THERMAL COMFORT IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS; A STUDY OF

EFFECTIVENESS OF THE USE OF SOME SUN SHADING DEVICES.

SUBMITTED BY

OGUNSANYA DAMILARE DAMISI

10CA010777

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

ARCHITECTURE, COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, COVENANT

UNIVERSITY, OTA, OGUN STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE (HONOURS) IN ARCHITECTURE

MARCH 2014.

CERTIFICATION

It is hereby certified that this dissertation, written by OGUNSANYA, Damilare Damisi was

supervised by me, and submitted to the Department of Architecture, School of Environmental

Sciences, College of Science and Technology, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State.

1. Supervisor:

!…………………………………. ………………………………

Name Signature & Date

!2. Head of Department:

!Dr. (Arc.) A.B. Adeboye ……………………………

Signature & Date

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DEDICATION

I dedicate this research study to the Almighty God for his faithfulness and abundant grace.

And to my family members, Rev. Gboyega Ogunsanya, Hon. Justice Catherine Ogunsanya,

Ogunsanya Damola and Ogunsanya Oluwadunni.

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ACKNOWLEGEMENT

I acknowledge the Almighty God, who has been faithful and everly supplying me abundant grace

and for bringing this stage of academics to a successful end.

Not forgetting the persons God sent my way to help accomplish this task:

To my supervisor, Arc. Izobo-Martins, I am highly grateful for the time, help, care, concern and

interest you rendered to me as regards this project. May God reward you Ma.

I acknowledge Dr. Ekhase, I am very grateful for his input in my project at difficult times when I

sought his counsel. May God reward you Sir.

To my indefatigable lecturers, I appreciate you all. Professor E.A. Adeyemi, Dr. Alagbe, Dr.

Oluwatayo, Dr. Aderonmu, Arc. Obi Uwankoye, Arc. Dare-Abel, Arc. Babalola and other lecturers

in the school of architecture, I am truly grateful.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Pages

Title page ….…………………………………………………………………………………… i

Certification……………………………………………………………………………………. ii

Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………… iii

Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………… iv

Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………. v

List of Plates………………………………………………………………………………….. viii

List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………..... x

List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………. xi

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………… xii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study ………............................................................................. 1

1.2 Statement of the problem……………………………………………............................. 2

1.3 Research questions…………………………………………………….............................. 2

1.4 Aim and Objectives..………….………………………………………............................. 3

1.5 Scope of the study …………………………………………………….............................. 3

1.6 Justification of study …………………………………………………............................. 4

1.7 Research methodology …………..……………………………………............................ 4

1.8 Sources of data……… …………………………………………….................................. 4

1.9 Limitations of study …………………….…………………………................................ 5

1.10 Definition of key concepts ………………………………………................................... 5

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!CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1. Understanding thermal comfort ……………….…………………............................. 7

2.2. The importance of thermal comfort in buildings ……………………........................ 9

2.3. Thermal comfort strategies in buildings…..…………………………....................... 10

2.4. Sun shading devices …………………………………………………....................... 17

2.5. Designing better sun shading devices…..……………………………....................... 31

2.6. The out-turn of using sun shading devices in buildings ...…………......................... 32

!CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction ..................………………………………………………………....... 35

3.2 Research design... ……………………………………………………..................... 35

3.3 Types and sources of data ……………………………………………..................... 35

3.4 Actual fieldwork …………………..…………………………………..................... 36

3.5 Sampling technique …………………………………………………....................... 36

3.6 Method of questionnaire administration ..................................................................... 36

3.7 Method of analysis…………………………………………………….......................36

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CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND IN INTERPRETATION

4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………….....................…...... 37

4.2 Purpose of Case study ……………………………………………........................... 37

4.3 Description and assessment of case studies ……………………….......................... 37

4.4. Questionnaire data presentation and analysis ……………………........................... 52

!CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 Summary………………………………………………………........................... 69

5.2 Recommendatins…………………………………………………........................ 70

5.3 Conclusions……………………………………………………….......................... 71

!REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….. 72

APPENDIX………………………………………………………………………................ 74

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!LIST OF PLATES

CHAPTER 2

Plate 2.3.2.1 Sun path around a building …………………………………………….… 12

Plate 2.3.2.2 Typical wind-rose diagram….…………………………………………….. 13

Plate 2.4.1.1 Venetian blinds in an interior space ……………………… ……………….. 19

Plate 2.4.1.2 Sun louvres on a building…………………….……………………………... 20

Plate 2.4.1.3 Roller shades in an interior space…………………………………………... 21

Plate 2.4.2.1.1 Projected horizontal shelves……………………………………………….. 23

Plate 2.4.2.1.1.b Effective use of balconies…………………………………..…………....… 24

Plate 2.4.2.1.2 Louvred aluminium awnings…………………………………………….…... 25

Plate 2.4.2.1.2.b Canvas awnings………………………………………………………………. 25

Plate 2.4.2.1.3 Roof overhangs…………………………………………………..…….…….. 26

Plate 2.4.2.1.4 Inset windows…………………………………….……………………….... 27

Plate 2.4.2.2.1 Vertical fins…………………………………………………………………... 28

Plate 2.4.2.3 Egg-crate shading device……………………………………………………….. 29

Plate 2.4.2.4 Trees used as shading on a building………………………………..………….. 30

Plate 4.3.1.1 View of The Living Room, The Ogunsanyas’ Residence, Ijebu Ode ……..…. 38

Plate 4.3.1.2 North East Approach, The Ogunsanyas’ Residence, Ijebu Ode ……………... 39

Plate 4.3.1.3 Up-close East Approach showing shade, The Ogunsanyas’ Residence …..….. 39

Plate 4.3.2.1 View of The Living Room, Block A, Post Graduate Quarters..............................40

Plate 4.3.2.2 North Approach View of Block A, Post Graduate Quarters................................. 41

Plate 4.3.3.1 View of a Bedroom, Moremi Hall, University of Lagos, Akoka......................... 42

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Plate 4.3.3.2 North Approach of Moremi Hall, University of Lagos, Akoka........................... 42

Plate 4.3.3.3 Rear view of Moremi Hall, University of Lagos, Akoka................ ...................... 43

Plate 4.3.4.1 View of a Bedroom, Obanibasiri Hostel, Shagamu................................................ 44

Plate 4.3.4.2 North West Approach of Obanibasiri Hostel, Shagamu......................................... 44

Plate 4.3.4.3 Rear view of Obanibasiri Hostel, Shagamu........................................................... 45

Plate 4.3.5.1 View of the Bedroom, No. 20 Residence, Oluwashina St..................................... 46

Plate 4.3.5.2 North approach of No. 20 Residence, Oluwashina Str.......................................... 46

Plate 4.3.6.1 View of The Room C304, Daniel Hall, Covenant University............................... 47

Plate 4.3.6.2 East approach of D-Wing, Daniel Hall, Covenant University............................... 48

Plate 4.3.7.1 View of The Living Room, Judiciary Quarters, G.R.A, Abeokuta........................ 49

Plate 4.3.7.2 Eastern approach of Judiciary Quarters, G.R.A, Abeokuta..................... ............. 49

Plate 4.3.7.3 Up-close Eastern view of Judiciary Quarters, G.R.A, Abeokuta.......................... 50

Plate 4.3.8.1 View of a Bedroom, No. 15, Alhaji Bakare Street................................................ 51

Plate 4.3.8.2 North approach of No. 15, Alhaji Bakare Street, Off Hospital Road, Shagamu .. 51

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LIST OF TABLES

!CHAPTER 4

Table 4.4.1 Table showing sex range of respondents ............................................................... 52

Table 4.4.2 Table showing age range of respondents................................................................ 53

Table 4.4.3 Table showing level of education of respondents................................................... 54

Table 4.4.4 Table showing respondents’ frequency................................................................... 55

Table 4.4.6 Table showing tone of most used exterior wall finish............................................. 56

Table 4.4.8 Table showing tone of most used exterior wall finish............................................. 57

Table 4.4.10 Table showing frequency of shading device kinds ................................................. 58

Table 4.4.10.2.Table showing frequency of the specific kinds of sun shading devices used ….... 59

Table 4.4.10.b Table showing respondents’ opinion on whether the shading devices add visual appeal to buildings................................................................................................... 60

Table 4.4.11 Table showing heat levels during the day ............................................................... 61

Table 4.4.12 Table showing heat levels during the evenings............. ......................................... 62

Table 4.4.13 Table showing spaces with highest amount of solar radiation ............................... 63

Table 4.4.14 Table showing spaces with highest amount of solar radiation................................ 64

Table 4.4.15 Table showing spaces with least amount of solar radiation..................................... 65

Table 4.4.16 Table showing spaces of low radiation on daily performance ................................ 66

Table 4.4.17 Table showing thermal comfort levels for different periods in a day...................... 67

Table 4.4.18 Table showing overall thermal comfort level.......................................................... 68

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LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 4

Fig 4.4.1 Figure showing sex range of respondents............................................................. 52

Fig 4.4.2 Figure showing age range of respondents............................................................. 53

Fig 4.4.3 Figure showing level of education of respondents................................................ 54

Fig 4.4.6 Figure showing tone of most used exterior wall finish......................................... 56

Fig 4.4.8 Figure showing tone of most used exterior wall finish......................................... 57

Fig 4.4.10 Figure showing frequency of shading device kinds ............................................. 58

Fig 4.4.10.2. Figure showing frequency of the specific kinds of sun shading devices used ...... 59

Fig 4.4.10.b Figure showing respondents’ opinion on whether the shading devices add visual appeal to buildings..................................................................................................60

Fig 4.4.11 Figure showing heat levels during the day ............................................................ 61

Fig 4.4.12 Figure showing heat levels during the evenings............. ...................................... 62

Fig 4.4.13 Figure showing spaces with highest amount of solar radiation ............................ 63

Fig 4.4.14 Figure showing spaces with highest amount of solar radiation............................. 64

Fig 4.4.15 Figure showing spaces with least amount of solar radiation................................. 65

Fig 4.4.16 Figure showing spaces of low radiation on daily performance ......................….. 66

Fig 4.4.17 Figure showing thermal comfort levels for different periods in a day.................. 67

Fig 4.4.18 Figure showing overall thermal comfort level...................................................... 68

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!ABSTRACT

!This study, “Thermal Comfort In Residential Buildings; A Study Of Effectiveness Of The Use

Of Some Sun Shading Devices” examined the effectiveness of employing some sun shading

devices in aiding attainment of thermal comfort in buildings. The scope of this study is within the

tropics of South Western Nigeria with residential housing units in randomly selected towns. Case

studies were provided on some buildings and in-depth analysis was done on the effects (mostly

thermal) these devices have on both the buildings and their occupants.

The research methodology for this study was done with meticulous analysis of the study area

and the gathered data from questionnaires and interviews from respondents (selected at random).

Deductions and conclusions were made from this different analysis. The main deduction is that

thermal comfort in these selected buildings was on a fairly satisfactory level. Improvements for

higher thermal comfort levels were proposed in the recommendations.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background To The Study

Climate is the pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind,

precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological variables in a given region over

long periods. Simply put, it is a series of modifications, changes or alterations in nature

atmospherically that have happened over a long time.

Considering the climatic scope of this study to be written is restricted to the warm sunny

climates of the tropics basically. Emphasis is to be put on Tropical Climate, which Martin Clark

(1993) defined as “those in which heat is the dominant problem, and where, at least for a substantial

part of the year, buildings serve to keep the occupants cool, rather than warm and the annual mean

temperature is not less than 20˚c.”

Since the invent of mechanical climate controlling equipment, some designers have

stopped seeing the need for achieving ventilation and thermal comfort without use of major energy

consuming machines. This shouldn’t be so. These equipment are said to be most responsible for

Ozone depletion by the so called ‘green house gases’ they all emit. (S. Solomon 1999)

Instead of these rampant non-considerate designs that involve the sucking of energy by

countless mechanical climate controlling equipment, to then reduce cost incurred by using these

various equipment, designing for thermal comfort by non-electrical or mechanical means is a major

design consideration. In places like Portugal, the government actually made laws and building codes

(e.g. The Law Of Thermal Insulation) which obligate designing for thermal comfort making most

buildings there characterized by the use of sun shading device.

 

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1.2. Statement Of The Problem

To a layman, the very obvious problem in this region is that “there is too much sun”. More

technically put, the big challenge is the negative effect of solar radiation on buildings in general

(external surfaces and interiors) and humans occupying these buildings themselves.

This solar radiation creates a negative effect of thermally irksome environments. Optimal

design would be one that isn’t solely based on these climate-controlling machines that are energy

parasites and ozone depleting systems. As earlier stated in the introduction, due to man’s problem

solving nature and wanting to reduce incurred cost, Building designers and Architects try to find

more natural and less energy consuming methods to combat the negative effects of solar radiation.

Although Olygay (1957) believed environmental elements had their own limitations and

that the solution to these problems can’t be solely by natural means. This study is aimed at looking

into Some Sun Shading Devices that would assist in designing of residential buildings in ways

that building occupants and users have maximum thermal comfortability without the need for

cooling machines.

1.3. Research Questions

Every research topic needs thresholds; this is where asking these questions come to play.

In order to give this research work bonafide scope, pivot, content and direction, the following

research questions are propounded:

• What really is the importance of thermal comfort in buildings relating to both the

occupants and the building itself?

• Does the use of sun shading devices actually enhance the quality of thermal

comfort in buildings? If so, by how much?

 

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• Asides thermal comfort, what other effects (e.g. visual appeal) do sun shading

devices have on buildings?

1.4. Aim And Objectives

The aim of this study is to Examine The Effectiveness Of Employing Sun Shading

Devices In Aiding Attainment Of Thermal Comfort In Buildings. The objectives will be:

• To examine how important thermal comfort is to both the occupants or users and

the building itself.

• To examine different methods or processes by which thermal comfort can be

improved.

• To identify the different kinds of sun shading devices and their modes of

applications in buildings.

• To determine if the quality of thermal comfort is enhanced when these sun shading

devices are used in some selected buildings, and if yes? By how much?

• To examine other effects (asides thermal comfort) these sun shading devices might

have on the buildings they have been used on.

1.5. Scope Of The Study

This project investigates the condition of thermal comfort in residential buildings in

locations characterized by warm, sunny climates (predominantly Tropical or Savanna, e.g. South-

Western Nigerian towns like Shagamu, Abeokuta, Ota, Lagos etc.) and basis its analysis on tactics

by which better thermal comfort can be attained, with emphasis on integrating seemingly external

building elements such as Sun Shading devices.

 

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1.6. Justification Of Study

• To the general public, this study is supposed to create a level of awareness on the topic

‘thermal comfort’ and how Sun Shading devices help in attaining this.

• To other researchers, the study will either act as a basis for subsequent and improved

studies on this topic and related topics or increase their knowledge in this area.

• To Architects, Building designers and Architecture students, this study should be a source

of virtuous information on how using Sun Shading devices help enhance thermal comfort and its

structural or aesthetical effects on buildings, withal, adding to available literature.

1.7. Research Approach/Methodology

Inline with achieving the project’s objectives, relevant literature from the Internet, textbooks,

journals, published and unpublished theses will be considered. Some existing buildings will be

evaluated/studied, in order to attain comprehensive and thorough information on the subject matter.

Physical survey and evaluation of some existing buildings will also be conducted. Actual fieldwork will

involve interviews (sometimes oral) and questionnaires will be administered end users to examine the

performance of the buildings in relation to thermal comfort and the use of sun shading devices.

1.8. Sources Of Data

Data gathered will secondarily be from existing literature off the Internet, libraries,

textbooks, journals, related past projects, writing aids and architectural magazines.

Since the survey approach is to be taken in this project, the primary source of data would

be from the questionnaires and oral interviews with respondents on the subject matter of thermal

comfort enhancement by sun shading devices.

 

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1.9. Limitations Of The Study

In most instances, a recurring problem encountered in undertaking this kind of research

work in this part of the world is the refusal of individuals and sometimes corporate bodies to allow

access to some information and even denying privileges of oral interviews. Interviews are hardly

granted due to suspicion and evasiveness.

Another limitation in this study would be the extraction of very precise information on

how sun shading devices either in presence or in absentia have influenced their various thermal

experiences as asked in the questionnaires.

1.10. Definition Of Key Concepts

Climate: Climate is a measure of the average pattern of variation in temperature,

humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other

meteorological variables in a given region over long periods of time.

Building: A building is a man-made structure with a roof and walls standing more or less

permanently in one place. Buildings come in a variety of shapes, sizes and functions, and have been

adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials available, to

weather conditions, to land prices, ground conditions, specific uses and aesthetic reasons.

Thermal Comfort: Within building science, thermal comfort is defined as a heat transfer

balance between a person with his/her surroundings. (C.K Tang 2013). Thermal comfort is the

condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment and is assessed by

subjective evaluation. (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55). Thermal neutrality is maintained when the

heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium

 

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with the surroundings. The main factors that influence thermal comfort are those that determine

heat gain and loss, namely metabolic rate, clothing insulation, air temperature, mean radiant

temperature, air speed and relative humidity.

Solar Radiation: Solar radiation is the radiation, or energy we get from the sun. It is the

radiant energy emitted by the sun from a nuclear fusion reaction that creates electromagnetic

energy. This radiation seemingly carries light and heat energy unto the earth.

Shading Devices: Shading devices are purpose built devices to protect buildings from the

sunlight, from natural light, or screening them from view. It helps to improve users’ comfort

visually by controlling solar glare, which leads to, increased productivity and satisfaction. Shading

devices can form part of the facade or can be mounted inside the building; they can be fixed or

operable.

 

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2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1. Understanding Thermal Comfort

Just like stated in the previous chapter, thermal comfort is a perception of the mind that

expresses contentment of a user with his/her immediate thermal environment (ANSI/ASHRAE

Standard 55). Satisfaction with the thermal environment is very important because it influences

health and productivity. Surveys worldwide show that office workers who feel content with their

immediate thermal environment are in the end more productive than those who are not.

Thermal discomfort, which is apparently the opposite of thermal comfort, has also been

known to cause sick building syndrome symptoms and marred productivity of the workers.

Obviously, with the knowledge of these, thermal comfort should be strived for.

In this chapter, we would delve into what qualities actually makes a thermal environment to

be classified as satisfactory to the occupants and how buildings can be tweaked from their default

status into better ones by thermal comfort tactics, especially sun shading devices.

The primary factors that affect thermal comfort are the physical (characteristics of the

occupants) and environmental factors (conditions of the thermal environment). The physical

factors include metabolic rate and clothing level of the occupants. The environmental factors are

conditions like temperature, air movement and humidity.

2.1.1. Metabolic Rate

Metabolic rates of people vary always due to environmental conditions and activity levels

of each person. According to the ASHRAE 55-2010 Standard, Metabolic rate is the level or rate

 

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which chemical energy is transformed into heat and mechanical work by an organism’s metabolic

activities, mathematically expressed in the terms of unit area of the total body surface.

2.1.2. Clothing Insulation

Thermal comfort is significantly impacted by the amount of clothing insulation a person

wears, because it influences heat gain/loss and ultimately the thermal balance. Layers of clothing

insulation prevent heat loss, and can either lead to overheating or keeping a person depending on the

external temperature of the environment. Summarily, the thicker the garment, the more the strength

of insulation capacity the garment has.

2.1.3. Temperature

This is described as the degree of heat intensity present in air. Briefly, it is the numerical

measure of hot or cold. The degree of hotness or coldness in a space is actually the most important

factor in determining if the occupants have thermal comfort or not.

2.1.4. Air Movement

Air movement is easily described as wind. The effects of difference in atmospheric pressure

(circulation and ventilation) and temperature (thermal buoyancy, stack effect, convection currents)

mostly cause wind.

The action of wind is of utmost importance in attaining thermal comfort as it helps reduce

perspiration rate of occupants, ventilating the space and replacing already heated air with cooler

air.

 

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2.1.5. Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapour content in the air. Can be termed as the wetness

of the atmosphere. High humidity undermines the effectiveness of sweating in helping to cool the

human body and this results in thermal discomfort. The human body is very responsive to humid

air because the human body utilizes the process of evaporative cooling as the primary mechanism

used for regulating temperature. Under very humid conditions, the perspiration on the skin

evaporates at a noticeably lower rate.

Some people have breathing difficulties in high humidity environments. Some cases can

be related to respiratory conditions such as bronchitis, asthma, or might just be the product of

anxiety. Therefore, It is just pure wisdom to aim at reducing humidity levels of a building’s interior

if looking to attain thermal comfort for the occupants.

2.2. The Importance Of Thermal Comfort In Buildings

Thermal comfort is a very important aspect of the design process as the modern man is said

to spend most of day being indoors (Joost van Hoof, 2010). Apparently, we cannot undermine the

importance of properly ventilated and thermal comfortable buildings. Occupants’ satisfaction levels

on their qualities of living are largely influenced by the thermal comfort they attain in their

buildings. Thermally uncomfortable buildings caused a medical condition called sick building

syndrome which (Dictionary.com) defines as a condition which affects workers marked by

headaches and respiratory problems, attributed to unhealthy factors in the working environment

such as poor ventilation.

From the early Egyptian civilization, their thermally unfriendly desert-like climate had to be

combatted by their building designs. They had splayed windows, which helped with admittance of

light but still reduced amount of solar heat gain and draught entering the spaces. They had

 

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uncomplicated open-air sections and flat roofs that had no drainage issues. Their building walls

were thickened to reduce the walls’ conduction of heat during the day and also helped to retain

some little heat that would have been gained during the day when it becomes extremely cold at

night.

Buildings are designed for the comfort of the occupants. When they do not be meet the

satisfaction needed by the prospective occupants, they can be said to be design failures. Architects

are to strive to attain thermal comfort in every design they do without necessarily needing to call on

electrical artificial tweaks to the designs.

As stated above, thermally uncomfortable buildings cannot be condoned by persons who

live/work in these thermally uncomfortable buildings. If a building then fails in comfortability,

these occupants would then go any length in creating temporary solutions for their comfort states.

These ‘solutions’ usually end up warping a well-thought low-energy design strategy of the architect

since they are usually not even cheap to purchase and use both cost-wise and energy-wise.

To prevent this, architects and designers would be implored to examine different methods

and tactics by which thermal comfort can be attained likewise attaining creative tactics for designs

that are still functional, aesthetically pleasing and still structurally stable.

2.3. Thermal Comfort Strategies In Buildings

The idea of thermal discomfort cannot be attributed to just one or two causes. Thermal

discomfort is caused by various factors like; environmental factors, state of the building itself and

the physical characteristics of even the occupants themselves. Knowing this, thermal comfort

cannot just be achieved by single approaches. For effective fathoming of thermal comfort

problems, series of different tactics can be considered. Some of these strategies include:

 

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a. In-Depth Knowledge Of Proposed Site Environment

b. Building Orientation

c. Building Massing And Configuration

d. Proper Ventilation And Avoidance Of Artificial Lighting When Possible

e. Kinds Of Building Materials And Finishes Used

f. Integrating Building Elements On Building Designs

2.3.1. In-Depth Knowledge Of Proposed Site Environment

Before any design is instigated, there must be a proper physical analysis of the proposed site

and its environment. These forms of analysis are to acquire certain data on the site ranging from its

microclimatology which can be said to be the study of the weather and climatic conditions within a

well defined relatively small area (the proposed site), the sun paths of that region, looking also at

the wind movement patterns of that area, the kind of vegetation present on site to know those that

would help noise and dust buffering, help ventilation and to decide which trees would be retained

or felled in the site and distinct landforms like mountains, water bodies etc. if there are any present

on the proposed site.

Structures around (not necessarily on the site) the site must be taken note of and also studied,

as they are also major influences on the eventual thermal comfort condition of the site. Getting in-

depth knowledge of the proposed site and its environment cannot be undermined as every little detail

would end up being of great importance in attaining thermal comfort eventually.

2.3.2. Building Orientation

However the building is orientated is not of little importance. When orientating a building,

the sun path, landscape and wind pattern for the proposed site must be considered. Like stated above,

 

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for optimal orientation, the designer must have gathered in-depth on the site’s physical properties.

Building orientation for thermal comfort is concerned with both solar heat gain and natural

ventilation.

In terms of solar heat gain, the amount of heat gained from the sun varies from facade to

facade on the buildings. All around the world, the sun tends to rise in the eastern part early in the

morning, get directly overhead by noon and during the evening, tends to set in the western part.

Plate 2.3.2.1. Sun path around a building (Google images)

It should be noted that;

I. The amount of sunlight deemed to be optimal for achieving natural day lighting is

often not optimal for amount of solar heat gained by the building.

II. The heat generated by the sun does not come from all directions; walls not facing the

sun's path at that given time get no heat gain, even though they are still able to get

large amounts of diffused light.

 

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III. Unlike the sun’s light that cannot be stored by thermal mass, the sun’s heat can be

stored. This might end up useful for west-facing walls in buildings to store heat for

the nighttime. (Autodesk, 2014)

In terms of natural ventilation, buildings are to be oriented to utilize the cooling breezes. A

“wind-rose’ diagram can be used to study the prevailing winds of a site throughout the year and then

know which winds to be taken advantage of and be avoided.

Plate 2.3.2.2. Typical Wind-Rose Diagram (Autodesk, 2014)

In most cases, when you choose to orient the building in such that the shorter axis aligns with

prevailing winds, natural ventilation is maximal, while when you choose to orient the building

perpendicular to prevailing winds, natural ventilation is minimal. (Autodesk, 2014)

However, good cross-ventilation cannot be achieved by only facing buildings directly into the

wind. The internal spaces and structural elements can be designed in manners to channel air through

all around the building in different directions. For buildings that have courtyards, orienting the

 

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courtyard 45 degrees from the prevailing wind maximizes wind in the courtyard and cross ventilation

through the building. (Autodesk, 2014)

Buildings usually have their shorter sides in an east-west direction instead of north-south

direction, as by the sun path the eastern and western parts of the sites would be the hottest.

2.3.3. Building Massing and Configuration

The depth, area and shape of a building have a major effect on the heating and cooling impact

the building gets. In the tropics, with mostly hot conditions, buildings having larger footprints or

areas and a relatively large amount of floor space quite distant from the building’s exterior will need

proper ventilation and heat removal in the interior zones for thermal comfort to be reached.

Designers are advised to position frequently used spaces in the buildings (like bedrooms and

living rooms) in close proximity to exterior walls of the building. For this to become feasible,

buildings are configured to be narrower than they used to be and then they become seemingly longer.

This act of massing and configuration to attain thermal comfort should be considered at the initial

stages of the design. Not all interior spaces in residential spaces need to be exposed to the exterior

and designers would also put this into consideration.

2.3.4. Proper Ventilation And Avoidance Of Artificial Lighting When Possible

Natural ventilation is arguably the cheapest way of achieving thermal comfort in buildings.

This tactic is concerned with creating proper avenues for natural ventilation and reducing heat

generation caused by excessive use of artificial lighting. Knowledge on wind movement patterns

previously earned from the proposed site’s physical analysis comes into play here. The building’s

orientation is also a major factor in placing ventilation outlets and inlets. Windows serving as

ventilation inlets are usually placed facing prevailing winds bringing cool breeze into the site and

 

15  

helping achieve comfort. Natural day lighting should also be planned for as it helps reduce heat gain

through the use of artificial lighting fixtures.

2.3.5. Kinds Of Building Materials And Finishes Used

The choice of kinds of building materials and finishes to be used when designing is a

determinant to how much thermal comfort can be attained. The smallest details likes the texture and

colour of paint used in finishing are to be considered also. Each building material or finish used is

said to have a given ‘thermal characteristic’. This term is determined by the thermal masses (ability

to store heat) of these individual finishes and materials.

Logically, lighter weight materials (like plaster board, fibre cement, expanded polystyrene)

would have lower thermal masses since they should be able to lose heat at a faster rate, whereas the

denser building materials (like concrete, stones, bricks etc.) are heavier and would have higher

thermal masses. In summary, the heavier and denser the building materials are the more amount of

heat they can absorb. Since seasonal variation is inevitable, designers are advised to effectively

combine use of both dense and lightweight building materials with thermally efficient colours too

coming into play.

i. Timber

Timber when used as the main building material or a form of finish is considered to be

lightweight. It has quite a low thermal mass property meaning it absorbs and loses heat very quickly

and easily. Timber in the tropics, neglecting the risk of termite action would be very reasonable as it

is usually warm all round the year and helps maintain thermal comfort as it loses heat easily.

 

16  

ii. Concrete

In this part of the world, concrete is mostly used for residences. Concrete is categorized as a

very dense building material. It has high thermal mass and loses absorbed heat very slowly.

Statistically, concrete stores very high amount of heat energy compared to other commonly used

building materials. Concrete is compulsively used in the tropics due to durability, to counter its heat

absorbing properties bright coloured paint and other forms of finishes are used.

iii. Colour

Colour by general definition is a visual perception in relation to the human eye. Colour of

building materials is the colour shade, which the building envelope is painted or finished with.

Studies have shown that darker colours absorb greater percentage of solar heat and hardly reflect any

of it. While, the brighter colours hardly absorb any solar heat and have very high reflectance rates.

Knowing this, most designers used very bright colours for building exteriors so as to minimize the

amount of heat entering the building.

2.3.6. Integrating Building Elements On Building Designs

In the course of designing for thermal comfort, some physical or structural changes have to

be made. These changes are to minimize the effect of solar radiation and also help in ventilation.

These building elements that are to be altered to aid thermal include windows. Windows are used to

get light and ventilation into a building.

At times, windows actually allow too much solar glare into the interior space. In an attempt to

combat this, tweaks like window colouration and tinting are employed to reduce amount of light

entering the interior space. In most cases, these building elements also serve aesthetic and decorative

purposes.

 

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Asides windows, these building elements are mostly Sun Shading Devices. They are

categorized into Internal Shading Devices (e.g. venetian blinds, curtains and drapes) and External

Shading Devices (e.g. window hoods, eaves, fins, overhangs and sometimes vegetation in form of

shrubs and trees).

2.4. Sun Shading Devices

Solar radiation can be transmitted to any exposed building surface (walls, windows etc.). In a

bid to attain thermal comfort in the tropics, direct or indirect inflow of heat must be minimized. "The

windows account for the greatest amounts of heat entering the building and therefore shading them,

offers the greatest protections" (Olygay, 1963). Knowing this, it is important for a designer to shade

a building’s windows. Sun shading devices are not so complicated to implement. Some very

effective and easy to install ones exist.

Roof eaves, for instance, are often undermined. Notwithstanding, it is one of the cheapest and

easiest ways to shade a building’s envelope. Just that, building orientation, length of the eave

projection and the knowledge of the sun’s path should be well considered for this shading system

with eaves to be totally efficient.

Shading devices are of two major types based on their placement on the building. This can be

either on the building’s exterior (External Shading Devices) or inside the building (Internal Shading

Devices). When using the internal shading devices, most of the solar rays are absorbed, convected

and reradiated into the room while the external shading devices actually shade the window from

direct radiation, hence, a large percentage of the heat cannot get in.

 

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2.4.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices

By the name, internal shading devices are incorporated within a building’s interior. They

basically comprise of some forms of material covering the glare coming in from the window

openings. They function in various ways; some are brightly coloured and reflect solar rays back

outwards of the building while some are even designed to absorb the solar rays.

They are flexible and administered time to time based on the wish of the occupants of the

building. They include drapes, venetian blinds, louvers, curtains, shutters etc.

i. Venetian Blinds

The venetian blind is a common used kind of window blind consisting of numerous

horizontal slats that are pivoted to be able to control the amount of solar rays passing through. This

shading system can be likened to that of the louvres but the horizontal layers are on a multiplied

scale. Venetian blinds add aesthetic value to the interior and are also functional.

Adjusting the tilting angle of the blinds efficiently controls the amount of light entering the

interior spaces. Depending on the angle, heat and light rays are either reflected away from the

building or transmitted into the interiors. In cases where the occupants would like a total view of the

outdoors and wouldn’t want their line of vision to be hindered by the venetian blinds, draw cords are

provided. These draw cords help to completely raise the venetian blinds into a compacted collapsed

position where the venetian blinds pose no threat to the line of vision of the occupants to the

outdoors. (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

They are finished with various patterns and colours that usually have high reflectance values.

In most cases, the main material they are made from is aluminium. But, giving a feel of nature and

luxury, naturally existing materials like wood have been recently used in making venetian blinds

 

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also. These horizontal slats are high in number and are usually made of thin strips of whatever

material is being used (wood or aluminium).

Plate 2.4.1.1. Venetian blinds in an interior space (Google images)

ii. Louvres

Louvres are usually used in door and window types. Louvres by definition have a set of

angled slats at regular intervals, which screen the amount of light, heat and air passing through into

the interior spaces. They can either be flexible or fixed.

 

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When flexible or operable, they are engineered to be able to rotate through an approximately

180-degree axis. If the occupant chooses not to totally reflect the light outwards of the building, the

louvres can be angled in a way that the light rays are bouncing of its usually reflective material into

the interior space. When installed at fixed angles, the louvres are engineered to reflect outwards the

higher and hotter sun rays and let the lower and less warm sun rays into the interior spaces.  (D. R.

Wulfinghoff, 1999)

Aluminium alloys are the most commonly used materials for making sun louvres. For

longevity and durability of these materials, the alloys are usually powdered, coated or even painted.

These tweaks to its appearance also enhance its aesthetic effects on the building’s general outlook.

Plate 2.4.1.2. Sun Louvres on a building (Google images)

 

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iii. Roller Shades

This system is a little similar to the venetian blinds. They are also called ‘roller blinds’ or

‘roll-down shades’. This system is highly operable by the occupants. The roller shades are

engineered to fit into the window frame and are just like an extra layer of material entering the

interior space. Roller shades are created in a very wide variety of materials, weaves or fabrics.

The most common roller shades types are made of completely opaque materials are usually

put in place to darken rooms and attain maximum privacy. They act as insulators on small scale,

block solar rays entering the interiors and also help to trap air sometimes.

Plate 2.4.1.3. Roller shades in an interior space (Google images)

 

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2.4.2. External Sun Shading Devices

Nominally, external shading devices are incorporated outside a building. They are found

attached to a building’s envelope or fixed to exterior parts of windows. Knowledge of mechanics of

the sun’s position and sun’s path also come into play when using these shading devices. External

shading devices are usually preferred to internal ones and are deemed more effective.

They are of various forms, which are effective for different seasons and different building

orientations; the horizontal shading devices (roof eaves, overhangs, and other horizontal elements),

the vertical shading devices (fins and other vertical elements), the egg-crate shading devices which

implore both the horizontal and vertical shading elements simultaneously and the natural shading

devices (trees).

For efficient shading, elements are sometimes inclined downwards, upwards or even

sideways and can either be fixed or moveable. Like almost everything in life, the use of external

shading devices in buildings also has its snags which include; rigidity in functioning, difficulty in

cleaning, difficulty in maintenance and liability to debasement.

a. Horizontal Sun Shading Devices

Horizontal shading devices exist mostly in form of roof eaves and overhangs, canopies,

balconies and horizontal shelves and so on. They are best suited to the longer southern and northern

building elevations.

i. Projecting Horizontal Shelves and Balconies

This is a commonly used method of shading northern and southern building faces. They are

of little or no value on any other orientation. Horizontal shelves must be considered at the initial

stages of the design and built into the building’s structure, by reason of this; they are limited to new

 

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construction. For effectiveness, they should be a lot wider than the windows. As usual, they are

installed at levels above that of the windows. Shelves are installed along the whole span of the

northern or southern faces if the windows are in close proximity to each other.

Plate 2.4.2.1.1. Projected horizontal shelves on a building (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

As for the balconies; they usually produce the same effect as in the case of the horizontal

shelves. They provide considerable shading even when they are not facing a northerly or southerly

direction. Balconies help provide additional value as they can be utilized as spaces, aesthetic

 

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components and as ambiance features. In the Figure above, the horizontal shelves also serve as

balconies.

Plate 2.4.2.1.1.b. Effective use of balconies on a building (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

ii. Awnings

Awnings are downwardly projected building elements made out of canvas sheets or other

building materials attached to buildings’ exterior walls serving as covering for windows and other

openings. Usually made up of canvas, polyestered fabric, or sometimes cotton. They are usually

designed to be retractable. (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

Awnings are usually supported by smaller lighter structures of wood, aluminium or steel,

which are also attached to the buildings exterior walls. These support structures are either space

frames, planar frames or even truss systems at times. When the use of fabric awnings does not seem

practicable, louvred aluminium awning systems are commonly used. Awnings should be designed to

be larger than the window spaces, to prevent excessive amount of heat gain from the sides.

 

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Plate 2.4.2.1.2. Louvred aluminium awnings on a building (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

Plate 2.4.2.1.2.b. Canvas awnings on a building (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

 

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iii. Overhangs And Roof Eaves

Overhangs are very widely used shading devices. By definition, they are usually horizontal

projections from the roofs or exterior walls above windows, doors and other openings. They can support

vegetation, solid and are sometimes louvred even employ all these forms at the same time.

Most scholars classify roof eaves as a type of overhang and some don’t. (Crosbie, 1997) states

that fixed overhangs are the most durable but also the least flexible and efficient. When designing in

passive solar building designs, eaves can get extended to even two metres. Asides helping in achieving

thermal comfort, they help to reduce below-grade moisture problems and protecting the wall paints or

finishes.

Plate 2.4.2.1.3. Roof overhangs shading a building (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

 

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iv. Recessed and Inset Windows

When inset windows are employed, it is the entire exterior walling that acts as a shading

device. This is a very rigid and non-flexible system. Apparently, to use this system, a designer must

have put it into consideration from the initial stages of the design. Unlike other rational methods of

actually trying to minimize solar heat gain, the use of recessed and inset windows is most times for

the aesthetic satisfaction. (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

It is even considered a waste of utilizable space and is very expensive to be designed. It

also drastically reduces amount of natural day lighting received by the building’s interior. Although,

when this system is properly thought about and designed, it can be one of the most effective sun

shading systems.

Plate 2.4.2.1.4. Inset windows (D. R. Wulfinghoff, 1999)

 

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b. Vertical Sun Shading Devices

i. Fins

Fins are vertical sun shading devices placed on openings of a building. They are used to

shade building surfaces and interiors from the sun’s intense solar rays. as wisdom should demand,

they are usually placed on the parts of the building facing the eastern and western direction for

effective functioning. Depending on the type, these fins can be adjusted to tilt at different angles at

different times in the day.

The effectiveness of these fins also depends on their depth. The farther away the depth of

the fin is from the building, the greater the shadow it casts hence, increasing its shading effect. Like

all other sun shading devices, they also add an aesthetic effect to the buildings general outlook.

Plate 2.4.2.2.1. Vertical fins on a building (Google images)

 

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c. Egg-crate Sun Shading Devices

Like earlier stated, these egg-crate sun shading devices are invented when both horizontal and

vertical shading devices are implored at the same time intertwined with each other on the same

building. They can look like blocks, grills, and sometimes, depending on the designer’s creativity,

they can take the form of decorative patterns like circles and different sizes depending also on the

designer’s specifications.

Similar to the fins, with knowledge of the sun path in that region and the building’s

orientation, they are usually placed on the parts of the building facing the east and western directions.

The egg-crate sun shading devices might add the most aesthetic values to buildings when considered;

they are the least flexible of shading devices. They are also expensive and have several complications

in installation; this then discourages their extensive in residential buildings.

Plate 2.4.2.3. Egg-crate shading device on a building (Google images)

 

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d. Vegetative/Natural Sun Shading Devices

Natural shading devices are the last types to be looked at. They actually perform quite a

number of functions when they are put in place. Unlike every other shading device earlier

mentioned, the use of vegetation (trees and shrubs) as shading devices aids the whole ventilation

process as they create and exchange of gases. These same trees provide shading for both the

openings on the buildings and even the buildings’ exterior surfaces.

How effective these trees are with shading depends on the kinds of trees planted. Trees

with thicker foliage will obviously provide more effective shading effects than those with foliage

not as thick. In selecting these trees, special characteristics based on seasonal variations for these

trees must also be considered. Maintenance plans must also be made, as these trees will most

definitely shed their leaves from time to time.

Plate 2.4.2.4. Trees used as shading devices on a building (Google images)

 

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2.5. Designing Better Sun Shading Devices

The design of sun shading devices is quite complex. A few people have even created

computer-aided sun shading device designers to ease the design process. But, in the presence of

proper knowledge of sun’s path and positions some manual methods can still be used.

The aim when designing sun shading devices is for the building to be shaded most of the

hours in a day and almost all round the year’s duration. Also, as sun shading reduces daylight

admittance by an extent, the designer must ensure natural daylight entering the building is still

very adequate for the day’s activities. (Donald, 2008)

Some of the major design considerations here are; the climate, the seasonal variations,

window protection, shadow angles and shading dimensions.

Donald (2008) has a few steps to help in designing sun shading devices, which are as follows;

• Limiting amount of east west glassing in buildings, as they are a lot harder to shade than

the north south oriented ones.

• Major consideration of daylighting, designing the sun shading devices to reduce heat gain

but still try to maximize natural daylighting admittance.

• Rule of the thumb; horizontal shades particularly, need exact knowledge of the sun path.

Each shading device then needs to be customized to the individual window orientations.

Eastern and Western oriented windows are advised to be shaded with Vertical Sun

Shading Devices and Louvres mostly.

• In-depth study and understanding of the sun angles. Sun angles, sun path and sun

positions are very critical in designing sun shading devices as they affect building

orientation and even selection of types of shading devices to be used.

 

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2.6.The Out-Turn Of Using Sun Shading Devices In Buildings

In recent times, designing with integration of sun shading devices has become a norm. The

primary function of sun shading devices is to reduce amount of intense solar radiation hitting a

building’s surface and even getting into the interior. Due to the complexity of the concept of sun

shading devices, apart from trying to achieve thermal comfort their use has quite a number of

other effects on the buildings outlook, the interior and a few other things. Some of these other

effects are:

a) Airflow Distribution;

Sun shading devices have a predominant effect on the airflow distribution in and

out of a residence. More interestingly so, the effect is even flexible based on whether the

sun shading devices are vertical sun shading devices or horizontal sun shading devices.

The window leaves in conjunction with the sun shading devices divide and deflect

the incoming airflow. Air velocity is reduced as the sun shading devices modify the shape

of the incoming air stream. When the side-ends of windows have vertical sun shading

devices placed close to them, these vertical shading devices will break the incoming air

stream. Breaking of this air stream causes deceleration of airflow.

When attempting to counter this, the middle positioned window leafs will be

removed and the vertical sun shading devices wouldn’t be placed anywhere near the

window’s side-ends. This allows more influx of airflow into the space. Likewise, at the

windward sides, these same vertical shading devices help to break incoming winds.

(Wong Nyuk Hien, 2003)

 

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b) Building Outlook;

The general outlook of a building will definitely be altered by the use of sun

shading devices. In most cases, positive aesthetic changes sometimes adjudged to be negative.

The internal sun shading devices multi-task as internal decorative features, so do the external

shading devices for the exterior walls of the building. In designs that are aimed at creating

illusions of certain conceptual forms, flexible sun shading devices are used to achieve this

visual effects.

On the designer’s part, to avoid negative aesthetic effects of sun shading devices,

he/she is advised to integrate them into the design of the building from the earliest stages so

they wont end up looking like afterthoughts and mistakes on the designer’s part. (Donald  

Prowler, 2008)

c) Admittance Of Daylight;

Sustainable architecture requires a great of using natural day lighting. Although

sun shading devices are used in hope of achieving thermal comfort, they can pose a challenge

to the provision of adequate natural day lighting, especially the rigid, non-flexible or user

operable types.

These sun shading devices reduce amount of day light illumination entering

buildings’ interiors. Visual comfort might then be disturbed, since the excessive reduced

admittance of illumination and glare causes poorer natural lighting of the buildings’ interiors.

So, it should be noted that only in regions like the arid regions and tropics which have

excessive supply of radiant energy from the sun that sun shading devices should try to be

integrated in the design process.

 

34  

At times, direct solar radiation from the sun only helps to illuminate the immediate

regions close to windows, so the sun shading devices actually have little or no cause for the

poor interior lighting. (Wong Nyuk Hien, 2003)

d) External View;

Shading devices seem to create an interference of the occupants’ view of the

exterior surroundings. This happens when openings (windows) are excessively shaded. Some

flexible and operable shading devices can be withdrawn when the occupant is in need of a

clear view of the exterior surroundings, but when otherwise, the occupant is resigned to a

poor view of the exterior.

 

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3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Introduction

At this stage of this research, this is where information is gathered to carry out the project.

Here, I shall discuss the kinds of raw information (data) gathered, methods used in gathering and

collecting such data and then the sampling techniques and methods used for the analysis of this

aforementioned gotten data.

3.2. Research Design

This research design involves the probing of the study area and in-depth analysis of

acquired data from the interviews and questionnaire to determine the relevant information needed

regarded the questions of the research. The research design here is aimed at identifying the sun

shading devices used in residential housing units in South-Western Nigeria (few towns like Ota,

Lagos, Shagamu) and how they help to achieve thermal comfort for the occupants.

3.3. Types And Sources Of Data

For the defined objectives of this project, two categories of data were collected; the

primary data and the secondary data. The primary data involved data gathered by oral interviews

with the resource persons as respondents to distributed questionnaire, to determine their comfort

levels experienced due to the presence of sun shading devices in the buildings they live in. There

were both open-ended and close-ended questions so as to get respondents’ personal views and

allow for easy analysis.

The secondary data is data gotten from past literature that were adjudged to be relevant to

the topic of the research enabling on to be acquainted with the topic and also be able to properly

define and address the questions of the research. They include architectural magazines, related

 

36  

texts, journal articles, internet articles, related past projects (grey literature) and writing aids

(general encyclopedias, thesaurus and dictionaries)

3.4. Actual Fieldwork

The actual fieldwork was very basic. It involved interviews of occupants in the different

housing units by questionnaire and verbally when deemed necessary and collection of pictorial

illustrations of these units as case studies for analysis. These gotten data is included in the final

data analysis.

3.5. Sampling Technique

The selection of the respondents was done by the systematic random sampling technique,

but case study buildings were purposively selected. The study includes a total of seventy-five (75)

respondents of different ages.

3.6. Method Of Questionnaire Administration

Possibilities of potential research samples are unlimited. Focus is on randomly selected

residential units in different towns in South-Western Nigeria (Abeokuta, Ota, Lagos, Shagamu). The

questionnaires are distributed to the occupants of these randomly selected residential units in these

towns. Deductions are therefore drawn from these administered questionnaires.

3.7. Method Of Analysis

Data to be analyzed is based on replies from respondents the questionnaires were

administered to. Completed questionnaires are evaluated by simple statistical tables, which show

frequencies and data percentages. Furthermore, these evaluated frequencies are illustrated on charts.

 

37  

4. CASE STUDIES, DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1. Introduction

This chapter of this study involves analysis of collected data from the questionnaires and

oral interview of respondents. In addition, there are pictorial illustrations and theoretical descriptions

of the selected study area. Descriptive statistics (frequency tables and bar charts) were used for

analysis; this creates an avenue for easy deduction to be done.

4.2. Purpose of Case Study

The various case studies were carried out for the main purpose of generating a form of

awareness or familiarization of the selected buildings for study in relation to their thermal comfort

status so as to draw effective deductions from the completed questionnaires. Likewise, the case

studies helps in making logical recommendations and conclusions.

4.3. Description And Assessment of Case Studies

The case study area involved residential housing units random cities in South Western

Nigeria. Some of the towns are: Lagos, Ota, Abeokuta and Shagamu. They include residential

bungalows, apartment blocks, university campus hostels etc. It required physically visiting these

locations, making observations, which were both digital (taking of photographs of these selected

buildings) and in forms of text and also assessing these made observations.

 

38  

4.3.1. Case Study One

Location: Plot 3, Block 32, Liworo Avenue, G.R.A, Ijebu-Ode, Ogun State.

Description: It is a six bedroom residential bungalow. The most prominent building material used

here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with emulsion paint for the exterior, textured paint

(textcote), emulsion paint and glossy paint in different interior spaces in the building. Both internal

and external sun shading devices were incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds) and external sun shading devices (roof eaves) were incorporated to enhance thermal comfort.

The use of medium coloured interior wall finish and light coloured exterior wall finish is to

counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the sandcrete blocks used for construction.

Plate 4.3.1.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds

View of The Living Room, The Ogunsanyas’ Residence, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

39  

Plate 4.3.1.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves

North East Approach, The Ogunsanyas’ Residence, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

Plate 4.3.1.3. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves

Up-close East Approach showing shade, The Ogunsanyas’ Residence, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

40  

4.3.2. Case Study Two

Location: Block A, Post Graduate Quarters, Covenant University, Ogun State.

Description: It is a three bedroom residential apartment. The most prominent building material

used here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with textured paint (textcote) for both the

interior and exterior walls. Both internal and external sun shading devices were incorporated as

measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds) and external sun shading devices (window hoods) were incorporated to enhance thermal

comfort. The use of light coloured interior wall finish and light coloured exterior wall finish is to

counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the sandcrete blocks used for construction.

Plate 4.3.2.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds

View of The Living Room, Block A, Post Graduate Quarters, Covenant University

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

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Plate 4.3.2.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Window Hoods

North Approach View of Block A, Post Graduate Quarters, Covenant University

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

4.3.3. Case Study Three

Location: Moremi Hall, University Of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State.

Description: This is one of the students’ hostels in University of Lagos. The most prominent

building material used here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with textured paint (textcote)

for both the interior and exterior walls. Both internal and external sun shading devices were

incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds, louvres) and external sun shading devices (balconies, window hoods) were incorporated to

enhance thermal comfort. The use of light coloured interior wall finish and light coloured exterior

wall finish is to counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the sandcrete blocks used

for construction.

 

42  

Plate 4.3.3.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds, Louvres

View of a Bedroom, Moremi Hall, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State

Source: Picture by Author’s relative (2014)

Plate 4.3.3.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Balconies

North Approach of Moremi Hall, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

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Plate 4.3.3.3. External Sun Shading Devices – Window hoods

Rear view of Moremi Hall, University of Lagos, Akoka, Lagos State

Source: Picture by Author’s relative (2014)

4.3.4. Case Study Four

Location: Obanibasiri Hostel, Ilaye Roundabout, Ilaye, Shagamu, Ogun State.

Description: This is an off-campus students’ residential hostel for the Olabisi Onabanjo

University Teaching Hospital, Shagamu, Ogun State. The most prominent building material used

here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with textured paint (textcote) for the exterior walls

and emulsion paint for the interior walls. Both internal and external sun shading devices were

incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds, louvres) and external sun shading devices (balconies, roof eaves, window hoods) were

incorporated to enhance thermal comfort. The use of medium coloured interior wall finish and

light coloured exterior wall finish is to counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the

sandcrete blocks used for construction.

 

44  

Plate 4.3.4.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds, Louvres

View of a Bedroom, Obanibasiri Hostel, Shagamu, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

Plate 4.3.4.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Balconies, Window Hoods

North West Approach of Obanibasiri Hostel, Shagamu, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

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Plate 4.3.4.3. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof Eaves, Window Hoods

Rear view of Obanibasiri Hostel, Shagamu, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

4.3.5. Case Study Five

Location: No. 20, Oluwashina Street, Off Itire Road, Church Bus Stop, Surulere, Lagos State.

Description: This is a residential apartment building. The most prominent building material used

here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with textured paint (textcote) for the exterior walls

and glossy paint for the interior walls. Both internal and external sun shading devices were

incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds) and external sun shading devices (roof eaves, reflective windows) were incorporated to

enhance thermal comfort. The use of medium coloured interior wall finish and light coloured

exterior wall finish is to counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the sandcrete

blocks used for construction.

 

46  

Plate 4.3.5.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds

View of the Bedroom, No. 20 Residence, Oluwashina Str, Off Itire Road, Church B/Stop, Surulere

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

Plate 4.3.5.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves, Reflective windows

North approach of No. 20 Residence, Oluwashina Str, Off Itire Road, Church B/Stop, Surulere

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

47  

4.3.6. Case Study Six

Location: Daniel Hall, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State.

Description: This is one of the students’ residential hostels in Covenant University, Ota, Ogun

State. The most prominent building material used here is plastered sandcrete block painted over

with textured paint (textcote) for both the exterior walls and the interior walls. Both internal and

external sun shading devices were incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds) and external sun shading devices (roof eaves, vertical fins window hoods) were

incorporated to enhance thermal comfort. The use of light coloured interior wall finish and light

coloured exterior wall finish is to counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the

sandcrete blocks used for construction.

Plate 4.3.6.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds

View of The Room C304, Daniel Hall, Covenant University

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

48  

Plate 4.3.6.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves, Vertical fins, Window hoods

East approach of D-Wing, Daniel Hall, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

4.3.7. Case Study Seven

Location: No. 8, Oba Alake Road, G.R.A Abeokuta, Ogun State.

Description: It is a three-bedroom bedroom residential bungalow. The most prominent building

material used here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with emulsion paint for both the

exterior walls and the interior walls. Both internal and external sun shading devices were

incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds) and external sun shading devices (roof eaves, vegetative shading) were incorporated to

enhance thermal comfort. The use of medium coloured interior wall finish and medium coloured

exterior wall finish is to counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the sandcrete

blocks used for construction.

 

49  

Plate 4.3.7.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds

View of The Living Room, Judiciary Quarters, G.R.A, Abeokuta, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

Plate 4.3.7.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves, Vegetative shading

Eastern approach of Judiciary Quarters, G.R.A, Abeokuta, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

50  

Plate 4.3.7.3. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves

Up-close Eastern view of Judiciary Quarters, G.R.A, Abeokuta, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

4.3.8. Case Study Eight

Location: No. 15, Alhaji Bakare Street, Off Hospital Road, Shagamu, Ogun State.

Description: This is also an off-campus students’ residential hostel for the Olabisi Onabanjo

University Teaching Hospital, Shagamu, Ogun State. The most prominent building material used

here is plastered sandcrete block painted over with emulsion paint for the interior walls and the

raw plastered finish for the exterior. Both internal and external sun shading devices were

incorporated as measures to enhance thermal comfort.

Thermal Comfort Measures: As stated in the description internal sun shading devices (window

blinds) and external sun shading devices (roof eaves, balconies) were incorporated to enhance

thermal comfort. The use of light coloured interior wall finish and the light coloured raw exterior

wall finish is to counteract the effect of high thermal mass property of the sandcrete blocks used

for construction.

 

51  

Plate 4.3.8.1. Internal Sun Shading Devices – Window Blinds

View of a Bedroom, No. 15, Alhaji Bakare Street, Off Hospital Road, Shagamu, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

Plate 4.3.8.2. External Sun Shading Devices – Roof eaves, Balconies

North approach of No. 15, Alhaji Bakare Street, Off Hospital Road, Shagamu, Ogun State

Source: Picture by Author (2014)

 

52  

4.4. Questionnaire Data Presentation And Analysis

Section A (General Questions)

1. Questionnaires were distributed randomly across both genders.

Table 4.4.1.

Gender Female Male

Frequency 36 39

Percentage (%) 48.00 52.00

Figure 4.4.1.

Sex range of the respondents

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

Female   Male  

 

53  

2. Age grouping percentages are in the frequency table below

Table 4.4.2.

Figure 4.4.2.

Age range of the respondents

Age Range 15-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50 and above

Percentage (%) 16.00 56.00 10.67 6.66 10.67

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

15-­‐19   20-­‐29   30-­‐39   40-­‐49   50  and  above  

 

54  

3. Level of education is shown in the table below, most of them being University

undergraduates.

Table 4.4.3.

Level of Education SSCE Undergraduate B.Sc M.Sc

Frequency 4 50 12 9

Percentage (%) 5.33 66.67 16.00 12.00

Figure 4.4.3.

Chart for the level of education of the respondents

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

SSCE   Undergraduate   B.Sc   M.Sc  

 

55  

Section B (Residential Information)

4. The frequency of respondents on the study areas are in the table below

Table 4.4.4.

Residence Res.

Daniel Hall, CU 21

Moremi Hall, UNILAG 18

PG Quarters, CU 9

No. 15, Alhaji Bakare Street, Off Hospital Road, Shagamu 6

No. 20, Oluwashina Street, Off Itire Road, Church Bus Stop, Surulere 6

Plot 3, Block 32, Liworo Avenue, G.R.A, Ijebu-Ode 6

Obanibasiri Hostel, Ilaye Roundabout, Ilaye, Shagamu 6

No. 8, Oba Alake Road, G.R.A Abeokuta 3

Table of respondents’ frequency

5. Question to find out the most notable building material and finish used on the exterior walls of

these buildings.

Deductions: Like almost every house in the south western part of Nigeria, Plastered sandcrete

block were used in construction and in all but one cases coated with textured paint (textcote), in

the exception, emulsion paint was used for the exterior wall finish of that particular building.

 

56  

6. Question to find out the most used colour tones for exterior wall finishes.

Table 4.4.6.

Colour Shade Light Medium Dark

Frequency 56 19 0

Percentage (%) 74.67 25.33 0

Figure 4.4.6.

Tone of the most used exterior wall finish colour

Deductions: By the responses to this question, it is gathered than 74.67% of the respondents’

houses made use of light toned colours for their exterior wall finishes. Majority of these

respondents’ in this category stated their thermal comfort level as ‘satisfactory’. This then goes

to prove what was earlier stated about the use of light coloured finish to reflect solar radiation

which then counteracts the effect of using sandcrete blocks with have very high thermal mass.

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Light   Medium   Dark  

 

57  

7. Question to find out the most notable building material and finish used on the interior walls of

these buildings.

Deductions: Like almost every house in the south western part of Nigeria, Plastered sandcrete

block were used in construction and in all but few cases coated with textured paint (textcote), in

the exception, emulsion paint and glossy paint used for the interior wall finish of some

buildings.

8. Question to find out the most used colour tones for interior wall finishes.

Table 4.4.8.

Colour Shade Light Medium Dark

Frequency 48 27 0

Percentage (%) 64.00 36.00 0

Figure 4.4.8.

Tone of the most used interior wall finish colour

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Light   Medium   Dark  

 

58  

Deductions: Just like in the case of the exterior walls, from the responses to this question, it is

gathered than 64% of the respondents’ houses made use of light toned colours for their interior

wall finishes. Majority of these respondents’ in this category stated their thermal comfort level

as ‘satisfactory’. This then goes to prove what was earlier stated about thermal comfort being

enhanced by lighter colours.

9. Question to find out if there were any sun shading devices on the buildings.

All responses to this question were ‘YES”.

10. a. Question to find out the kinds of sun shading devices present in these buildings.

Table 4.4.10.

Shading Device Internal External Both

Frequency 16 5 54

Percentage (%) 21.33 6.67 72.00

Figure 4.4.10.

Frequency of the kinds of sun shading devices used

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Internal   External   Both  

 

59  

Deductions: Analysis of this data has shown the prominent use of both kinds of shading devices

in these buildings. Deductively, it can be said that the design for the occupants’ thermal comfort

was put into consideration at the initial stages of the design. Majority of the respondents that

used both kinds of shading devices appeared to be on a satisfactory level of thermal comfort.

The conjunctive use of both kinds of shading devices is the most effective by this data.

10. a. 2. Question to requesting precise listing of the sun shading devices present in the building.

Table 4.4.10.2.

Shading Device Frequency Percentage (%)

Window Blinds 59 32.41

Vertical fins 18 9.89

Balconies 11 6.04

Window Hoods 37 20.32

Vegetative shading 3 1.64

Louvres 23 12.63

Roof Eaves 26 14.33

Reflective windows 5 2.74

Figure 4.4.10.2.

Frequency of the specific kinds of sun shading devices used

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

Window  Blinds  

Vertical  Nins   Balconies   Window  Hoods  

Vegetative  shading  

Louvres   Roof  Eaves   ReNlective  windows  

 

60  

Deductions: Analysis of this data shows that the used shading devices are louvres and window

blinds as internal sun shading devices and vegetative shading, vertical fins, roof eaves,

balconies, window hoods and reflective windows as the external sun shading devices. The most

commonly used ones listed by respondents are the window blinds, window hoods and the roof

eaves.

10.b. Question to find out if sun shading devices add to the visual appeal in these buildings.

Table 4.4.10.b

Respondent Yes No

Frequency 61 14

Percentage (%) 81.33 18.67

Figure 4.4.10.b

Respondents’ opinion on whether the shading devices add visual appeal to buildings

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

Yes   No  

 

61  

Deductions: Deductively, the responses here have helped answer the research question of

whether sun shading devices actual have a positive visual effect on a building’s outlook.

11. Question to find out if the respondent’s residence is hot during the day, when no mechanical

cooling devices are used.

Table 4.4.11.

Respondent Yes No

Frequency 40 35

Percentage (%) 53.33 46.67

Figure 4.4.11.

Heat levels during the day without mechanical cooling

Deductions: By this analysis, a little more than half (53.33%) of the respondents still

experience a level of thermal discomfort during the day when no mechanical cooling devices are

used. This goes to show although the designers have put effort in incorporating shading devices

in the design to help aid thermal comfort, there are still some shortcomings. The figures show

that the shading devices have not been as effective a expected for one reason or the other.

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Yes   No  

 

62  

12. Question to find out if the respondent’s residence is hot during in the evening, when no

mechanical cooling devices are used.

Table 4.4.12.

Respondent Yes No

Frequency 31 44

Percentage (%) 41.33 58.67

Figure 4.4.12.

Heat levels during in the evenings without mechanical cooling

Deductions: By this analysis, a greater percentage of the respondents experience a good level of

thermal comfort in the evenings when no mechanical cooling devices are used. This goes to

show the designers’ efforts in incorporating shading devices in the design to help aid thermal

comfort are somewhat effective in the evenings.

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Yes   No  

 

63  

13. Question to find out which space in the respondents’ residences experiences the highest level of

solar radiation

Table 4.4.13.

Space Frequency Percentage (%)

Lobby 11 15.71

Bedroom 34 48.57

Dining 7 10.00

Living room 18 25.72

Figure 4.4.13.

Spaces with highest amount of solar radiation

Deductions: By this analysis, 48.57% of the respondents experience the highest amount of solar

radiation in their bedrooms. This still doesn’t become a disappointment until respondents are of

the opinion that this solar influx causes discomfort for them in these spaces.

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Lobby   Bedroom   Dining   Living  room  

 

64  

14. Question to find out if the space said to experience the highest level of solar radiation has a

negative effect on the respondents’ comfort.

Table 4.4.14.

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 54 72.00

No 21 28.00

Figure 4.4.14.

Spaces with highest amount of solar radiation

Deductions: By this analysis, 72% of the respondents experience a level of discomfort in this

space with the highest amount of solar radiation. This is usually caused by either the building’s

shape or simple neglect in knowledge of the sun’s path and positions.

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Yes   No  

 

65  

15. Question to find out which space in the respondents’ residences experiences the least level of

solar radiation

Table 4.4.15.

Space Frequency Percentage (%)

Lobby 7 10.00

Bathroom 48 68.58

Store 10 14.28

Kitchen 5 7.14

Figure 4.4.15.

Spaces with least amount of solar radiation

Deductions: By this analysis, 68.58% of the respondents experience the least amount of solar

radiation in their bathrooms and 14.28% in their stores. Most likely daylight admittance here is

poor but cant be determined until question sixteen is analysed.

0  10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80  90  100  

Lobby   Bathroom   Store   Kitchen  

 

66  

16. Question to find out if the space said to experience the least level of solar radiation is suitable

for performing daily activities.

Table 4.4.16.

Frequency Percentage (%)

Yes 48 64.00

No 27 36.00

Figure 4.4.16.

Spaces of low radiation on daily performance of activities

Deductions: By this analysis, majority of the respondents feel comfortable in these spaces even

with the low amount of radiation. This shows effectiveness of sun shading devices and also

means no extra daylight admittance measures will be needed.

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

Yes   No  

 

67  

17. Question to find out the period of the day respondents are most comfortable in their residences.

Table 4.4.17.

Frequency Percentage (%)

Morning 23 25.34

Afternoon 10 17.33

Evening 42 57.33

Figure 4.4.17.

Thermal comfort levels for different periods in a day

Deductions: By this analysis, majority of the respondents feel most comfortable in evening. It is

generally cooler in the tropics and this is most likely the reason for this. The low percentage

(25.33%) of respondents comfortable in the morning shows a little level of ineffectiveness of

thee designed sun shading devices.

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

Morning   Afternoon   Evening  

 

68  

18. Question to find out the overall thermal comfort levels respondents give to their residences.

Table 4.4.18.

Frequency Percentage (%)

Unsatisfactory 24 32.00

Satisfactory 48 64.00

Very Satisfactory 3 4.00

Figure 4.4.18.

Overall thermal comfort level

Deductions: 64% of the respondents are averagely satisfied with their overall thermal comfort

levels and 34% are not, while just 4% are very satisfied. By the figures, this is a fair result for

how effective thee sun shading devices have proven to be. Recommendations will be made on

how to try and improve them and create a higher level of effectiveness.

0  

10  

20  

30  

40  

50  

60  

70  

80  

90  

100  

Unsatisfactory   Sartisfactory   Very  Satisfactory  

 

69  

5. SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1. Summary

The whole point of this study is to explore the importance of thermal comfort strategies

and how they are used on residential buildings. When designing for occupants, the thermal

comfort of the spaces, is equally as important as the structural stability, aesthetics and safety of

the houses.

This study explored different methods, processes or strategies that can be employed when

designing to enhance residential buildings’ thermal comfort levels.

They include:

a. In-Depth Knowledge Of Proposed Site Environment

b. Building Orientation

c. Building Massing And Configuration

d. Proper Ventilation And Avoidance Of Artificial Lighting When Possible

e. Kinds Of Building Materials And Finishes Used

f. Integrating Building Elements On Building Designs

The emphasis of this study was on the integration of building elements (especially Sun

shading devices) on the buildings. However, the mode of application and type of device used

determines how much comfort is derived. There was analysis of data from the study area,

which were randomly selected residential houses in various tow in South Western Nigeria.

There was visual inspection and documentation, oral interviews and questionnaires.

 

70  

5.2. Recommendations

By the analysis done, there is a fairly average level of satisfaction in the selected

residential units. As earlier stated in the study, attainment of thermal comfort by the occupants

is of very high importance. In the light of this, some recommendations to improve thermal

comfort in buildings are as follows:

In-depth knowledge of the site to be constructed on and its surroundings are very

important. Design preliminaries should be treated with high preference, they include; series of

site visitations and investigation, site’s microclimatology, sun’s path and positions over the site,

and gathering any other relevant information concerning thermal comfort. This knowledge in

conjunction with proper massing and configuration, proper ventilation and effective building

orientation will go a long way to aid designing for thermal comfort.

Choice of building materials is also of great importance to the thermal comfort levels of a

building. Designers should make effort and explore a wide choice of building materials, locating

and making good use of their yet undiscovered potential as well as researching different

methods by which their limits can be hurdled over and utilities maximized. This will help in

reducing the monotonous use of concrete that is heavy weight and of high thermal mass.

It is advised that building codes should be made that encourage the use of sun shading

devices like the “1990 Project Of Thermal Insulation In Portugal” which encourages

designers to incorporate the use of shading devices. Even in the higher institutions of

Architecture, design schemes with obligatory use of sun shading devices should be incorporated

into the educational syllabus. This would make students realize the importance of thermal

comfort of their occupants during the design process.

 

71  

5.3. Conclusion

Thermal comfort is a measure of an occupant’s satisfaction with a building’s thermal

environment. Like said earlier, It is deemed as important as the structural stability and safety of

a building’s design. These considerations for thermal comfort must then be implemented in the

very early stages of design.

According to the analysis of the selected buildings, the integration of these sun shading

devices have more positive effects than negative on the thermal comfort levels of a building. For

better effectiveness rates of these sun shading devices, they should be done in conjunction with

proper building orientation, use of lightweight materials and they must be incorporated in the

design as early as possible. This is a very important consideration when a designer wishes to

produce a sustainable and reliable design.

 

72  

REFERENCES

Books

ASHRAE Standard 55 (2011). Handbook of fundamentals: Thermal Comfort Standard.

American society of heating, refrigerating and air-conditioning engineers

Olygay, A. (1957). Solar Control and Shading Devices

New Jersey: Princeton University Press

Sue, R., David, C. and Fergus, N. (2005). Adapting Buildings and Cities for Climate Change.

UK: Elsevier, Architectural Press.

Charles, K.E. (2003). Fanger’s Thermal Comfort and Draught Models.

Canada: National Research Council, Canada

Heerwageen, D. (2004) Passive and Active Environmental Controls: Informing the schematic

designing of buildings. 3rd Edition.

USA: The McGraw-Hill publishers.

Koen, S. and MaryAnn, S. (2004). Environmental Diversity in Architecture.

USA: Taylor and Francius Group, Spon Press.

 

73  

Journals / Websites

Wulfinghoff, D. R. (1999). Install external shading devices appropriate for each exposure of the

glazing.

P. Raman, Sanjay Mande And V. V. N. Kishore (2000). A Passive Solar System For Thermal

Comfort Conditioning Of Buildings In Composite Climates

Ted Collins (2001). Low-Energy Building Design Guidelines

Donald, P. FAIA (2008). Sun Control and Shading Devices.

Retrieved from: http://nationalinstituteforbuildings.html (January, 2014)

Google images: egg-crate shading, vertical fins, vegetative shading, louvres, venetian blinds

Retrieved from: http://googleimages.com (January, 2014)

 

74  

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE ON THERMAL COMFORT,

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,

COVENANT UNIVERSITY OTA.

Dear Respondent,

I am undertaking a research work on the ‘Thermal Comfort In Residential Buildings;  A Study

Of Effectiveness Of The Use Of Some Sun Shading Devices’, as part of my B.Sc. (Architecture) degree

program requirement in the Department of Architecture at Covenant University, Canaanland, Ota. The

study, if successfully completed, will provide an insight concerning the use of some sun shading devices

with aim of achieving thermal comfort in residential buildings in tropics (emphasis on south western

Nigeria).

The information provided in this questionnaire will be treated confidentially and used for data

analysis only. Thank you very much for your cooperation.

Ogunsanya Damilare Damisi

Please tick appropriately;

SECTION A: GENERAL QUESTIONS

1. Sex

Male ( ) Female ( )

2. Age

15-19 ( ) 20-29 ( ) 30-39 ( ) 40-49 ( ) 50 and above ( )

 

75  

3. Level of Education

SSCE ( ) Undergraduate ( ) B.Sc ( ) M.Sc ( )

Ph.D ( ) Indicate if higher ( )

SECTION B: RESIDENTIAL INFORMATION

4. Current Residential Address

___________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________

5. What is the most notable kind of building material and finish for your residence’s exterior walls? (e.g.

Plastered sandcrete block and emulsion paint)

___________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

6. What is the tone of the colour on your residence’s exterior walls?

Light ( ) Medium ( ) Dark ( )

7. What is the most notable kind of building material and finish for your residence’s interior walls? (e.g.

Plastered sandcrete block and emulsion paint)

___________________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________

8. What is the tone of the colour on your residence’s interior walls?

Light ( ) Medium ( ) Dark ( )

9. Is there any sun shading device used in your residence?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes,

10. What kinds of sun shading devices are used in your residence?

 

76  

Internal shading device ( ) External shading device ( ) Both kinds ( )

Do specify/list the individual kinds (e.g. roof eaves, window blinds, window hoods, overhangs),

___________________________________________________________________________________

10.b. Do these shading devices seem to add to the visual appeal of your residence?

Yes ( ) No ( )

SECTION C: THERMAL CONDITION INFORMATION

11. Without mechanical cooling devices (fan, a.c), is your residence usually hot in the morning?

Yes ( ) No ( )

12. Without mechanical cooling devices (fan, a.c), is your residence usually hot in the evening?

Yes ( ) No ( )

13. What space in your house experiences the most sunlight? (e.g. bedroom, living room, bathroom)

______________________________

14. Does this high solar influx affect your comfort levels?

Yes ( ) No ( )

15. What space in your house experiences the least sunlight? (e.g. bedroom, living room,bathroom)

______________________________

16. Is the daylight admittance in this space suitable for the day’s activities?

Yes ( ) No ( )

17. At what time in a day do you feel the most comfortable in your residence?

Morning ( ) Afternoon ( ) Evening/Night ( )

18. What do you believe is the general thermal comfort rating of your residence?

Unsatisfactory ( ) Satisfactory ( ) Very Satisfactory ( )

Thank you very much for your time and cooperation.

God bless.

QUESTIONNAIRE ON THERMAL COMFORT,

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE,

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY,

COVENANT UNIVERSITY OTA.

Dear Respondent,

I am undertaking a research work on the ‘Thermal Comfort In Residential Buildings;  

A Study Of Effectiveness Of The Use Of Some Sun Shading Devices’, as part of my B.Sc.

(Architecture) degree program requirement in the Department of Architecture at Covenant

University, Canaanland, Ota. The study, if successfully completed, will provide an insight

concerning the use of some sun shading devices with aim of achieving thermal comfort in

residential buildings in tropics (emphasis on south western Nigeria).

The information provided in this questionnaire will be treated confidentially and used for

data analysis only. Thank you very much for your cooperation.

Ogunsanya Damilare Damisi

Please tick appropriately;

SECTION A: GENERAL QUESTIONS

1. Sex

Male ( ) Female ( )

2. Age

15-19 ( ) 20-29 ( ) 30-39 ( ) 40-49 ( ) 50 and above ( )

3. Level of Education

SSCE ( ) Undergraduate ( ) B.Sc ( ) M.Sc ( )

Ph.D ( ) Indicate if higher ( )

SECTION B: RESIDENTIAL INFORMATION

4. Current Residential Address

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. What is the most notable kind of building material and finish for your residence’s exterior walls?

(e.g. Plastered sandcrete block and emulsion paint)

_____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

6. What is the tone of the colour on your residence’s exterior walls?

Light ( ) Medium ( ) Dark ( )

7. What is the most notable kind of building material and finish for your residence’s interior walls?

(e.g. Plastered sandcrete block and emulsion paint)

_____________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

8. What is the tone of the colour on your residence’s interior walls?

Light ( ) Medium ( ) Dark ( )

9. Is there any sun shading device used in your residence?

Yes ( ) No ( )

If yes,

10. What kinds of sun shading devices are used in your residence?

Internal shading device ( ) External shading device ( ) Both kinds ( )

Do specify/list the individual kinds (e.g. roof eaves, window blinds, window hoods, overhangs),

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

10.b. Do these shading devices seem to add to the visual appeal of your residence?

Yes ( ) No ( )

SECTION C: THERMAL CONDITION INFORMATION

11. Without mechanical cooling devices (fan, a.c), is your residence usually hot in the morning?

Yes ( ) No ( )

12. Without mechanical cooling devices (fan, a.c), is your residence usually hot in the evening?

Yes ( ) No ( )

13. What space in your house experiences the most sunlight? (e.g. bedroom, living room, bathroom)

______________________________

14. Does this high solar influx affect your comfort levels?

Yes ( ) No ( )

15. What space in your house experiences the least sunlight? (e.g. bedroom, living room,bathroom)

______________________________

16. Is the daylight admittance in this space suitable for the day’s activities?

Yes ( ) No ( )

17. At what time in a day do you feel the most comfortable in your residence?

Morning ( ) Afternoon ( ) Evening/Night ( )

18. What do you believe is the general thermal comfort rating of your residence?

Unsatisfactory ( ) Satisfactory ( ) Very Satisfactory ( )

Thank you very much for your time and cooperation.

God bless.