The theories of Piaget, Vygotsky and Erikson,the impacts of recent

brain research, and the implications of these theories on

the classroomDon Rowley

Christine Balzano

Wendy Buttimer

Kurt Wittenburg

TLED441- group presentation

7-19-03

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Major concepts of Piaget: Schemes – patterns of thinking people develop to

interpret their environment Assimilation – developing a new scheme based on new

objects Accommodation – changing a scheme to fit different

circumstances Equilibration – when confronted with a new object that

disrupts a scheme, a person will either adopt a new or change an old scheme to maintain a balanced outlook.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)(continued) Development occurs in stages – a linear path through 4

stages starting in infancy. Biological development drives stage progression.

The Sensorimotor stage (0 to 2 years) Knowledge based on physical interactions Develop “object permanence” or memory Language, or “symbolic”, abilities are acquired

The Preoperational stage (2 to 7 years) Use of symbolic thought and play Language use matures Thinking is nonlogical and nonreversable Very egocentric

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)(continued)

• The Concrete operational stage (7 to 12 years) Thinking becomes logical and systematic, reversible Ability to manipulate symbols

• Formal Operational (12 years to adulthood) Ability to grasp abstract concepts and reasoning Less egocentric

Criticisms of Jean Piaget

Criticisms of Piaget: Piaget did not account for the impact the acquisition of new

knowledge and skills had on development There is no accounting for the cultural environment

surrounding the child Methodology was flawed given his small sampling, causing

him to underestimate children’s true abilities

No accounting for the fact that only about 30-35% of adults ever reach the “formal operational stage”

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Vygotsky’s theory did not lie out a linear pathway for development like Piaget.

Instead, Vygotsky believed that cognition developed through social interaction, and that the environment of the child played a central role in their developmental pathway.

Thus, rather than being biologically driven, the amount, type, and intensity of social interaction will determine a child’s cognitive development, according to Vygotsky.

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) (continued) Vygotsky stressed that:

The sociocultural environment is the most important factor in development

Cognition develops through social interaction Cognitive development is a product of culture Social interaction is crucial Instruction is needed – primarily verbal – to guide

development

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) (continued) Vygotsky’s big idea:

Zone of Proximal Development -- there is a gap between an individuals actual and potential development that can be bridged through social interaction – thus leading to learning

Private Speech – he believed that the verbal cues kids display when performing a task evidence the importance of language in development. This pattern then goes internal, but people still use private speech to help their cognition, e.g. social speech – private speech -- thought

Criticisms of Vygotsky

Emphasized existing sociocultural influences, without stressing the influence of accumulated knowledge of prior culture and its impact on the current environment.

De-emphasized well-documented observational learning processes

Erik Erikson (1904-1994)

Erikson’s theory of social development is an approach to the personality that extends Freudian psychosexual theory.

Erikson made Freud’s ideas more relevant to today’s society by including the idea that each person’s life situation will impact their social development.

Erikson's theory is unique in that it encompasses the entire life cycle and recognizes the impact of society, history, and culture on personality

Erikson is best known for his concept of the identity crisis. This idea may have stemmed from a personal identity crisis he experienced at a young age.

Erik Erikson (1904-1994)(continued)

Erikson's theory consist of eight stages of development.

Each stage is characterized by a different conflict that must be resolved by the individual.When the environment makes new demands on people, the conflicts arise.

If a person is unable to resolve a conflict at a particular stage, they will confront and struggle with it later in life.

If the result of the conflict is positive, individuals acquire skills that allow them to contribute in a positive to society.

Erik Erikson (1904-1994)(continued) Erikson’s eight stages of development are:

• Trust vs. Mistrust (birth to 18 months): The infant must form a first loving, trusting relationship with the caregiver, or develop a sense of mistrust.

• Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (18 months to 3 years): The child's energies are directed toward the development of physical skills,including walking, grasping, and rectal sphincter control. The child learns control but may develop shame and doubt if not handled well.

• Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 6 years): The child continues to become more assertive and to take more initiative, but may be too forceful, leading to guilt feelings.

• Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 12 years): The child must deal with demands to learn new skills or risk a sense of inferiority,failure and incompetence.

Erik Erikson (1904-1994)(continued) Erikson’s eight stages of development

(continued):• Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 to 18 years): The teenager must

achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sex roles, politics, and religion.

• Intimacy vs. Isolation (19 to 40 years): The young adult must develop intimate relationships or suffer feelings of isolation.

• Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 to 65 years ): Each adult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation.

• Ego integrity vs. Despair (65 years to death): The culmination is a sense of oneself as feeling fulfilled.

Criticisms of Erikson

Questions have been raised regarding Erikson’s theory, including:

• What about those adults who rediscover themselves and develop a different understanding of their lives due to life's changes and experiences?

• Is it possible for an individual to change throughout life?

Many argue that his theory is more applicable to boys than to girls, and that more attention is paid to infancy and childhood than to adult life, despite the claim to be a life-span theory.

Impact of current neurological research on these theories New and exciting research over the last decade lends

credence more to Vygotsky’s theory than Piaget. Research has shown that brain development, rather than

being primarily biologically driven, is both negatively and positively affected by sociocultural factors.

Thus, a person’s cultural environment strongly influences their cognitive development.

Moreover, research has shown that the brain has an amazing ability to “rewire” itself, at all ages, in order to overcome obstacles, challenges, or changes.

Impact of current neurological research on these theories (cont’d) For example:

The brain sizes of abused children are smaller Brain stress molecules (like cortisol and adrenaline) don’t work

properly in abused or neglected children, and may lead to excessive brain cell death.

Lack of physical attention by parents negatively affects brains architecture and certain memory abilities

Brain “plasticity”, or ability to change, is enormous – and this has important implications for language, reading, and writing development

Learning disabilities associated with brain functioning have been

linked to poor sociocultural environments – poverty, neglect, abuse

Impact of current neurological research on these theories (cont’d) Recent research stresses the importance of early childhood

experiences on brain development which Erikson emphasizes in his theory of development.

In a recent student done by Dr. Eugene Roberts regarding repair and renewal of the brain, he utilized Erikson’s theory of how to understand the many conflicts that people have with mental capacity during the conflicts of development to better understand why Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s and other brain diseases occur.

Erikson indicated that a negative outcome in development due to excessive punishment or threats by adults can result in a timid approach to the world. Recent brain research indicates that cultural and societal impacts can have a significant effect on brain mapping over time.

Educational implications of these theories

In relation to Erikson’s theory:• Based on Erikson’s stage of autonomy vs. shame/doubt we can be

successful educators by developing trust with students. An educator needs to maintain a trusting and caring environment in order to continue the child’s development, especially for those children that have experienced a great deal of shame/doubt during development.

• In regard to the stage of initiative vs. guilt a child’s life a child should be provided with an environment that allows them to discover things through play without risk of failure. This environment may develop a greater willingness to try new things. Criticism during this time may develop anxiety and guilt and the child may be less likely to try new things. Open exploration where ideas lead to discussion can foster a positive learning environment that supports the initiative to learn.

Educational implications of these theories (continued) In relation to Erikson’s theory(continued):

• Children in the inferiority vs. identity diffusion state who have positive experiences are able to work in groups and are cooperative. If teachers have students that have had such an experience they will be more likely to adjust to different peer groups and different classroom situations therefore making them a more flexible learner.

• In the identity vs. identity confusion stage adolescent life includes defining the self and future goals in relation to self-identity. As teachers we can play a pivotal role in guiding young adults in self-discovery and goal definition on a path to defining an individual identity by being supportive and providing a positive model to students both in and out of the classroom.

• As educators, we need to be more open to other cultures and the impact that occurs in development, as Erikson indicates. As educators we need to make ourselves aware of these differences and cultivate a learning environment that supports and appreciates different cultural experiences in development and learning.

Educational implications of these theories (continued)

In relation to Piaget’s theory:• Piaget’s work heavily influenced Constructivist pedagogues which

emphasizes that teachers need to foster an interactive learning

environment that encourages discovery. • School leveling, K-12, heavily influenced by stage theory

• Direct teacher instruction may inhibit learning since knowledge comes from interaction with the environment.

• Piaget’s four stages of development are a thorough explanation of brain development during particular times in life. This research is important to educators because if we push a child to learn or understand a concept before they are ready then we are doing them a disservice. Awareness of these stages of learning can better assist teachers in understanding a student’s capacity for learning.

Educational implications of these theories(continued) In relation to Vygotsky’s theory:

• Educators should build on previous knowledge

• Because children develop at different rates there is a gap between a child’s actual and potential development, according to Vygotsky. Social interaction, especially in the classroom, can bridge this gap. Teacher is needed as a guide to help bridge the gap

• Cooperative and group learning where students are provided the opportunity to learn from their peers can tighten this gap and provide a positive learning environment for students of all levels.

• Don’t try to push beyond the gap- sensible challenges