantric an scholastic te2ts use in orer to react

previousl/ `aivite 3aterial# The purpose ho.ever see3s to ,e a re0ective

one1 it is not inclue to chan&e or authorise certain practises ,ut to

reprouce .hat the co33unit/ alrea/ oes# "ore e2a3ples of

traitionall/ nonBuhist practises appearin& in stories is seen later in

this issertation#

+fter a ti3e spent in hell1 her hus,an eventuall/ .or-s his .a/ up

to ,ein& re,orn as a ,uMalo in his ol cit/1 an the 3eritorious Zueen .as

re,orn as a brhma.o3an in the sa3e cit/# Jer na3e in this life .as

R=pavat@1 an she .as &iven the tas- of loo-in& after the fa3il/ ,uMalo#

She reect all oMers of 3arria&e1 until a Bohisattva ca3e to her an tol

her that the ,uMalo she cares for ever/ a/ .as actuall/ her hus,an in a

previous life1 oo3e to ,e -ille ,/ the .il ,easts of the forest# If she.ante to help hi31 she .oul have to &ather up the ,uMalos re3ains

an put the3 into a "a$t1a3ae of san# In one of "itras versions1 she is

avise instea to thro. the ,ones into the river an create the "a$t1aon

the spot .here the ,uMalo .as slain# She 3a/ use one of the ,uMalos

horns for oMerin& it .ater1 an the other as a tru3pet as she

circu3a3,ulates it# 'hen it ca3e to pass that the ,uMalo .as attac-e

8 !e.is1 p# (*

7


33/56


an -ille ,/ .il ani3als1 she follo.e the avice of the Bohisattva until

one a/ an ele&ant "a$t1aappeare in the s-/1 an 3er&e .ith her san

"a$t1a# Fro3 the tru3pet horn e3er&e a person1 her hus,an1 li,erate

fro3 his suMerin Javin& circu3a3,ulate the "a$t1ato&ether in&ratitue1 the/ live happil/ ever after as -in& an Zueen of the cit/ once

3ore1 e2tollin& the virtues of the gabherrite#

The gabher Avadnavoices a Buhist opinion less often hear

that rather than ,ein& a hinrance1 3arrie life can actuall/ help a

practitioner alon& the path to enli&hten3ent# Jouseholer Buhis3 .as

never in an/ opposition to 93ainstrea3A 3onasticis3 rather it .as itself

the 3ainstrea3 in that it .as the path ta-en ,/ the 3aorit/ of Buhists#R=pavat@ is less of 9an o,stacle to virtue1 3eitation1 an to .iso3### li-e

a thief1 a 3urerer1 or a &uarian of hellA as .ives have ,een escri,e in

the Buhist traition1 ,ut ust the opposite#6+s has ,een e2a3ine

alrea/1 Ne.ar Buhis3 has a sphere of reli&ion .hich activel/ pro3otes

the householer lifest/le# +s a te2t ai3e pri3aril/ at a Ne.ar la/

auience1 this .as 3ost li-el/ the senti3ent e2presse outsie a

3onastic settin&1 at &atherin&s of la/ people such as on the :poadhaa/s# Jistoricall/ "a$t1as an #t@pas have al.a/s ,een focal points for

pil&ri3a&e an local .orship# On full 3oon an ei&hth lunar a/s #t@pa

.orship .as one of the 3ost i3portant activities#

The Upoadha andAam Vrata.

The :poadhaa/ has a lon& histor/ .ith Buhis3 an is

associate .ith it fro3 its earliest ti3es# :poadha4or ust Po#aha4 is the

ter3 use in Nepal Bhasa an Nepalese Sans-rit ritual te2ts1 anco3es

fro3 the $ali .or :po#atha1 .hich in turn erives fro3 the Sans-rit

upava#atha1 the ter3 use for a a/ of fastin& an preparation that

precee preBuhist Veic sacrice a/s#)Of the 3an/ ritual

sacrices .hich Veic householers ha to perfor31 t.o .ere lunar

sacrices one on the ne. 3oon daraH an full 3oon puram#aH# The

6 !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+1 p# 8*

77


34/56


a/ ,efore the/ .ere to ,e one .as a preparator/ ti3e1 calle vrata1

lle .ith rites for purication such as fastin&1 esistin& fro3 .or- an

se2ual a,stinence in orer to ,rin& the sacricer closer to the &os#

Jence the ter3 upava#atha4 fro3 upa9nearA an va#9.ellA1 referrin& to.ellin& nearer to the &os urin& this perio#(**This vrataa/ of

preparation .oul have ,een hel on the a/ ,efore the sacrice1 so on

the (8tht$th$lunar a/H if it .as the (6th:po#atha1 for e2a3ple see the

Yaurvea (##: 9Even as the So3a sacricesP co3e to&ether in

co3petition1 so the ne. an full 3oon sacricesP are sacrices .hich

co3e to&ether in co3petition# 'hose sacrice then o the &os approach

an .hose not] Je1 .ho a3on& 3an/ sacricers rst appropriates the

&os1 sacrices to the3 .hen the ne2t a/ co3es#A B/ the ti3e Buhis3

ha rose in popularit/ to ,eco3e a 3aor reli&ion1 the .or ha co3e to

3ean 9the a/ precein& four sta&es of the 3oons .a2in& an .anin&1

vi# (st1 )th1 (6th1 7rni&hts of the lunar 3onth### a .ee-l/ sacre a/1 a

Sa,,ath#A(*( Because the vrata.as ori&inall/ a preparator/ rite an it

.as the sacrice .hich .as on the :poadha1 it ori&inall/ fell on the a/

,efore1 the (8th# The :poadha a/ of rest .as o,serve even in

co33unities .hich i not perfor3 sacrices1 so the preparator/ rite

,eforehan shoul not have hel an/ interest1 an /et .e n that

possi,l/ ue to the popularit/ of the later ru,ricate $ur5>ic vrataritual1

as the post popular rite the ori&inall/ onl/ preparator/H vrata3oves to

the 3ost popular a/ a3on& co33unities .hich o not sacrice#(*So3e

vratas1 such as the &ahk+a Vrata1 are still one on the (8th lunar a/1 in

Rh/sDavis1 T# '#1 an Stee1 '#1 The Pa+$ Tet =o"$et1;# Pa+$HEng+$#h 2$"t$onar11 $aliTe2t Societ/1 !onon1 ((6# The entr/ on Uposatha is availa,le online athttp:\\sal#uchica&o#eu\c&i,in\philolo&ic\&eto,ect#pl]c#*:(:8*((#pali#

) !oc-e (*

!oc-e1 p# (*

(** I,i#

(*( I,i1 pp# (6((6

(*i,i1 p# (*

78
http://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:4011.palihttp://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/getobject.pl?c.0:1:4011.pali


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this case on the (8tha/ of the ar- half1 ,ecause of the stron&

si&nicance that a/ has as a ti3e of ar- happenin&s#

The a/s of the full 3oon an the ne. 3oon .ere the 3ost popular

:poadhaa/s to hol re&ular Buhist cele,rations an festivals#Va$khaor Vesa-H1 a hol/ a/ that cele,rates the ,irth1 enli&hten3ent

an eath of `5-/a3uni Buha1 al.a/s falls on a full 3oon a/# Ever/

t.o .ee-s on these ne. an full 3oon a/s the oraine Buhist

#a?ghareaLr3 their aherence to theprt$moka1 a list of rules for

3onastic iscipline fro3 the V$na1a3onastic coe that &overns the

,ehaviour of 3on-s an nuns# The/ also practise +o"an4 .here a 3on-

or nun confesses an/ sins the/ 3a/ have co33itte or rules the/ 3a/have ,ro-en privatel/ to their superiors an one of the earliest of all

Buhist custo3s#(*7:poadha a/s .ere traitionall/ use ,/ iMerent

sects an schools of all 3ain conte3porar/ reli&ions1 as .ell as .anerers

an ascetics1 to teach an e2poun their vie.s1 a practise .hich

Buhis3 also aopte#(*8+ccorin& to le&en rst the oraine #a?gha

,e&an this traition ,/ recitin& dharma1 an then later the Buha

prescri,e the confession aspect of the ritual#(*6

Eventuall/ ritual activitieson the:poadha a/s .ere e2tene to the lait/1 .ho i not confess as

the 3on-s an nuns i ,ut use this a/ to visit local 3onasteries an

&ive oMerin&s to the oraine co33unit/1 an the ai3 of this .as often

recore in an antihouseholer 3anner such as for the 9purication of a

soile 3in ,/ a proper process#A(*The/ .oul also have the option to

hear recitations of Buhist stories an ,e tau&ht the har3a1 an

so3eti3es la/ fol- 3i&ht ta-e this opportunit/ to o,serve ei&ht of ten3onastic re&ulations an resie te3poraril/ for that a/ in the 3onaster/#

It is ironic that in one of the earliest Buhist scriptures1 the +&uttara

Ni-5/a1 the Kaina lait/ are riicule for the practise of 9,eco3in& a 3on-

(*7 i,i1 p# (6

(*8 I,i (6

(*6 i,i1 p# (*

(* !oc-e (*

76


36/56


for the a/#A $#S# Kaini conclue fro3 this that the lac- of o,servances for

the lait/ .as the reason Buhis3 ie out in Inia ,ut Kainis3

survive#(*This :poadhaa/ is the onl/ practise .hich ancient

Buhis3 provie for la/ practitioners# 'hite ro,es coul ,e .orn tos/3,olise a nonceli,ate practitioner ta-in& on these e2tra vo.s1 an

those that i often faste on this a/ as .ell1 startin& at 3ia/ an

continuin& until the ne2t 3ornin This le to :poadha a/s ,ein&

co33onl/ -no.n as 9fastin& a/s#A(*)It is no surprise then that .e n

the 3ost popular of all the Ne.ar vratas is perfor3e on these a/s1

calle the :poadha Vrata .hen perfor3e on the ne. or full 3oon ,ut as

it is 3ore popularl/ perfor3e on the t.o Zuarter 3oons it is 3ost

co33onl/ -no.n as theAam Vrata 2ha+a? 2anegu in Nepal BhasaH4

the O,servance of the Ei&hth !unar Da/# The 3ost for3al an full version

of the rite is the 9No,le O,servance of Ei&ht!i3,e :poadha(

5r1Oga upoadha vrata80GN"oern Ne.ar e2planations for the

3eanin& of the ter3s aam an r1a8aOgarefer to either the ate or

to the ei&ht precepts the/ 3ust follo. on this a/1 thou&h the ter3 ca3e

fro3 the for3er an not the latter#((*Note that the 7r.oul also ,e

consiere the )th1 as lunar a/s .ere counte in t.o ,atches of fteen1

.ith the .a2in& 3oon half ,ein& the uk+a paka,ri&ht sieH an the

.anin& the ka pakaar- sieH#

TheAam Vrata i not ,e&in to ta-e shape as a vrataritual

istinct fro3 &eneral :poadhafastin& until aroun the (thcentur/1

.here accorin& to the Blue +nnals1 a Ti,etan source1 an earl/ version of

it is foun in a 3anuscript that also etails its trans3ission to Ti,et: 9TheDe&ree of propitiatin& gr/a +valo-ite;vara ,/ perfor3in& the rite of

fastin& .as preache ,/ the nun !a-


37/56


re,irthH in a hu3an for31 an that in the en such a person .as to &o to

Su-h5vat@#A(((TheAam Vrata is lin-e e2clusivel/ .ith +valo-ite;vara

an his local Nepalese for31 +3o&hap5;a !o-e;vara1 e2cept for the

version 3entione a,ove .hich .as sprea ,/ the nun !a-


38/56


the Nepal Bhasa ter3 3eanin& 9to fastA1 9apa#Q "7aneA erives fro3 the

ter3 :poadha0RThe colloZuial Nepal Bhasa ter3 for perfor3in& a vrata

is calle 9dha+Q daneA1 .hich co3es fro3 9dharma daneA1 3eanin& 9to

o,serve or full the har3a of a specic eit/PA#

((

Even thou&hBrah3anical vratas .ere co33on in Nepal1 theAam Vrataan its

relate :poadha a/ entere the ritual lanscape of Nepal fro3 its

i3portance in Buhis3# Even thou&h the Zuarters of the lunar 3onth

.ere .ell -no.n as a/s of rest an sacrice1 the i3portance of the

Aam Vrata in Ne.ar Buhis3 oes not have roots in an/ specic

$ur5>ic vrataor other later Brah3anical ritual ,ut to the Buhist

:poadha confession# Yet1 the content of the vrataitself is inspire not

ust ,/ Buhis3 ,ut also ,/ $ur5>ical eZuivalents as .ell as local Ne.ar

culture# It 3ust also ,e note that althou&h the practise of unerta-in&

the ei&ht precepts on full 3oon a/s is foun in Therav5a Buhis3 as

.ell an historicall/ the/ share the sa3e source1 there are 3ore

iMerences than the inclusion of a vrataculture# "oern participants are

not reall/ a.are that the/ are unerta-in& the ei&ht precepts1 an the/

are onl/ chante ,/ the priest an not orall/ aLr3e ,/ the lait/#

The story of the trader i!halasrthabhu.

One of the 3ost popular of all stories in Nepal1 an one of the 3ost

fa3ous Buhist stories of all ti3e .hich has a popular version in nearl/

all Buhist co33unities is the stor/ of the traer Si4halas5rtha,5hu#

Versions of it are foun in the $ali K5ta-a tales1 the Div/5va5na1 the 3ost

isse3inate collection of Buhist stories1 an even in Kain pra-ritliterature#(()The 3oern Nepal Bhasa version 3ost li-el/ ori&inate fro3

an earl/ version of the Div/5va5na .hich .as heavil/ reacte an

inclue in a stron&l/ "ah5/5na te2t calle the C5ra>?av/=ha#((The

(( ellner1 p# (

(( I,i#

(() !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Te


39/56


earliest local Ne.ar reaction of the stor/ is foun in the (8thcentur/ in

the C5ra>?av/=hainspire Sans-rit u>a-5ra>?av/=ha1 at a ti3e .here

Ne.ar Buhis3 .as uner&oin& si&nicant refor3ation# The

u>a-5ra>?av/=ha is evote to the +3o&hap5;a !o-e;vara for3 of+valo-ite;vara1 the sa3e eit/ of theAam Vrata4an thus the role of

this Bohisattva in the stor/ is a 3aor one# The u>a-5ra>?av/=ha 3a/

have ,een use as vratakathurin& theAam Vratain the past ,ut no

traition of usin& the u>a-5ra>?av/=ha urin& a vrataperfor3ance

currentl/ survives#(*The Si4halas5rtha,5hu stor/ is foun in several

Aamvratakath3anuscripts1 incluin& three in the archives of the

+SC g;5 Saph= Cut@H in Cath3anu +SC ( NS (*((H1 +SC (8 NS

8H1 an +SC ( NS (**H#((+SC ( NS (*((H is ver/ short1 onl/ ((8

folios1 .hich stron&l/ su&&ests that it .as a stanar stor/ inclue in

3an/Aamvratakath3anuscripts# The stor/ itself contains 3an/

references to &eo&raphic an cultural etails .hich allo. the reaer or

listener to -no. that it is set locall/# This unerstanin& is crucial to the

3essa&e of the stor/1 .hich is 3ore than a pious portra/al of ho.

practisin& theAam Vrata can ,rin& /ou success1 fortune an 3erit1 ,ut

also esta,lishes the ,ounaries of .hat is sociall/ accepta,le# It supports

caste1 is antie2o&a3/1 portra/s fello. Buhists an nei&h,ours the

Ti,etans in a ne&ative .a/ an 3irrors the 3an/ fears of train& fa3ilies

.hose love ones 3ust ,rave travellin& the Ji3ala/as an the .aters of

the Brah3aputra# 'ith all for3s of Buhis3 havin& a stron& relationship

.ith travellin& train& co33unities it is clear .h/ this stor/ is so popular

.orl.ie1 ,ut it is .hat the Ne.ars o .ith the stor/ .hich sho.s the

co3ple2it/ ,ehin vratakath an other popular literature# Usin& !e.is

version of the stor/1 a 3oern version evelope fro3 oral stor/tellin& of

the u>a-5ra>?av/=ha1 'ill TulaharDou&las version ta-en irectl/ fro3

3anuscripts of the u>a-5ra>?av/=ha1 an Sie&frie !ienhars notes

also ta-en fro3 ,oth the C5ra>?av/=ha an the u>a-5ra>?av/=ha the

,asic features of the stor/ can ,e eter3ine .ith the invalua,le aition

(* TulaharDou&las1 p# ((6 note H

(( 'ill TulaharDou&las1 personal co33unication#

7


40/56


of an a.areness of the oral evolution it has unerta-en since its .ritten

stanarisation#(

The fra3in& narrative in chapter XV of the u>a-5ra>?av/=ha1

calle the #$?ha+a#rthavhoddhraa1 is the 3ain prota&onist aninterlocutor1 Sarvanivara>avia-5ra>?av/=ha 1 an this ti3e

`r@&hana tells hi3 that +valo-ite;vara once protecte hi3 fro3 an&er in

a past life as the 3erchant Si4halas5rthav5ha# Je is also -no.n as

Si4halas5rtha,5hu or ust Si4hala1 an in !e.is version he isSi4halas5rtha,5hu son of Si4halas5rtha,5ha1 .hich is a co&nate of

Si4halas5rthav5ha# Settin& out one a/ fro3 his fa3il/ ho3e1 he ecies

to ,e&in train& across the Ratn5-ar Sea to sprea his fa3il/s e.eller/

,usiness# Jis fa3il/ are istresse at the an&ers their son is a,out to

face an atte3pt to convince hi3 fro3 &oin&1 ,ut Si4halas5rthav5ha

re3ains aa3ant1 ar&uin& that if he i not 3a-e an inco3e of his o.n1

an/ dnahe perfor3e .oul ,e 3eanin&less ,ecause it .oul ,e charit/&iven .ith his parents 3one/ rather than an/thin& he ha earne

hi3self# Je asse3,les 8 attenants for the ourne/1 an eparts in the

northern irection# +lon& the .a/ ho.ever the/ estro/ so3e "a$t1as that

the/ encounter1 an ue to this i33oral ee their ourne/ ta-es a turn

for the .orst# 'hen the/ nall/ reach the 3i&ht/ Brah3aputra an

atte3pt to sail across1 a suen stor3 capsies the ,oat# It is note that1

if the/ hant have &aine e3erit ppH fro3 estro/in& the "a$t1as1 the/.oul have ,een a,le to focus their 3ins on ta-in& refu&e in the three

e.els1 .hich .oul have &rante the3 safe passa&e# !uc-il/1 all ve

hunre of the3 .ere a,le to s.i3 to a near,/ islan1 .here the/ .ept at

their ,a luc-# +t that ti3e1 ve hunre ,eautiful an loneso3e laies

co3e to .elco3e the3 to the islan1 tellin& the3 ho. &la the/ are to

( !ienhar1 S#1 9+valo-ite;vara in the 'ic- of the Ni&ht!a3p#A 99J4 7: 7(*81(7#

(7 TulaharDou&las1 p# *

8*


41/56


see so3e 3en# +ll alone on the islan1 the &or&eous vir&ins ,e.aile their

fate at /in& alone .ithout hus,ans# "ore than happ/ to full their

.ishes1 the ve hunre traers each too- a .ife an settle o.n to a

life of lu2ur/ an sensual pleasure on the islan1 for&ettin& an/ thou&htsof returnin& ho3e# +fter a .ee- of livin& li-e this1 Si4halas5rthav5ha is

a.a-ene in the ni&ht ,/ the 0ic-erin& of his ,esie la3p# In the 0a3es

is +valo-ite;vara1 co3e to .arn hi3# Their ,eautiful ne. .ives .ere not

hu3an the/ .ere in fact 3aneatin& r5-


42/56


people of the cit/ follo.e Si4halas5rthav5ha to estro/ the rka#s in

reven&e# It .as ue to the po.er of theAam Vratathat the ar3/ .as

a,le to estro/ the rka# an ,rin& peace to the area#(8

Si4halas5rthav5ha for his .iso3 an ,raver/ .as 3ae -in&1 an hechan&e his na3e to Si4halar55# Jis rei&n .as virtuous1 an ,ecause he

pro3ote ta-in& refu&e in the three e.els an the 9,ri&ht fortni&ht

Aam Vrataof !o-e;varaA his countr/ eno/e the follo.in& ,enets

a,unant foo1 virtuous conuct1 ti3el/ rainfall1 the eli3ination of

iseases1 an&ers1 unhappiness1 trou,les1 thieves1 thu&s an evil ones1

an ever/one .ho live there .as virtuous1 artistic1 learne1 an

auspicious#(6

The ori&inal version of the tale on .hich the Si4halas5rthav5ha

stor/ is foune is calle the Va+ha##a clou horseHJtakaan is foun

in the $5li %anon# Other i3portant versions are the 2harma+abdhajtaka

in the &ahva#tuan the =$?ha+vadnain the 2$v1vadna#(

Depictions of it can ,e foun at Boro,uur1 an the stor/ has sprea to all

Buhist cultures# It is ver/ si3ilar in content ,ut .ith so3e nota,le

iMerences# The islan of the rka#s is ientie as !a-51 an therka#s t/picall/ enact a 3ore ela,orate rouse1 causin& an entire illusor/

to.n to appear co3plete .ith chilren an 3en seen .or-in& in the

els# T.o hunre an ft/ of the 3en ecie to sta/ ,ehin .ith their

ne. .ives1 .hereas the other half successfull/ 0/ a.a/ on the ,ac- of the

horse Val5hassa# The Buha e2plains the reason it is a K5ta-a 9The

Buhas follo.ers .ere the t.o hunre an ft/ .ho follo.e the

avice of the horse1 an I .as the horse 3/self#A(

In the C5ra>?av/=haversion1 an inee in 3an/ "ah5/5na versions1 the horse is ientie

.ith +valo-ite;vara# The C5ra>?av/=ha is also the olest version to have

(8 !e.is1 Popu+ar !uddh$#t Teepa+1 p# )*

( !ienhar1 p# 7

( %o.ell1 E# B#1 e#1 The Jataka) =tor$e# o' the !uddha;# ,ormer !$rth#1 Vol# #1 ()6(*1 p. 89

8


43/56


the rka#s call out to their victi3s an all of the3 ,ut the leaer is

-ille# The e3onesses are not al.a/s ientie .ith rka#s1 the

Va+ha##a Jtakacalls the31aks#()+ rka#3asculine rka#aH is

t/picall/ an illusionist an shape chan&er .ho fees on hu3an 0esh# The/are fearso3e in for31 .ith fan&s an cla.li-e n&ers an often epicte

.ith ver/ ,lac- s-in1 ,ut .ith the a,ilit/ to chan&e this into a ,eautiful

hu3an appearance# aks 3asculine1akaH on the other han ten to

have t.o sets of i3a&er/# On the one han1 the/ are epicte as non

a&&ressive forest spirits si3ilar to a troll or fair/1 an on the other the/ are

treate as 3ali&nant spirits that evour travellers si3ilar to rka#s# The

hu3an fe3ale for3 of a1ak is often portra/e as voluptuous1 .ith roun

faces an lar&e ,reasts an hips# +3on& the 3an/ continuities the stories

have is that th

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