the twenty-sixth amy morris homans lecture …€¦ · the twenty-sixth amy morris homans lecture...

THE TWENTY-SIXTH AMY MORRIS HOMANS

LECTURE 1992

Using Kinesiology: A Comparison of Applied Veins

in the Subdisciplines by

Janet C. Harris

The Homans Lecture is an invited presentation by a notable scholar in Physical Education. The Lecture 1s prepared by the authorlpresenter and is reproduced in Questas a slgniflcant historical document.

Photo courtesy of Wellesley College Wellesley, Massachusetts

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USING KINESIOLOGY 39 1

viewed in an applied light, it may be politically expedient to give renewed prominence to professional preparation.

There are also substantive reasons why professional preparation should be a strong component of kinesiology. First, the field has a lot to offer the American public-a public that is highly interested in exercise, sport, fitness, health, and beautiful bodies. We should not keep our knowledge locked away in ivory towers where it is inaccessible to all but the most persistent. Second, the problems in our society that can be addressed by kinesiology are usually not neatly packaged along subdisciplinary lines. Sites of professional application hold great promise for integration-both cross-disciplinary as well as interdisciplinary (Ellis, 1988; Lawson, 1990; Rees, Feingold, & Barrette, 1991)-and integration has clearly been a desirable but elusive goal in kinesiology for many years.

Faculty conceptions of the importance of professional practices and of the nature of competencies needed by practitioners are basic to shaping professional preparation programs on university campuses. With this in mind the purpose of this paper is to compare the following three domains of subdisciplines in kinesiology with regard to competencies thought most important for professionals: (a) the biophysical sciences focused on exercise and sport, (b) the behavioral/sociocultural sciences focused on sport, and (c) the pedagogical sciences focused on school physical education classes and curriculums. Each domain consists of a group of subdisciplines and associated professional roles.

This three-domain model is only one of many ways to cluster the subdisciplines and related professional roles, and furthermore the salient features high- lighted here do not encompass everything that we might want to claim as part of the field. Nevertheless this framework is useful for comparing major applied veins in the subdisciplines.

Technical and CriticalIReflective Competencies

Two quite different sets of competencies are currently thought to be important for professionals in our field. On the one hand, there are frequent calls for the development of practitioners with high-level technical competencies who can assume jobs as experts in a status quo society. The importance of this set of competencies is based on a rather traditional conception of professionals. They are thought to be powerful information guardians who possess specialized knowledge and skills needed by the public. Their specialized technical competencies place them in positions of power in relation to their clients. They define problems in traditional ways based on the conventional professional wisdom in their field. Frequently they consider individuals to be sources of problems rather than the broader society, and therefore their solutions are usually targeted at changing individuals rather than changing society.

On the other hand, there are newer calls for the development of practitioners with criticdreflective competencies who can engage in activities (such as thoughtful reflection and evaluation of technical competencies, creative reformulation and repackaging of major problems needing attention, development of empathy with clients, empowerment of clients, and promotion of changes in society) that may lead to more equity among various social groupings (such as gender, ethnic, racial, and class formations) and promote greater social justice. Professionals are prodded to be introspective and reflexive, to examine the conditions under which various

392 HARRIS

technical competencies seem to work best. They are encouraged to free themselves from traditional ways of identifying and solving problems, to look at problems from new perspectives. They are urged to attempt to see things from the perspectives of the ordinary people they serve, and to give these people knowledge and skills that will empower them to take the lead in identification and solution of their own problems. Finally, they are encouraged to consider social formations (patterned ways in which people interrelate with one another) and dominant ideologies that support these formations as likely sources of problems. When difficulties are discovered in socia! arrangements, they are likely to respond with suggestions for social change.

There is a growing literature in many different disciplines in which particular critical/reflective competencies are examined and sometimes compared in great detail. In the present analysis, however, these competencies are treated together as a set of related proficiencies distinguishable from technical competencies.

The major goal of this discussion is to compare the relative emphases placed on technical and critical/reflective competencies in each of the three subdisciplinary domains. It is assumed that both competencies are important for maximizing professional excellence. Specialized technical knowledge and skills are crucial for professional expertise, but socially responsible professionals should also engage in continuous examination of the usefulness of their technical competencies and the overall purposes of their professional endeavors.

The main thesis to be developed is that, although subdisciplinary domains vary considerably with regard to relative emphases on the two types of competencies, the major focus in each domain remains on the technical. If a blend of both types is crucial for professional excellence, then increased attention to criticall reflective knowledge and skills is needed in all three domains. Before moving forward it is important to clarify the sorts of competencies that are considered either technical or critical/reflective.

Technical Competencies

In the biophysical domain, technical competencies are often focused around exercise, sport, or a combination of the two. Technical competencies include a wide array of specialized knowledge and skills from subdisciplines such as exercise physiology, biomechanics, sport/exercise psychology, motor development, and motor leaming/control. The goal is to use these competencies to enhance fitness and to enhance performance of physical activities. For example, exercise program experts can assess various physiological responses to submaxi- ma1 exercise and use this information to prescribe appropriate aerobic exercise regimens for individuals in corporate fitness programs; university athletic trainers can employ physiological and biomechanical principles of strength development to prescribe weight training programs for intercollegiate athletes.

In the behavioral/sociocultural domain, technical competencies are tied mainly to sport. Here the emphasis is on specialized knowledge and skills from subdisciplines such as sport/exercise psychology, motor development, motor learning/control, sport sociology, and sport management. The goal is to use these competencies to enhance sport performance or to enhance efficient supervision and governance of sport. For example, sport psychologists can teach Olympic

USING KINESIOLOGY 393

athletes stress management techniques to alleviate psychological stress associated with high-performance sport; managers in professional athletics can use sport marketing knowledge to develop sophisticated advertising strategies to increase spectator attendance. There is also much specialized knowledge in the behavioral1 sociocultural domain that is not readily translatable into technical competencies, especially from the subdisciplines of sport sociology, sport history, and philosophy of sport. More will be said about this later.

In the pedagogical domain, technical competencies deal primarily with teaching physical education classes but can also apply to coaching athletic teams. Here the goal is to use knowledge and skills from subdisciplines such as pedagogy, motor development, and motor learninglcontrol to improve instruction in classes offered in schools. The ultimate goal in these classes is to enhance both fitness and physical activity skills. For example, teachers who understand appropriate lesson progressions can design instruction to help students acquire increasingly refined movement patterns; instructors who use peer-teaching strategies appropri- ately may be able to encourage students to assist each other with their own skill and fitness development. Information from motor development and motor learning/control can sometimes also be used by physical education teachers to improve efficiency of skill acquisition.

CriticallRefZective Competencies

Criticallreflective competencies are quite different from technical ones. The focus here is on shaking free of conventional professional wisdom and gaining new insights. An example of the criticallreflective approach in the biophysical domain concerns differences in American values regarding male and female bodily appearance (Bain, Wilson, & Chaikind, 1989; Kissling, 1991; McKay, Gore, & Kirk, 1990). Appearance is more important for female bodies, and this is tied to societal values that situate female bodies as sex objects. Current American ideals regarding female bodies seem to favor a taut, lean, well-tanned appearance. The greater importance attached to appearance of female bodies and the rationale supporting it are socially constructed; there is no inherent reason why appearance should be more important for one gender than the other. However, because appropriate appearance is much more important for female bodies, problems surrounding obesity and weight loss are greater for females than for males.

Professionals with expertise in the biophysical subdisciplines of kinesiology often assume that individuals are primarily responsible for their own obesity. They utilize their arsenal of specialized knowledge and skills to produce technically sound educational materials and exercise programs. They assume that if people are made aware that it is unhealthy to be fat and if they have easy access to exercise programs, then only those who are lazy or undisciplined (and therefore morally reprehensible) will remain obese.

These professionals fail to recognize that for some obese women societal pressures to be thin press so heavily that exercise in public is shunned because it calls attention to a major defect-a physical defect that has strong implications regarding their moral worth. They also fail to recognize that large numbers of women who are not obese nevertheless believe themselves to be overweight. Finally, these professionals fail to recognize that there are women who choose to be fat to make a political statement against the tyranny of societal dictates for

394 HARRIS

women to be thin, curvaceous sex objects. It is clear that problems connected with obesity are greater for women than men and that this difference has a social origin. From a criticallreflective perspective, it is important that professionals learn to recognize the societal dimensions of problems such as these, adjust their programs to take account of them, and work to promote larger social changes geared toward alleviating them.

In the behavioral/sociocultural domain, an example of the criticallreflective approach concerns the commercialized nature of elite, high-performance sport- professional team sports, elite intercollegiate athletics, and major international events such as the Olympic Games. The commercialized structure of elite sport and the consequent focus on winning encourage an almost single-minded focus on the technical aspects of enhancing performance.

This has implications for the organization and control of sport. For example, transformations in Canadian governmental policy in the last several decades have led to greatly increased funding of that country's Olympic sport program (Macintosh & Whitson, 1990). The increased funds were tied to expectations of much better performances and greater prestige for athletes representing Canada in international competition. To ensure efficient organizational functioning and wise use of the increased money, a cadre of professional sport managers has been developed to run many of Canada's sport governing bodies. They have applied technical knowledge and skills concerning organizational management

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to the task of upgrading Canada's Olympic program. However, this intense focus on enhancing athletic performance has at times

been in conflict with official government policy favoring equality of access to the elite sport system for all Canadians. In the day-to-day business of managing this system, enhancing performance has been given preference over enhancing access to participation for members of less powerful groups such as Francophones, women, the working class, and residents of less wealthy provinces or rural regions. Questions of access are clearly bound up with power inequities among dominant and subordinate groups in the broader Canadian society-in other words with Canadian social structure.

From a critical/reflective perspective, it is important for professional sport managers to be aware of the larger social structures in which sport is embedded, and to recognize problems in sport that stem from these larger social formations. In the case of the Canadian managers, there should at least be conscious recognition that their decisions favor performance over access. The managers should also be aware that the problem of equal access is tied to inequities in the broader Canadian society, and they should work to promote changes that would help to alleviate inequities in the sport system and beyond.

Critical/reflective approaches to professional practices can also be identified in the pedagogical domain. The hidden curriculum in school physical education programs is illustrative. This important aspect of the learning experiences presented to students is termed "hidden" because it consists of unintentional, and perhaps unavoidable, messages that teachers communicate to students as they go about presenting daily lessons (Bain, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1985, 1990; Dodds, 1985; Kirk, 1992).

Detailed evidence mapping the full content of the hidden curriculum in physical education does not exist, but a variety of hidden messages have been identified. For example, Bain (1976) found that school physical education pro-


grams tend to legitimate privacy more for females than for males through practices such as providing private showering and dressing facilities. Also, student auton- omy is more highly legitimated in suburban schools, compared to urban ones. In later work she examines the ways in which meritocratic and technocentric ideologies are supported in school physical education curriculums (Bain, 1990).

Kirk (1992) points to suggestions by British scholar Jennifer Hargreaves that numerous values legitimated by the hidden curriculum in physical education are closely tied to capitahtic ideals such as individualism, discipline, respect for authority, and competitiveness. Furthermore, elitism is fostered by legitimating the importance of high-performance sport and trivializing playful movement activities. The focus on high-performance sport also reinforces the overall idea of male superiority because it provides a public forum for demonstrating that talented males usually outperform talented females in the several sports valued most highly by the public.

From a critical/reflective perspective, it is important for physical education teachers to become conscious of the hidden curriculum. It is clear that hidden support for social injustices such as gender and class inequalities serve to reinforce the status quo and impede actions leading to social change and greater equity. Teachers who come to their classes with an abundance of technical teaching knowledge and skills are likely to be successful in enhancing the fitness and physical activity skills of at least some of their students. Without criticalJreflective competencies, however, they will probably fail to recognize the broader social implications of the unintended, hidden messages that are embedded in their cumculums. When teachers become aware of such messages, they can evaluate them and take steps to eliminate those that seem inappropriate.

Keeping in mind these examples of technical and criticalJreflective knowledge and skills, we turn now to consider each of the three domains in terms of prominent conceptions of important professional competencies. The information discussed here comes primarily from interviews with faculty specialists, literature reporting the nature of professional endeavors, and national certification and accreditation documents.

Professional Practices in the Biophysical Domain

The two major professional roles related most closely to the subdisciplines in the biophysical domain are athletic trainer and exercise program expert. Knowl- edge and skills from exercise physiology, biomechanics, and sport/exercise psychology are especially important. Additional competencies are required in areas beyond the field of kinesiology such as anatomy, physiology, psychology, nutrition, health, and business (American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Pediatrics, National Athletic Trainers' Association, & American Medical Association, 199 1 ; American College of Sports Medicine, 199 1 ; National Athletic Trainers' Association, 1988, 1992, n.d.). Exercise program experts work with healthy individuals focusing on enhancement of well-being, and they also serve in rehabilitative settings to help patients recovering from health problems. Athletic trainers deal with prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of athletic injuries and illnesses.

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Conceptions of Important Professional Competencies

Overwhelmingly, the focus in the biophysical domain is on specialized technical competencies. There is almost complete neglect of criticallreflective proficiencies and little evidence that faculty specialists and practitioners in this domain are even aware that such competencies exist.

Trainers are required to be familiar with ethical issues surrounding all phases of their work. In some cases this may encourage critical/reflective insights. One issue that might engender these, for example, is the question of whether a trainer should be the agent of an injured athlete or the agent of his or her coach or team, and the implications of this for the athlete's well-being. Education and counseling activities of trainers would seem to offer additional possibilities for development of critical/reflective competencies. Overall, however, the National Athletic Trainers' Association certification and accreditation standards provide little that suggests attentiveness to such competencies, and several practicing trainers agree that almost all of the emphasis is placed on technical knowledge and skills (American Academy of Family Physicians et al., 1991; National Athletic Trainers' Association, 1988, 1992, n.d.).

Likewise, American College of Sports Medicine certification standards for various types of exercise program experts focus heavily on technical proficiencies aimed at enhancing fitness and well-being (American College of Sports Medicine, 1991). Looking specifically at exercise programs designed to improve fitness in the general population, it is clear that most are geared toward encouraging individuals to adopt more physically active lifestyles (cf. Bar-Or, 1987; Brown, Cundiff, & Thompson, 1989; Corbin, 1987; Cureton, 1987; Dishman, 1988; Haywood, 1991 ; King, 1991; Lee, Carter, & Greenockle, 1987; McGinnis, Kan- ner, & DeGraw, 1991; McSwegin, Pemberton, & Petray, 1989; Meredith, 1988; Morris, 1991; Nelson, 1991; Pemberton & McSwegin, 1989; Ross, Pate, Cas- persen, Damberg, & Svilar, 1987; Ross, Pate, Corbin, Delpy, & Gold, 1987; Sallis, 1987; Sallis & McKenzie, 1991; Simons-Morton, O'Hara, Simons-Mor- ton, & Parcel, 1987). The assumption is that if people are given information about the ties between physical activity, fitness, and health; if exercise programs are readily available; and if proper motivation is provided, people will be willing and able to adopt more active lifestyles.

There are frequent calls for use of school physical education classes to enhance fitness through exercise because almost all children attend school. It is thought that if the programs persist long enough, the message will be given to almost the entire American population. It is also hoped (although evidence is scant) that a physically active lifestyle established at a young age will cany over to adulthood. Besides schools, other recommended settings for intervention programs include workplaces, families, places of worship, and various other public and private community agencies.

A number of faculty specialists outside the biophysical domain have cri- tiqued the one-sided focus on technical competencies prevalent in this area (cf. Bain et al., 1989; Dewar, 1987; Hoberman, 1988,1992; Ingham, 1985; McKay et al., 1990; Sage, 1990, pp. 11 1-1 13; 1992; Vertinsky, 1985; Whitson & Macintosh, 1990). Many of these people are associated with the behavioral/sociocultural domain-most often they are faculty specialists in sport sociology or sport history.


There is little to suggest that faculty specialists or practitioners in the biophysical domain itself have come across these criticisms.

The critics argue that emphasis on technical competencies aimed toward changing individuals tends to obscure the importance of needed social changes. Even though social settings such as schools and workplaces are frequent sites for intervention, individual people-not social structures-are most often targeted for change. The major lines of research in the biophysical domain also tend to be framed by questions that focus on individuals rather than social formations. Little attention is given by investigators to examining and possibly altering broader social arrangements that have an impact on exercise, fitness, and health. It is clear from the example given previously concerning societal conceptions of male and female bodies that social dimensions can be extremely important. Without becoming aware of the ways in which various social arrangements and underlying ideologies impose constraints on equity and social justice-and attempting to address and perhaps eliminate these constraints as part of the services professionals provide-it may be difficult for even the most technically competent exercise program experts and athletic trainers to be maximally helpful to the entire range of the American population.

It is indeed unfortunate that faculty specialists and practitioners in the biophysical domain have gravitated toward a narrowly focused conception of professional knowledge and skills that privileges technical competencies. For the most part there seems to be a blissful lack of awareness of critical/reflective competencies. If a blending of the two is beneficial for professional excellence-a position that underlies this analysis-then clearly faculty specialists and practitioners in the biophysical domain must familiarize themselves with critical/ reflective competencies and encourage greater emphasis on them in the future.

Professional Practices in the Behavioral/Sociocultural Domain

The two most well-developed professional roles associated with the subdisciplines in the behavioral/sociocultural domain are sport psychologist and sport manager. Expertise in these roles clearly requires knowledge and skills from the corresponding subdisciplines of sport/exercise psychology or sport management. Other important competencies come from a variety of other subdisciplines in the biophysical and behavioral/sociocultural domains of kinesiology, as well as from other relevant fields beyond kinesiology such as business and the biological, behavioral, and social sciences (Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, 1990; National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 1987a). Sport psychologists primarily offer educational consulting services to athletes, coaches, and whole teams to help them enhance athletic performance or improve the quality of their athletic experiences. They usually hold a position (such as university faculty member, coach, or clinical psychologist) that entails numerous other professional responsibilities besides consulting in athletic settings.

Sport managers occupy a wide range of positions in commercialized sport, as well as in nonprofit or government sport and leisure service organizations. Responsibilities include general office work requiring little specialized expertise; sophisticated staff roles requiring detailed understanding of areas such as marketing, law, or mass communication; and central administrative positions requiring

398 HARRIS

broad and deep understanding of organizational management and the particular sports involved.

With a few notable exceptions, most faculty specialists in the sociocultural subdisciplines of the behavioral/sociocultural domain-sport sociology, sport history, and philosophy of sport-have not been particularly concerned about professional competencies. Many are highly critical of sport in industrialized societies, and some think that preparing people to take jobs in sport as it presently exists contributes to perpetuating a highly problematic social structure. However, others believe that information from these subdisciplines gives practitioners broad knowledge of the historical development, current social arrangements, and philo- sophical concerns central to sport. It is argued that understanding sport as a continuously changing social structure embedded in broader societal contexts helps sport managers make better informed decisions.


Similar to the biophysical domain, the major emphasis in the behaviorall sociocultural domain is also on specialized technical competencies. There is somewhat greater awareness of critical/reflective knowledge and skills here than in the biophysical domain, and occasionally such competencies can be seen operating in professional practices. Overall, however, the emphasis is clearly on the technical side.

Occasional influence from the subdisciplines of sport sociology, sport history, and philosophy of sport highlight the importance of critical/reflective competencies for sport managers and sport psychologists, although this influence is not a common occurrence. Sport sociology is the source of the most strident calls for major structural changes in sport. Not all sport sociologists desire radical changes, but the ranks of those who do seem to be growing. These calls imply a need for politically astute, change-oriented practitioners. unfortunately, most sport sociologists who want major structural changes are not positioned to exert much influence over the preparation of practitioners.

Sport Psychologists. Evidence of a central focus on technical competencies and a subsidiary interest in critical/reflective competencies for sport psychologists comes primarily from reports of services offered in numerous settings including elite international sport, professional athletics, intercollegiate athletics, and community youth sport (cf. Gould, 1987; Orlick, 1986; Orlick & Pitman- Davidson, 1988; Roberts & Gouid, 1989; Roberts & Halliwell, 1990; Smoll, Magill, & Ash, 1988; Weiss & Gould, 1986). In commercialized, high-performance sport there is a heavy focus on using technical competencies to enhance athletic performance. In some cases, sport psychologists teach athletes techniques to reduce barriers to top performance such as stress, anxiety, and group interaction problems. In other cases athletes are taught psychological skills that may facilitate top performance such as visualization, goal setting, and mental rehearsal. The objective is to give them a variety of psychological coping skills and performance enhancement techniques that will improve their ability to operate within sport as it is presently structured. Little attention is given to making major changes in sport to alleviate the need for these special psychological skills.

Many sport psychologists take a holistic view of athletes and have an awareness that their lives and problems extend beyond sport. Criticallreflective


practices sometimes stem from this. For example, sport psychologists are often interested in developing empathy with their clients, as well as in carefully re- flecting on the efficacy of their interventions. They also frequently attempt to empower athletes by giving them psychological skills they can use on their own without continued assistance from a professional. At the same time, there is evidence that sport psychology services may be disempowering if they are manip- ulatively applied to athletes by others seeking to push performances beyond current limitations. This may occur when sport psychologists see themselves primarily as agents of a coach or the sport organization that pays their salary, rather than as agents of the athletes receiving their services.

In community youth sport settings, sport psychologists also emphasize technical competencies, but there is evidence that critical/reflective proficiencies appear more often. On the technical side, they sometimes recommend helping players adjust to current youth sport structures by teaching them skills to cope psychologically with the current system. Players, coaches, and parents are taught to deal with internal psychological states such as motivation, stress, and self- esteem. Taking a more criticalJreflective stance, however, there are other times when sport psychologists recommend structural changes to make sport more hospitable to young people.

Gould (1987) believes that changes in children and changes in sport can both be carried out best by educating those in control-parents and coaches. This assumes that the adults in control will want to make changes that are in the best interests of children, and that may not always be the case. The glamour of a youth-sport program partially modeled on elite, high-performance sport may at times be irresistible. However, there is evidence from sportJexercise psychology as well as sport sociology suggesting that when children are in charge of structur- ing their own games, the activities look very different from adult-organized youth sport (Coakley, 1990, pp. 87-1 12; Orlick, 1986). Children emphasize structures that encourage high levels of game action, lots of personal involvement in the action, a challenging or close contest, having fun, and reaffirming friendships. From a criticallreflective standpoint, a more radical restructuring of organized youth sport might be brought about by giving the youngsters themselves the power to shape the games and the governing structures in which the games are embedded.

Sport Management. There is clear evidence that the major emphasis of sport managers is also on technical competencies, accompanied by occasional acknowledgement of the importance of criticallreflective knowledge and skills. Documentation comes primarily from reports outlining proficiencies thought to be needed by practitioners; many of these accounts are based on data from surveys conducted among employers, alumni of sport management programs, or faculty specialists (cf. Brassie, 1989; DeSensi, Kelley, Blanton, & Beitel, 1990; Fielding, Pitts, & Miller, 1991; Hardy, 1987; Hatfield, Wrenn, & Bretting, 1987; Jamieson, 1987; Lambrecht, 1987, 1991; Mullin, 1984; Parkhouse, 1987; Parkhouse & Ulrich, 1979; Parks & Quain, 1986; Quain & Parks, 1986; Slack, 1991; Ulrich & Parkhouse, 1982; Williams & Miller, 1983; Zanger, 1984; Zeigler, 1987). There is considerable variation in the specific knowledge and skills thought to be important. Some concentrate entirely on business competencies, while others include management proficiencies tied to other settings where sport governing bodies are often housed-government and nonprofit agencies. All agree that

400 HARRIS

basic management competencies should be combined with a variety of specific management knowledge and skills pertaining to sport.

There is a notable lack of interest in competencies not perceived to be immediately useful, such as broad understandings of sport from psychological, historical, and sociological perspectives. An exception to this is the widespread acknowledgement that practitioners must have an understanding of ethical concerns. Alongside the vast array of technical competencies considered necessary for managing status quo sport, however, it seems unlikely that ethical concerns would include much critical/reflective questioning of sport as it currently exists.

There is only occasional recognition of the importance of critical/reflective competencies for sport managers by faculty specialists within this subdiscipline itself (cf. DeSensi et al., 1990; Hardy, 1987; Slack, 1991). It is pointed out that people who are familiar with criticalfreflective insights about sport and its relationships to broader societal contexts are often more comfortable dealing with ambiguities and reconciling contrasting viewpoints. These skills are thought to be valuable for sport managers. Furthermore, critical/reflective insights are identified as sources of useful criticisms of status quo sport--criticisms that may lead to recognition of needed changes.

Outside the subdiscipline of sport management-but still within the behavioral/sociocultural domain-a debate has recently emerged among faculty specialists in sport sociology concerning the nature of applied sport sociology and the importance of engaging in applied work (cf. Chalip, 1990; Greendorfer, 1992; Ingham & Donnelly, 1990; Macintosh & Whitson, 1990; Melnick, 1981; Yiannakis, 1989, 1990; Yiannakis & Greendorfer, 1992). This is relevant to the present discussion because knowledge and skills from sport sociology can be useful to sport managers. A major issue in the debate is whether sport sociologists should endeavor to serve, support, and perhaps even strengthen sport as it is currently structured, or whether they should work to encourage more major, sweeping reforms.

Most of those currently advocating greater efforts to apply sport sociology call for using specialized technical knowledge and skills to solve problems in status quo sport, at times tinkering in minor ways with structure but not making broad-based, extensive structural changes. The rationale is that there are smaller "micro level" changes that can more rapidly alleviate some of the problems and troubles in sport without waiting for slower, more broad-based "macro level" changes to occur. For example Greendorfer (1992) points out that knowledge of racial stereotyping can be used by applied sport sociologists to sensitize coaches to racial problems in athletics, especially the problem of racial stacking or uneven distribution of whites and blacks in central and peripheral playing positions. Those advocating changes at the micro level recognize the need for more sweeping changes at the macro level as well, but they also see benefits in working for smaller, more immediately attainable changes.

In some cases, of course, social research may even be applied toward the goal of further entrenching elite, commercialized sport. For example, knowledge of a positive relationship between having a successful, winning intercollegiate football team and the amount of money donated to an athletic department might be useful to athletic directors pondering whether to cut minor sports and place greater emphasis on football (Sigelman & Bookheimer, 1983).


Sport sociologists on the other side of the debate are strong advocates of greater social justice. They argue that power inequities (e.g., those tied to gender, race, ethnic, age, and class relations) embedded in present-day sport are so great that social justice can only be furthered by radical restructuring. From this standpoint, the goal of applied sport sociology would be to encourage development of criticalJreflective competencies in practitioners who would then work to bring about major structural changes.

At present, however, there is little effort given to this applied objective. The challenge for advocates of greater social justice in sport is to put their ideas into action. One exception comes from Macintosh and Whitson (1990) who advocate midrange structural changes that go beyond minor tinkering but stop short of full-scale alterations. For example, they point to Kanter's (1977) suggestions for organizational changes designed to promote gender equity. These include strategies such as hiring several females at the same time (so that they can provide political and emotional support to one another) and providing adequate child care services for employees.

Beyond the debate in sport sociology itself, a number of faculty specialists in this subdiscipline have offered rather sharp criticisms of the emphasis that sport psychologists and sport managers place on technical competencies (cf. Coakley, 1991; Dewar, 1987; Hoberrnan, 1988,1992; Ingham, 1985; Macintosh & Whitson, 1990; Sage, 1990, 1992; Whitson & Macintosh, 1990). Similar to the biophysical domain, the heart of the difficulty is that professionals with strong technical and weak critical/reflective competencies tend to work in ways that support current social arrangements. They often target individuals for change rather than social structures, which obscures problems at the structural level. This continues to give support to the existing social arrangements that constitute high-performance sport.

Faculty specialists and practitioners in the behavioral/sociocultural domain have not completely neglected criticalJreflective competencies, but their conceptions of important professional knowledge and skills are skewed heavily toward technical approaches. If professional excellence is best achieved through a combination of technical and critical/reflective knowledge and skills, then faculty specialists and practitioners in the behavioral/sociocultural domain are urged to heed those among them who call for greater emphasis on critical/reflective proficiencies.

Professional Practices in the Pedagogical Domain

The major professional role connected with the subdisciplines in the pedagogical domain is physical education teacher. Knowledge and skills from the subdiscipline of pedagogy are centrally important, along with proficiencies in a wide range of physical activities. Information concerning motor development and motor learning/control can be usefully applied at times toward improving physical education teachingbeaming processes. Competencies from many other subdisciplines in kinesiology and from the broader discipline of education are also required (Educational Testing Service, 1987, 1991-1992; National Associa- tion for Sport and Physical Education, 1987b; National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 1987).

402 HARRIS


We have seen that in the other two subdisciplinary domains there is rela- tively little awareness of critical/reflective competencies. By contrast, in the pedagogical domain there is substantial knowledge of such competencies, much thinking about ways to encourage teacher preparation students to acquire them, numerous efforts to incorporate these means of encouragement into teacher preparation curriculums, action research focused on them, and a new textbook emphasizing them (cf. Charles, 1979; Graham, 1991; Griffin, 1985; Hellison & Templin, 1991; Kirk, 1986; Kirk & Tinning, 1990; Lawson, 1984, 1988, 1990; McKay et al., 1990; O'Sullivan, Siedentop, & Locke, 1992; Tinning, 1991, 1992). In spite of this, however, technical competencies continue to receive the greatest emphasis. There is an ongoing debate among faculty specialists concerning whether technical competencies, critical/reflective competencies, or a combination of the two is most important for professional excellence.

This attention to both types of competencies stems from the broader field of education where both are also currently being scrutinized, given prominence in teacher preparation programs, and made the subject of debate (Zeichner & Tabachnick, 1991). Furthermore, in the pedagogical domain of kinesiology, faculty specialists have a long history of concern about professionals and professional preparation; they tend to be more focused on this than are their colleagues in the biophysical and behavioral/sociocultural domains. Evidence of current emphasis on both sets of competencies comes primarily from publications that are part of the debate about the relative importance of the competencies, as well as from textbooks commonly used in physical education teacher preparation programs.

Turning to the debate, manifestations of this controversy appear most often in essays and reports favoring increased attention to critical/reflective competencies. These usually critique the rather strong focus on technical proficiencies in many physical education teacher preparation curriculums. In some cases they also identify problematic situations faced by physical education teachers for which technical competencies do not seem to provide adequate solutions. For the most part these critiques come from faculty specialists in the subdiscipline of pedagogy itself, the only subdiscipline in the entire field of kinesiology with close ties to a profession where an internal criticism of overemphasis on technical competencies is currently under way.

The critique occurs on two levels. First, looking broadly at the field of kinesiology, it is recognized that teacher preparation students usually take course work in many of its subdisciplines. The biophysical domain and the psychological aspects of the behavioral/sociocultural domain are taken to task for their rather single-minded focus on technical proficiencies. These problems have already been examined earlier. The subdiscipline of pedagogy is faulted for failing to critique the overemphasis on technical competencies in these other domains.

Secondly, the subdiscipline of pedagogy is further criticized for giving too much attention to its own technical competencies. Strident calls urge greater focus on critical/reflective knowledge and skills, and it is thought that this can be brought about partially by redesigning the specialized, professional course work taken by physical education teacher preparation students.

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404 HARRIS

Quest titled "Usefulness of Motor Learning Research for Physical Educators" examines the extent to which knowledge from the subdiscipline of motor learning/ control can be translated into technical teaching competencies (Harris, 1990).

O'Sullivan et al. (1992) have recently developed a comprehensive and thoughtful response to the arguments favoring increased attention to critical1 reflective proficiencies. They are concerned about the sharp, adversarial, and moralistic tone, and they criticize what they see as a strong assumption in this "radical physical education literature" (p. 267) that people must choose to emphasize either technical or critical/reflective knowledge and skills rather than both. They also fault it for failing to back up theoretical assertions with firm, systematic evidence. Finally, from the standpoint of practitioners, they believe there is a need for more straightforward, detailed descriptions of specific critical/ reflective competencies that physical education teachers can identify and use in their day-to-day work.

Along with these complaints, however, O'Sullivan et al. (1992) emphasize that they are indebted to the critics of technological pedagogy for reminding us of the importance of examining the purposes of education. It is extremely important, they believe, to ask socially critical questions about whose interests are served by our current educational arrangements. They admit that attention has recently been focused too heavily on the means by which teaching/learning takes place at the expense of giving short shrift to the ends it serves.

There has also been a recent call by Metzler (1992) to deemphasize research on physical education teachers and to replace it with a renewed emphasis on physical education teaching. The underlying assumption is that the current focus on studying teachers and their educational environments is a manifestation of an overemphasis on critical/reflective competencies. The criticism is that very little is known about "how to teach a certain content to a certain group of learners consistently well" (p. 155), and more research on technical competencies is needed to remedy this problem.

It is clear that somewhat greater attention is given to critical/reflective competencies in the pedagogical domain-and in the subdiscipline of pedagogy in particular-versus the other two domains considered here. The main focus is still on technical competencies, but by comparison there is much greater awareness and sophistication of thought concerning criticallreflective competencies. If a combination of the two is important for professional excellence, then perhaps faculty specialists and practitioners in the pedagogical domain can encourage their colleagues in the biophysical and behavioral/sociocultural domains to place greater emphasis on criticallreflective competencies. The more advanced thinking about such competencies by people in the pedagogical domain may be a useful wellspring within our field for increasing awareness and understanding of this aspect of professional practice.

Conclusions and Implications

It is clear that conventional models of professionalism emphasizing specialized technical competencies predominate in the field of kinesiology. At the same time there are differences among the domains with regard to the importance accorded critical/reflective knowledge and skills (see Table 1). If we assume that professional excellence is maximized by blending both kinds of proficiencies


Table 1

Importance of Professional Competencies in the Subdisciplinary Domains

Domain Technical Criticallreflective competencies competencies

Biophysical Major emphasis Little awareness or emphasis

Behaviorallsociocultural Major emphasis Moderate awareness with slight emphasis

Pedagogical Major emphasis Strong awareness with moderate emphasis

together, then it is obvious that faculty specialists and practitioners in kinesiology must become more aware of criticallreflective competencies and encourage their use in professional endeavors.

How can awareness and use of critical/reflective competencies be en- hanced? As we know, the best model inside the field is located in the pedagogical domain. There are also useful insights in the behavioral/sociocultural domain about problems associated with overemphasis on technical competencies, but the challenge for these critics is to become more centrally involved themselves in preparing professionals. Faculty specialists and practitioners throughout the entire field of kinesiology should make use of available wisdom from these two domains to increase the emphasis on critical/reflective proficiencies, while at the same time maintaining appropriate attention to technical knowledge and skills.

Also, many subdisciplines in kinesiology have close ties with other disciplines such as psychology, biology, nutrition, business, education, leisure studies, public health education, medicine, nursing, and physical therapy. Some of these other disciplines possess information about critical/reflective competencies that would be helpful to faculty specialists and practitioners in our own field. We have already seen, for example, that people in the pedagogical domain have been prodded into greater awareness and use of critical/reflective competencies by the attention given them in the broader field of education.

Another area of study that has much to offer in this regard is public health education. Professional public health educators have much in common with professional exercise program experts and athletic trainers in the biophysical domain of kinesiology. All are closely allied with health promotion. For example, most comprehensive wellness and fitness programs include large exercise compo- nents; exercise program experts often hold positions in which they are closely linked to larger health promotion efforts. It might be expected, therefore, that faculty specialists and practitioners in the biophysical domain would be influenced by insights about critical/reflective competencies developed in the field of public health education. Indeed there is considerable depth and breadth of thinking about such competencies in that discipline (cf. Bracht, 1990; Colquhoun, 1990; Freudenberg & Golub, 1987; Lawson, 1992; McLeroy, Bibeau, Steckler, & Glanz, 1988; McLeroy, Gottlieb, & Burdine, 1987; Minkler, 1985, 1989; Wallerstein, 1992; Wallerstein & Bernstein, 1988; Wikler, 1987).

406 HARRIS

At the heart of the matter, once again, is the question of who or what is responsible for illness-individuals, broader societal formations, or both? If individuals are responsible for maintaining their own health, then technical, professional competencies designed to encourage the individuals to adopt more healthy lifestyles may be all that is necessary. On the other hand, if broader societal formations are partially at fault, then criticalJreflective competencies are also needed to uncover the problems and promote social change. Support for this latter position comes from research showing clear ties between health and social structure. To give but one example, relationships exist among poverty, powerlessness, and poor health.

There are numerous health-intervention programs designed from critical/ reflective perspectives. These often emphasize empowerment of ordinary people by encouraging them to become responsible for identifying and defining their own personal health problems and health problems common throughout their communities. Health professionals contribute specialized knowledge and skills to help people solve the problems that they themselves define. In solving such problems social structures as well as individuals are often targeted for change.

Unfortunately, there is little to suggest that faculty specialists and practitioners in the biophysical domain are cognizant of this thinking and activity in the closely related field of public health education. Yet this field would seem to hold great promise as a resource for developing a higher profile for criticall reflective competencies in the biophysical domain. It is important to remember, of course, that although the biophysical domain has been singled out for special criticism in this example, all three domains could benefit from being more attentive to criticallreflective orientations in closely related disciplines.

Even if faculty specialists become committed to this, however, it will not be easy to design kinesiology curriculums that encourage students to enhance their criticalJreflective proficiencies. Many kinesiology students are quite practically oriented. They are interested in knowledge and skills that have immediate, tangible uses, and they are not particularly tolerant of being prodded toward deeper, more critical analyses (Dewar, 1987). Perhaps only a few students will develop sophisticated criticalJreflective knowledge and skills, but perhaps diligent faculty efforts can increase their numbers. Perhaps older students who have encountered and dealt with a variety of life experiences and problems would be somewhat more responsive to such attempts.

In conclusion, we must encourage greater emphasis on critical/reflective professional competencies while at the same time not losing sight of technical ones. Blending both is assumed to lead to maximal professional excellence. We must become more aware of the nature of criticallreflective competencies, the ways in which they can be developed in students preparing to become professionals, and the ways in which we can be supportive of practitioners attempting to use them and to gain additional insights about them once they leave the university and embark on their careers. Such efforts should result in development of more humane, creative, and socially conscious practitioners.

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Acknowledgments

I wish to thank my colleagues at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, a number of people at other institutions around the country, and two anonymous reviewers who helped me to learn more about the professional aspects of our field during my work on this manuscript.

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