the triumph of nationalism. a key word of the french revolution “what is a nation? a body of...
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1914: THE GENESIS OF A TRAGEDY
THE TRIUMPH OF NATIONALISM
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THE WORD “NATION”
A key word of the French Revolution
“What is a nation? A body of associates living under a common law and represented
by thesame legislature”
1789: a National Assembly
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THE DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN
“The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor
individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation”
The nation = a social contract freely embraced by
the citizens
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THE ROMANTIC THEORY OF NATIONS
Romanticism: intellectual movement of the late 18th century focusing on emotions
A nation = the fruit of nature
The Franco-German conflict and the question of Alsace-Lorraine
Self-determination vs. national identity through
language
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ERNEST RENAN
What is a nation? (1882)
NO nation without national consciousness
New technologies (printing press/the
railroad) + EDUCATION
Wars: “Us” vs. “Them”
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PERCEPTIONS
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THE THREE-YEAR LAW (FRANCE)
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RUSSIFICATION IN THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE
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PAN-SLAVISM
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THE RISE OF GERMAN NATIONALISM
The unification of Germany (1871)
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GERMAN NATIONALISM
A “German National Myth” rediscovered in the 18th century and boosted by the French
Revolution & the Napoleonic Wars
Main element of unity = hatred for the French
The dream of a Greater Germany
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1862: BISMARCK AS CHANCELLOR
The unification of Germany under Prussia’s
leadership
“Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided but by iron
and blood“
The concept of Realpolitik (diplomacy based on power)
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PRUSSIA UNTIL 1859
Austria dominates the German Confederation until 1859
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ACT 1: THE ZOLLVEREIN
Austria denied membership
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NAPOLEON III AND BISMARCK
Dialogue “Iron and Blood”
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ACT 2: TO ISOLATE FRANCE
Napoleon III supportive of the German national movement
A German Confederation in the South and one in the North
Bismarck: France to be compensated if she remains neutral (Austria = next target)
Germany and Italy = a military alliance
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ACT 3: THE BATTLE OF SADOWA
A decisive Prussian victory
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ACT 4: A NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION
Free movement of the citizens within the
territory of the Confederation (1867)
A common postal system (1867/1868)
common passports (1867)
The taking over of the Prussian military laws
(1867)
To avoid humiliating Austria
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ACT 5: THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1870 - 1871)
Bismarck: France = an obstacle to the incorporation of Southern German states to
the German Confederation
Napoleon III aware of the danger but fails to reform the French military
A Franco-Austrian rapprochement?
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THE AFFAIR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION
1868: Queen Isabella of Spain overthrown
1870: the throne of Spain offered to a German prince
Unacceptable to France
The Ems dispatch
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AT WAR
France diplomatically isolated
A defensive strategy
Poor logistics
Lack of conscription
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THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE WAR
The collapse of the Second Empire
The Third Republic
The Treaty of Frankfurt (May 1871): the loss of Alsace-Lorraine + heavy reparations
German unification is now complete
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GERMANY’S ‘WORLD POLICY’ (WELTPOLITIK)
Prince von Bulow
‘We do not want to place anyone into the shadow, but we also claim our place in the
sun’
1897
Social Darwinism: the survival of the fittest
The notion that the German race is superior
A state must expand to survive
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A PAN GERMAN LEAGUE
To unify German-speaking peoples of Europe
German spheres of influence outside of Europe + colonies
No more than 20,000 members
Perception: Germany = a threat
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THE WAR IS INEVITABLE
The notion war was inevitable widespread in Germany
Two wars in the Balkans (1912-1913)
Confrontation between Germanic peoples and Slavs inevitable
The Russian “menace”
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THE FEAR OF ENCIRCLEMENT
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RUSSIAN REARMAMENT
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‘Germany and the Next War’ (1911)
General von Bernhardi
War is a ‘biological necessity’
Germany must strike the first blow: France must be completely
crushed
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FRANCE’S FOREIGN POLICY
Raymond Poincaré
The French motto: avoid war
if possible but remain firm
Revenge over the loss of
Alsace-Lorraine = a MYTH
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THE FRANCO-RUSSIAN ALLIANCE (1894)
The cornerstone of French foreign policy
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THE “SICK MAN OF EUROPE”
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NATIONALISM IN THE BALKANS
The gradual retreat of Ottoman power in South-Eastern Europe
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THE BALKAN WARS (1912-1913)
Sharing the spoils
complicated: a complex
repartition of populations
The seeds of a second conflict
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AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908)
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THE GREAT POWERS OF EUROPE AND THE BALKANS
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THE ASSASSINATION OF FRANZ FERDINAND
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EUROPE AT WAR
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A GENERAL WAR IMPOSSIBLE?
The Great Illusion by Norman Angell (1910): economic interdependence of
nations = war is unprofitable
A 20th century war would be on such a scale to make war
‘unthinkable’
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THE RISE OF INTERNATIONALISMS
A major cultural change: the perception of an irresistible march towards globalization
500+ international organizations (1912)
A common goal: to forge a project for the future/to build a new society
INTERNATIONALISM vs. NATIONALISM
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THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL (1889-1916)
“The worker has no country”A common enemy: capitalism
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1864: THE BIRTH OF THE RED CROSS
The Battle of Solferino (1859)Henri Dunant
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THE HAGUE CONFERENCES 1899-1907
Nicolas II
A peace conference for the
limitation of armaments Safeguarding
the human rights of
individuals involved in
armed conflicts
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THREE SECTIONS
The peaceful resolution of international conflicts
Laws and customs for the conduct of war on land
The extension of the Geneva Convention of 1864 to naval warfare
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THE SECOND HAGUE CONFERENCE (1907)
“Hostilities [between nations] must not commence without previous and explicit
warning” “The territory of a neutral power is
inviolable.”
The use of floating mines was forbidden
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WAS WAR INEVITABLE?
The rise of nationalism in Europe = increased tensions
The spark: the assassination at Sarajevo