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【Panel I : Paper 3】
The Youth in the Context of Globalization: Foreign Exposure, Economic Openness and National Pride
Organized by the Institute of Political Science, Academia Sinica (IPSAS) Co-sponsored by Asian Barometer Survey
September 20-21, 2012 Taipei IPSAS Conference Room A
(5th floor, North, Building for Humanities and Social Sciences)
The Youth in the Context of Globalization:
Foreign Exposure, Economic Openness and National Pride
Chin-en Wu Institute of Political Science, Academia Sinica
Associate [email protected]
This is only a rough draft. Please do not quote without author’s permission. Paper prepared for delivery at the conference “Democratic Citizenship and Voices of Asia’s Youth”, organized by the Institute of Political Science, Academia Sinica, and co-sponsored by Asian Barometer Survey, National Taiwan University, September 20-21, 2012, Taipei, Taiwan.
1
The Youth in the Context of Globalization: Foreign Exposure, Economic Openness and National Pride
Chin-en Wu
Introduction
The classical model of democracy assume that for such a system to work,
citizens must become aware, knowledgeable, and active in public affairs, engaged
with other citizens and psychologically attached to their communities and nations.
Democratic citizenship comprises several desired characteristics of “good citizens”.
The first one is participation, or the behavioral aspect of democratic citizenship.
Participation, both voting and alternative forms, are a prime criterion for defining the
democratic citizen and his or her role within the political process, and it is central to
the theoretical literature on democracy. The second one is critical and deliberative
aspect of democratic citizenship. This dimension involves the citizen’s autonomous
role in being sufficiently attentive to and informed about government to exercise a
participatory role. The third one is allegiance, or the affective and normative aspect of
democratic citizenship. Allegiance refers to the affection for one’s national community,
compassion for other fellow citizens (and concern for their well-being), and normative
commitment to the organizing principles of a democracy. While the importance of
normative commitment to democratic values and norms are well known, allegiance to
the national community is especially important to democracies that are struggling
with the nation-building process.
In the wake of globalization, in each country the characteristics of good
democratic citizens are facing challenges. First of all, exposure to foreign media and
global affairs directly influence people’ cultural and national identity and also their
attachment to traditional culture. Next, globalization entails international division of
labor, hurting the unskilled labor in the developed countries and increasing income
2
inequality within and between countries. Without secure income, it is difficult to
image that citizens are willing and able to participate, be autonomy, and allegiant to
certain norms. The cultural and economic shocks are likely to be more salient among
the young generation because people of this age are still in the process of socialization
and are at the beginning of their careers.
Globalization creates double challenges facing the youth. First of all,
globalization of economic exchanges increases the economic fluctuation. In addition,
the division of labor induces the relocation of manufacturing bases from rich countries
to countries with cheap labor. Globalization of production along with the process of
automated manufacturing greatly hurt the youth in the developed countries. On the
other hand, it ensures the high employment rate in the developing countries by
drawing the youth from the rural to the factories surrounding the cities. It creates
alienation and disorder among the workers. Will the economic shocks affect young
citizens’ satisfaction with and support for democracy and demand for political
changes? In addition, what are their attitudes toward economic openness?
Globalization also creates the cultural identity tension. Facing the culture shocks,
people are likely to have either one of the two types of responses. First, exposure to
foreign media and foreign affairs are likely to weaken people’ attachment to national
community. The incoming global information and interests may also intrigue
anti-globalization sentiment which reinforces protectionism and indigenous cultural
identity. We will empirically examine the two possibilities. In addition, we will
examine whether the strength of this attachment of the youth generation stronger or
weaker than older generations. Are there differences within the youth generation?
What is the impact of education, urban residence, family’s economic condition and
Internet use on this attachment?
East Asia is one of the few regions in the world today where the bulk of the
3
countries are still governed by authoritarian or semi-authoritarian regimes. In addition
to the divergent political regimes, the levels of developments also differ greatly across
countries. Finally, the exposure to foreign trade also differs across countries. The
share of trade as a percentage of GDP in some countries exceeds 100 percent. The
divergence allows us to explore different response patterns across the region.
On the other hand, although the youth unemployment rate in East Asia is
comparatively lower than other regions of the world, it is still higher than the adult
unemployment rate. The unemployment rate for youth was 2.8 times than that of the
adult (International Labor Office 2012). We want to know whether job status
influence people’s evaluation of the political and trade regimes.
Literature Review
Globalization and Economic Shocks
Globalization mainly comprises two integrations: economic and cultural. Both
types of integrations have important impacts on the youth’ life. The backbone of the
economic globalization is the global division of production. Because the relocation of
production bases to countries with cheap labors, workers of the industrialized
countries suffer the most. High unemployment rates and worsening income
distribution has been characterizing the western democracies during the era of
globalization (Kapstein 2000; Bowlus and Robin 2004). Unskilled laborers suffer
most seriously from the international division of labor. Scholars have empirically
confirmed that the unequal distribution of income decreases satisfaction with
democracy in Western Europe (Wagner, Dufour, and Schneider 2003). Similarly,
although most East Asian countries have recovered from the 1997 Asian Financial
Crisis, rising income inequality is also a significant trend in this region.
Because the erosion of the manufacturing jobs in the industrialized countries and
4
being less experienced, many young workers are more likely to accepts short-term
jobs or jobs with low wage and minimal benefits (World Youth Report 2007). Young
people trapped in such type of works have difficulties shifting to more permanent and
better-paid positions (International Labor Office 2012).
Unemployment, dead-end jobs, and poverty in many cases tend to frustrate the
youth. This social discontent in many countries results in social unrest and sometime
the youth violence and crimes (Hugo 2003). In addition, it is likely that such
frustration may reduce young adult’s satisfaction with and support for democracy and
may even spark demands for political changes. While in the developing countries,
young workers who often migrant from the rural area to the cities and work in poor
conditions and lack adequate social protection. Although employed, they are also
likely to be discontent with the current political and economic system (International
Labor Office 2012).
Along with the globalization is economic modernization, which tends to
accompany the change in family structure from extended families to nuclear families.
This change reduces the traditional family control power over the youth but at the
same time reduce the protection the extended families can provide in times of
difficulties (World Youth Report 2007).
Globalization and Identity Shocks
The integration of culture is characterized by the cross-border information and
communication flows, which come mainly from the developed countries to the
developing countries. The spread of Western culture increases the public concerns
about the erosion of the attachment to national community and the integrity of the
traditional values (World Youth Report 2007).
Because the youth are still undergoing the socialization process, they are
5
amenable and sometime vulnerable to culture shocks. The crash of cultures may cause
disorientation among the youth. As the youth are exposed to the globalization of
culture, there are two possible reactions. One is that the youth develop a biculture
identity (Arnett 2005). They may still have the existing identity but at the same time
they develop a global consciousness (Giddens 1991). The other reaction is that the
youth perceive the invasion of foreign culture as a threat. As a result, they tend to
embrace their own culture identity more firmly and try to defend it.
The globalization of culture tends to spread from the Western countries or
affluent countries to the developing countries. The cultures in the former countries are
characterized by individualism and free market, which are often in start contrast with
the collectivism which dominant the societies in the developing countries (Arnett
2055). In a relatively backward economy, people often live in a subsistence level, and
mutual assistances are an important mechanism to ensure mutual survival (Schlegel
and Barry 1991). One can test whether frequent exposure to foreign culture induces
people to reject traditional social values and turn to the liberal democratic values. In
addition, we can check if exposure to foreign culture influence induces the young
people to embrace the idea of free trade and endorse economic openness.
DATA
We use ABS Wave-3 as the primary data source. There is no uniform definition of the
Youth. In job statistics, the youth typically refer to people age between 15 and 24. In
other cases, the definition of youth could be extended to below 40 years old. Here we
use people under 30 years old as the definition of the youth and refer the rest of
respondents as the adult. Because of the big divergence in East Asia in terms of their
political system and level of development, we can classify our country cases into four
broad categories of regime types: (1) Liberal Democracy (LD): Japan, South Korea
6
and Taiwan; (2) Electoral Democracy (ED): Mongolia, the Philippines, Indonesia and
Thailand; (3) Electoral authoritarian regime (EA): Malaysia and Singapore and (Hong
Kong); and (4) One-Party Authoritarian regime (OA): China, Vietnam and
(Cambodia). The Hong Kong and Cambodia data are not available yet.
Economic Status of Youth
We first examine the economic status of the youth by looking at the self-reported
income and job status. One can find that the youth has somewhat higher income than
the adult.
0.23
0.24
0.23
0.16
0.13
0.16
0.29
0.24
0.16
0.14
0.31
0.32
0.19
0.120.06
0.27
0.31
0.22
0.130.07
0.22
0.29
0.30
0.11
0.09
0.13
0.31
0.30
0.16
0.10
0.25
0.21
0.21
0.21
0.12
0.18
0.18
0.21
0.28
0.15
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 1 Youth and Income Distribution
Lowest LowMiddle HighHighest
On the other hand, more youth said that they can save. It is likely because that youth
at this stage do not have families and thereby do not bear the cost of raising family.
7
0.70
0.80
0.500.54
0.690.73
0.68
0.740
.2.4
.6.8
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Inco
me
Can
Cov
er th
e N
eeds
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 2 Youth and Needs Coverage
On average, the youth have higher unemployment rate than the adult. Especially in
the relative affluent countries of LD and EA, jobless rate is two times higher among
the youth than the adult. The youth have higher percentage of students but lower
percentage of homemakers.
8
0.200.000.04
0.14
0.63
0.04
0.25
0.090.00
0.62
0.140.000.06
0.12
0.67
0.22
0.11
0.150.05
0.47
0.260.000.04
0.11
0.59
0.14
0.260.090.00
0.52
0.030.010.08
0.10
0.78
0.04
0.15
0.100.03
0.690
.2.4
.6.8
1P
erce
ntag
e
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 2 Youth and Employment Status
Homemaker StudentUnemployed othersemployed
The survey also asks the respondents whether they think wealth and poverty, success
and failure are all determined by fate. We find that the young respondents' attitudes
differed from the rest of the population. On average, the youth believe less in fate in
LD, EA, and OA.
9
0.28
0.21
0.60 0.59
0.50
0.42 0.43
0.32
0.2
.4.6
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
succ
ess
and
failu
re a
re d
eter
min
ed b
y fa
te
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 4 Youth and Fatalism
Studies have indicated that the meaning of democracy vary across citizens. Popular
understandings of democracy range from “social equity”, “good government”, “norms
and procedures”, to “freedom and liberty”. We check if youth think differently about
the essential characteristics of democracy. The survey question asks respondents to
choose only one from each four sets of statements as the most essential characteristics
of a democracy” In one set of statement, the question list four statement: (1)
Government ensures law and order; (2) Media is free to criticize the things
government does; (3) Government ensures job opportunities for all; and (4)
Multiple parties compete fairly in the election.
10
0.35
0.13
0.34
0.17
0.32
0.15
0.37
0.16
0.21
0.18
0.42
0.18
0.21
0.24
0.40
0.15
0.37
0.16
0.31
0.17
0.35
0.17
0.30
0.18
0.34
0.12
0.40
0.15
0.33
0.14
0.33
0.21
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 5 Meaning of Democracy and Youth
Law and order Media FreedomEnsure job opportunities Multiple parties
In liberal democracies, more young respondents name job opportunities as the
most essential characteristics of a democracy than the adult respondents. This reflects
the labor market uncertainty facing the young generation and is consistent with the
higher unemployment rate among the youth cohort. In electoral democracies and
especially one-party authoritarian regimes, by contrast, which have relatively low
GDP per capita and the unemployment rate for youth is comparatively much lower.
Fewer youth think ensuring job opportunities is the most essential characteristic of
democracy.
The emphasis on job opportunities, however, does not mean that the youth
demand greater equality in general. With respect to the other three sets of questions
regarding the most essential characteristics of democracy, their opinions do not
significantly differ from the rest of the respondents. The statements related to income
equality include “government narrows the gap between the rich and the poor” and
“basic necessities, like food, clothes and shelter, are provided for all” In addition, the
11
youth do not particularly perceive the idea of “people receive state aid if they are
unemployed” as the most essential characteristics of democracy. The story is clear.
The youth do not believe in fate and do not particularly demand social welfare and
unemployment benefits. They just need job opportunities.
0.28
0.40
0.320.34
0.390.42
0.37
0.43
0.390.380.370.36
0.260.26
0.300.27
0.32
0.37
0.320.36
0.320.290.29
0.27
0.1
.2.3
.4
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Job
Opp
ortu
nitie
sth
e m
ost E
ssen
tial C
hara
cter
istic
LD ED EA OA
One Two
Three o
r More One Two
Three o
r More One Two
Three o
r More One Two
Three o
r More
Figure 6 Generations Living Together and Meaning of Democracy
Adult Youth
Furthermore, one can easily assume that the youth would demand greater
government intervention in providing job security if they have fewer family supports.
We examine this assumption by link the generations of family members live in this
household and the youth’s demand for government intervention in job security. The
figure show a pattern that family factor play an important role in the youth’s attitudes
toward democracy. In the relative less affluent part of OA and ED young respondents
tend to see job security as the most essential characteristic of democracy if fewer
generations of family members live in the same households. Families in East Asia
provide a strong support that ameliorates the unemployment threats.
The following question is whether the youth’s economic status may affect their
12
regime preferences and to the whole political economic system. In LD and OA,
unemployed youth tend to support democracy less.
0.60
0.510.48
0.610.56 0.58
0.530.60
0.54
0.620.56 0.57
0.660.70
0.620.610.63
0.40
0.56
0.450.43
0.570.54
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g D
emoc
racy
Is A
lway
s P
refe
rabl
e
LD ED EA OA
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Figure 7 Youth, Job Status, and Preference for Democracy
Adult Youth
Compared with the adult respondents, the youth are prone to system change. Because
of the discontent, the unemployed youth are more likely to accept the idea of system
change.
13
0.42
0.540.540.500.51
0.530.54
0.45
0.55
0.40
0.51
0.00
0.200.18
0.25
0.180.22
0.19
0.270.310.32
0.260.29
0.2
.4.6
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Sys
tem
Sho
uld
Cha
nge
LD ED EA OA
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Studen
t
Unemplo
yed
emplo
yed
Figure 8 Youth, Job Status, and System Change
Adult Youth
The Youth’s Attitudes toward Globalization
Across countries, youth are less loyal to their countries in liberal democracies. In
contrast, young respondents in China and Mongolia tend to agree citizens should
always remain loyal only to his country, no matter how imperfect it is or what wrong
it has done. Comparing the young and adult respondents, their opinions do not differ
significantly in liberal democracies. Young respondents are less loyal to their
countries in ED, EA, and OA. As to the question of being proud to be a citizen of a
country, there is no significant differences across countries and age groups.
14
0.440.47
0.860.83
0.730.68
0.910.89
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Sho
uld
Rem
ain
Loya
l
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 9 Youth and Loyal to Country
Compared to the rest of the East Asian Countries, greater percentage of young
respondents in liberal democracies replies that they are willing to live in another
country if they get the chance. Comparing the adult and the young respondents, it is
clear that across East Asia the young generation is more will to go and live in another
country.
15
0.29
0.59
0.26
0.45
0.23
0.45
0.27
0.44
0.2
.4.6
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
be W
illin
g To
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 10 Youth And Going and Living in Another Country
Young respondents in liberal democracies follow major events in foreign
countries more closely than respondents in other part of the region. Young
respondents follow such events more closely than the adult respondents in ED and EA.
0.610.59
0.42
0.50 0.50
0.54
0.470.45
0.2
.4.6
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Follo
w C
lose
ly
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 11 Youth and Follow World Events
16
Young respondents watch or listen to foreign programs in television, DVDs,
movies, or radio more often than the adult.
0.50
0.64
0.58
0.68
0.79 0.77
0.29
0.45
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g W
atch
ofte
n
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 12 Youth and Watch Foreign Programs
Attitudes about defending a country’s way of life do not vary significantly across
the youth and the rest of the respondents. In liberal democracies, fewer people agree
this need to defending lifestyle instead of becoming more and more like other
countries. Across the region, young generation is slightly less willing to defend the
existing way of life.
17
0.720.66
0.870.82
0.88 0.87 0.870.83
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g S
houl
d D
efen
d
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 13 Youth and Defending Way of Life
As to people’s view toward foreign good, young respondents tend to favor less
trade barriers. Fewer young respondents in the liberal democracies, electoral
authoritarian, and one-party authoritarian regime agree that the governments should
protect our farmers and workers by limiting the import of foreign goods. Only
respondents in the electoral democracy tend to agree the need to restrict the import of
foreign products.
18
0.67
0.61
0.89 0.89
0.750.72
0.68
0.58
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Sho
uld
Pro
tect
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 14 Youth and Trade Barriers
In addition, young respondents are also more likely to reject the statement that
foreign goods are hurting the local community. In sum, young respondents on average
are more likely to welcome free trade.
0.510.49
0.760.72
0.620.58
0.63
0.56
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g H
urt L
ocal
LD ED EA OAAdult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth Adult Youth
Figure 15 Youth and Economic Openness
19
Information Exposure and people’s Attitudes
Here we examine the relationship between exposure to foreign information and
the youth’s political attitudes. By political attitudes, we look at attachment to national
identity and toward the progress of globalization. The young respondents who expose
to foreign programs are not more likely to think citizen should always remain loyal
only to his country or be proud of his country.
0.22
0.53
0.34
0.63
0.22
0.38
0.32
0.51
0.23
0.40
0.24
0.48
0.26
0.44
0.29
0.45
0.2
.4.6
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Will
ing
To
LD ED EA OA
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Figure 16 Youth, Following Events, and Live Abroad
Adult Youth
On the other hand, young respondents who follow foreign events or watch
foreign programs more often are more willing to go and live in another country, if
given the chance.
20
0.23
0.46
0.35
0.67
0.21
0.40
0.30
0.47
0.23
0.46
0.24
0.44
0.21
0.360.41
0.54
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g W
illin
g To
LD ED EA OA
Not Ofte
nOfte
n
Not Ofte
nOfte
n
Not Ofte
nOfte
n
Not Ofte
nOfte
n
Figure 17 Youth, Watch, and Live Abroad
Adult Youth
In liberal democracies and one-party authoritarian regime, young respondents
who follow major events in other countries are less likely to endorse trade barriers
that restrict importing manufacturing products. Respondents who watch foreign
programs are more likely to endorse economic openness.
21
0.55
0.48 0.480.49
0.790.74 0.73
0.70
0.620.57
0.610.58
0.68
0.60 0.58
0.51
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g A
gree
LD ED EA OA
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Not Clos
ely
Closely
Figure 18 Youth, Following Events, and Economic Openness
Adult Youth
Next, a respondent who think a citizen should always remain loyal only to his
country is more likely to defend the country’s way of life. This relationship is a bit
tautology. In addition, a respondent who disagree that a citizen should always remain
loyal only to his country is also more likely disagree the two statements that “we
should protect our farmers and workers by limiting the import of foreign goods” and
“foreign goods are hurting the local community”.
22
0.650.58
0.790.760.680.68
0.900.85 0.830.82
0.900.90
0.760.73
0.880.85
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Agr
ee
LD ED EA OA
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Figure 19 Youth, Loyal, and Defending Way of Life
Adult Youth
0.460.47
0.560.51
0.630.62
0.780.74
0.550.50
0.640.61
0.520.50
0.64
0.57
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g A
gree
LD ED EA OA
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Not Lo
yal
Loya
l
Figure 20 Youth, Loyal, and Economic Openness
Adult Youth
Finally, young respondents who are proud of one’s country are important are
more likely to defend the country’s way of life in all sub-regions. In addition, such
respondents are more likely to endorse erecting trade barriers that restrict importing
23
agriculture and manufacturing products across all regimes.
0.560.52
0.740.69
0.81
0.62
0.870.83
0.79
0.57
0.890.90
0.75
0.57
0.880.85
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Agr
ee
LD ED EA OA
Not Prou
dProu
d
Not Prou
dProu
d
Not Prou
dProu
d
Not Prou
dProu
d
Figure 21 Youth, Proud, and Defending Way of Life
Adult Youth
0.590.55
0.680.62
0.810.74
0.890.90
0.64
0.44
0.760.75
0.59
0.45
0.69
0.58
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Agr
ee
LD ED EA OA
Not Prou
dProu
d
Not Prou
dProu
d
Not Prou
dProu
d
Not Prou
dProu
d
Figure 22 Youth, Proud, and Trade Barriers
Adult Youth
As indicated, the western culture is characterized by individualism. The
globalization of western culture is likely to have an impact on citizens’ social values.
24
Empirically, the association between following foreign events and watching foreign
programs are not significantly associated with democratic values and traditional social
values. One possible reason is that the two questions ask foreign events and programs
but not the Western events and programs. If one is only exposed to information with
the region, we will not expect to observe the individualized effect.
Social Economic Status and people’s Attitudes
In LD, there is an interesting pattern. For the youth, it is the poorest youth who
are more willing to go and live abroad. For the adult, it is the richest who want to go
and live abroad. Many young people in these countries have difficulties finding
decent jobs. Work in the other countries becomes a natural way to escape the trap. In
contrast, the ability and willingness of the adult to move to other countries are much
lower. The wealthy are more interested in migrating by investment.
0.23
0.71
0.27
0.63
0.31
0.57
0.36
0.56
0.40
0.53
0.26
0.44
0.26
0.43
0.29
0.47
0.24
0.48
0.30
0.41
0.17
0.29
0.22
0.41
0.27
0.41
0.19
0.55
0.28
0.43
0.32
0.44
0.28
0.47
0.31
0.50
0.32
0.49
0.26
0.49
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g W
illin
g To
LD ED EA OA
Lowes
tLo
wMidd
leHigh
Highes
t
Lowes
tLo
wMidd
leHigh
Highes
t
Lowes
tLo
wMidd
leHigh
Highes
t
Lowes
tLo
wMidd
leHigh
Highes
t
Table 23 Youth, Income, and Live Abroad
Adult Youth
The relationships between job status and attachment to national community
25
exhibit contrasting patterns in different part of the region. In LD, unemployed youth
are more loyal to their countries, be proud of their countries, and willing to defend the
existing way of life. In contrast, in ED and OA, unemployed youth are less loyal, not
proud of their countries, and not willing to defend way of life. Compared with
employed youth, the unemployed youth do not support free trade less.
In general, better educated respondents are more willing to go and live in another
country if they are given the chance. The trend is more clear among the adult
respondents.
0.10
0.67
0.28
0.53
0.42
0.62
0.18
0.260.31
0.450.39
0.53
0.15
0.210.23
0.390.39
0.55
0.28
0.51
0.25
0.400.38
0.51
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g W
illin
g To
LD ED EA OA
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Figure 24 Youth, Education, and Live Abroad
Adult Youth
IN EA and OA, educated young respondents are less willing to support the idea
to protect farmers and workers by limiting the import of foreign goods. They also are
less likely to agree on the statement that foreign goods are hurting the local
community.
26
0.83
0.33
0.700.66
0.540.58
0.910.920.880.880.880.90
0.790.84
0.750.78
0.700.63
0.770.78
0.64
0.550.49
0.45
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Agr
ee
LD ED EA OA
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Figure 25 Youth, Education, and Trade Barriers
Adult Youth
Urban youth are less loyal to their countries in EA. They are less proud to be
citizens of their country in EA and OA. Urban youth across the region are more
willing to live abroad.
27
0.35
0.68
0.34
0.59
0.26
0.53
0.18
0.46
0.32
0.52
0.42
0.55
0.24
0.44
0.16
0.27
0.35
0.62
0.13
0.35
0.20
0.45
0.11
0.25 0.26
0.54
0.26
0.410.40
0.50
0.20
0.37
0.2
.4.6
.8P
erce
ntag
e R
espo
ndin
g W
illin
g To
LD ED EA OA
Metro
Region
al City
Small C
ity
Countr
yside
Metro
Region
al City
Small C
ity
Countr
yside
Metro
Region
al City
Small C
ity
Countr
yside
Metro
Region
al City
Small C
ity
Countr
yside
Figure 26 Youth, Urban, and Live Abroad
Adult Youth
Finally, we check the effect of internet use. In LD and OA, young frequent
internet users are more likely to reject the idea that a citizen should always royal to his
country. In ED, frequent internet users, however, endorse such idea. In EA, frequent
internet users are less proud to be citizens of their countries. In ED and EA, this group
is more willing to live abroad.
Frequent internet users in LD, EA, and OA are more willing to remove
restrictions on foreign goods and do not consider foreign goods a threat to the local
community.
28
0.2
.4.6
.81
Per
cent
age
Res
pond
ing
Agr
ee
LD ED EA OA
regula
r
irregu
lar
seldo
mreg
ular
irregu
lar
seldo
mreg
ular
irregu
lar
seldo
mreg
ular
irregu
lar
seldo
m
Youth, Internet Use, and Trade Barriers
Adult Youth
Conclusion
As the youth see job opportunities as the most essential characteristic of democracy, it
is important to providing job opportunities. Labor market deregulation and freedom of
transfer of personnel across the borders would be some of the policies that facilitate
jobs creations.