The American Revolutionary War

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The Second Continental Congress

News of the fighting at Lexington and Concord quickly spread throughout the 13 colonies. As a result, the Second Continental Congress was called to meet in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775. Colonial leaders gathered at the Pennsylvania State House to decide what the colonies should do. Only Georgia failed to send representatives.Hope for Peace, Plan for War

Once again, delegates were divided in their views, or opinions. Some called for war against the British. Others, such as John Dickinson, tried to persuade the group to avoid fighting. Dickinson believed that the "cause of liberty should not be sullied [soiled] by turbulence and tumult [commotion and uproar]." By June, however, the Congress had agreed that the colonies should at least begin to prepare for war. The first step was for the Congress to form an army. This new "Continental Army" would need a leader.

On June 15, 1775, Congress, at the suggestion of John Adams and others, asked George Washington to lead the new Continental Army. Adams suggested Washington because of his "skill and experience as an officer, . . . great talents and universal character." Adams believed that Washington not only understood soldiers but that he knew how to fight a war. The next day Washington humbly accepted the role of commander in chief, the leader of all the military forces.

To supply the Continental Army, the Congress asked each colony to contribute money to pay for guns, bullets, food, and uniforms. The Congress also decided to print its own paper money, which came to be known as Continental currency. The Congress paid the soldiers in bills that they called continentals.

By the time George Washington left Philadelphia to take charge of the Continental Army, which was already in Massachusetts, the first major battle of the Revolutionary War had already been fought. The Battle of Bunker Hill took place near Boston on June 17, 1775.

The Battle of Bunker Hill

After the fighting at Lexington and Concord, angry citizens in Massachusetts started to build earthworks, or walls of earth and stone, near Boston. These earthworks would help the colonists defend themselves if there were another battle with the British soldiers.

Meanwhile, Boston had become the only safe place for the British. The Minutemen had taken control of the surrounding countryside. The only way the British could enter or leave Boston was by sea.

After dark on June 16, 1775, some colonists began to build new earthworks on Breed's Hill, across the Charles River from Boston. When General Gage learned of this the next morning, he ordered British ships in the harbor to open fire on the colonists. Gage also sent General William Howe and 2,400 British soldiers to capture Breed's Hill. Shortly after noon, lines of British soldiers marched up Breed's Hill to the roll of drums. When the British drew close to the earthworks, the 1,600 colonists inside let loose a deadly hail of shot. The fighting was so fierce that, to save bullets, colonial commander Israel Putnam said to his soldiers,

“Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes.”

The colonists drove the British back twice before running out of gun powder. The British finally took the hill but at great cost. More than 1,000 of the 2,400 British soldiers were killed or wounded. About 350 colonists died or were wounded.

The battle at Breed's Hill was misnamed for nearby Bunker Hill. Although the colonists were driven from the field, they were proud of how well they had done. The British had learned that fighting the colonists would not be easy.

A Foreign War

In London, the Battle of Bunker Hill had further angered British leaders. Lord North advised King George III to think of the fighting in the colonies as a foreign war. On August 23 the king issued a proclamation of rebellion. In it, he promised to use every measure to crush the rebellion and "bring the traitors to justice." As a result, by the time the Olive Branch Petition reached British leaders in London on August 24, it was already a lost cause.

To fight the colonists, the king called for the British army in the colonies to be enlarged. To accomplish this, he ordered the hiring of mercenaries from Germany. A mercenary is a soldier who serves for pay in the military of a foreign government. Many of the German mercenaries were Hessians, from the Hesse region of Germany.

The king also called on Britain's Iroquois and other Native American allies for help. He knew that many Indian tribes hated the colonists for ignoring the Proclamation of 1763 and settling the lands west of the Appalachians. Because of this the king believed that many Native Americans would help the British fight the colonists.Meanwhile, the Second Continental Congress also continued to prepare for war. In October the Congress created a navy, which at first was nothing more than a few fishing boats. In November the Congress established a marine corps, or "army of the sea." It also set up a committee to seek alliances with various Native American tribes.

Earlier that fall, in September 1775, Georgia had agreed to join the Second Continental Congress and support the Revolutionary War. Many of the delegates could now agree with what Patrick Henry had told them during the First Continental Congress,“The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers are no more. I am not a Virginian, but an American.” Finally, the Continental Congress stood for all 13 colonies.

Common Sense

One of the people who did the most to change public opinion in the colonies was Thomas Paine. Public opinion is the point of view held by most people. In January 1776 Paine published a pamphlet, or short book, titled Common Sense.

In his pamphlet Paine questioned the right of any king to rule over anyone. Paine wrote that people should rule themselves, "A government of our own is a natural right." Paine called for a revolution, and he challenged the colonists to cut their ties with the British government.

People in the 13 colonies read and talked about Common Sense. As a result, many began to urge independence. Having the freedom to govern themselves was the only way, they said, to have liberty.

Richard Henry Lee of Virginia gave a speech to the delegates of the Second Continental Congress on June 7, 1776. Lee said that the colonies no longer owed allegiance, or loyalty, to the king. At the end, he suggested a resolution, a formal statement of the feelings of a group about an important topic. This resolution read, "Resolved: That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States."

The Congress debated the resolution for a few days, but not all the colonies were ready to vote for independence. They needed more time before taking such a dangerous action. The Congress decided to wait almost a month before calling for a vote.

Writing the Declaration of Independence

The delegates of the Second Continental Congress hoped that the month's wait would help all 13 colonies decide to vote as one in favor of independence. In the meantime, the Congress chose a committee to write the group's view on independence. The committee consisted of Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Adams of Massachusetts, Robert R. Livingston of New York, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.

Thomas Jefferson was a 33-year-old lawyer. He had studied government and had already written about the colonies' problems with British rule. Two years before, Jefferson had written a pamphlet titled A Summary View of the Rights of British America. In it he had listed for the First Continental Congress the changes the colonies wanted in their government.

The members of the writing committee added their ideas, but Jefferson did most of the writing. Every evening for about 17 days, he wrote—and rewrote—what became the Declaration of Independence.

Thomas Jefferson planned the Declaration in several parts. In the preamble, the first part or introduction, he stated why the Declaration was needed. He said that sometimes a group of people finds that it has no choice but to form a new nation.In the second part, he described the colonists' main ideas about government. These words have become some of the most famous in United States history.

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed [provided] by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”

In the third and largest part of the Declaration, Jefferson listed the colonists' grievances, or complaints, against the British king and Parliament. He also listed the ways the colonists had tried to settle their differences peacefully. In the last part of the Declaration, Jefferson wrote that the colonies were free and independent states.

Approving the Declaration

When he finished writing the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson gave a draft of it to the whole Congress. On June 28, it was read aloud. For several days it was discussed, and changes were made. Then, on July 2, the delegates voted to cut ties with Britain. That morning the resolution was approved. The American colonies now considered themselves free and independent states.

On July 4, 1776, the Congress voted to give its final approval for the Declaration. Delegates of only 12 colonies voted. New York's delegates had not yet received the authority to vote.

On July 8, 1776, the bell on top of Independence Hall called the citizens of Philadelphia to hear the first public reading of the Declaration of Independence. Many of the members of the Second Continental Congress stood and listened, too, as Colonel John Nixon read the document. The joy shown by the crowd so pleased John Adams that he wrote about it in a letter to his wife, Abigail. Independence Day, he said, should be celebrated "from this time forward for evermore."

By August 2, a formal copy of the Declaration of Independence was ready to be signed by members of the Second Continental Congress. The first to sign it was John Hancock, president of the Congress. His signature was very large. The way he signed the document became so famous that the term John Hancock now means "a person's signature."

Forming a New Government

The work of the Second Continental Congress was not completed with the final approval of the Declaration of Independence. John Hancock organized a second committee to report on how to unite the former colonies into a new country. With independence, a new government had to be formed. Congress chose John Dickinson, of Pennsylvania, to head the committee to write the plan of government.

Dickinson's committee decided that the new states—the former colonies—should unite into a confederation. This Confederation of the United States of America would bring together the 13 independent states into "a firm league of friendship."On July 12, 1776, Dickinson presented his committee's report to the Congress. The delegates discussed it off and on for more than a year. They finally approved the plan on November 15, 1777. The first constitution for the new country was called the Articles of Confederation. But the last state did not approve this plan for a central government until March 1, 1781.

Under the Articles, voters of each state elected leaders. These leaders then chose representatives to a national legislature called the Congress of the Confederation. Each state, whether large or small, had one vote in the new Congress. Under the Articles of Confederation, this Congress served as the government of the United States. For eight years, it made laws for the new nation. It led the states during the last years of the Revolutionary War.

Taking Sides

Many people in the 13 colonies supported independence. They called themselves Patriots. Others however, remained loyal to the king and called themselves Loyalists, or Tories. Friendships, neighborhoods, and families sometimes were torn apart as people chose to take either the Patriot side or the Loyalist side.

The fighting became as much a civil war, or war between people of the same country, as it was a war with the British. In her book If You Were There in 1776, author Barbara Brenner describes life at the time of the Revolution. "If you were part of a Patriot family, you might have been one of the children throwing garbage or stones at the British soldiers. If your family supported the king, you could have been on the receiving end of some serious violence. Your home might have been broken into. Someone you know who was a Tory [Loyalist] could have been tarred and feathered, or ridden on a rail."Some colonists, however, chose to be neutral. They took neither side. Those who were neutral were willing to accept whatever the outcome of the war would be.

Comparing Armies

George Washington arrived in Massachusetts to meet the Continental Army in July 1775, less than three weeks after the Battle of Bunker Hill. The 14,500 soldiers wore no uniforms—only their everyday clothes. Many had no guns, so they carried spears and axes. With little money and not much training, the Continental Army went to war against one of the most powerful armies in the world, the British army.

The soldiers who stood before George Washington that summer day in 1775 had never fought as an army before. Some of them had fought in the French and Indian War, but most had no military experience. Most of the Americans enlisted in, or joined, the army for almost one year at a time. They might stay that long or longer, or they might not. At harvest time, some of the Continentals went home to their farms. Washington quickly had to make rules for the soldiers and get them trained to fight against the British.

Unlike the Continental Army, the British army was made up of professional soldiers. They had the best training and the most experienced officers. But the British had problems, too. It was difficult to fight a war more than 3,000 miles (4,828 km) from home. They often had trouble delivering soldiers and supplies across the Atlantic Ocean.In the early days of the war, the British army's greater numbers gave it an advantage over the Continental Army. The British had more than 50,000 soldiers in the colonies. General Washington usually had no more than 15,000 soldiers in his army.

Washington’s Crossing – the Battle of Trenton

For the most part, and with the exception of the publication of the Declaration of Independence, 1776 had been a brutal year for Patriot morale. The Continental Army, under the command of George Washington, had been more or less routed in and around New York City, suffering tremendous casualties. Morale was low and the ragtag Continental army was forced to retreat through New Jersey to the west side of the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. On the other side of the river, in Trenton, N.J. were three regiments of Hessian soldiers (German soldiers) numbering about 1,400. General Washington planned an attack on the Hessians from three directions to be executed on December 26, 1776, the day after Christmas. As the Continental Army prepared to cross the Delaware River on their way to Trenton, sleet and snow had begun to fall, delaying the crossing. With great effort and difficulty, the army eventually crossed the river in Durham boats, and the horses and artillery were ferried across. Two men fell overboard during the crossing, but both survived. Two other generals who were to assist Washington were delayed by the adverse weather. By 4:00 in the morning, however, the crossing was completed and the Continental Army began the nine mile march toward Trenton. During the march, Washington continually encouraged his troops, many of whom lacked shoes and were bleeding from their feet.

The first gunfire of the battle happened about a mile north of Trenton at a Hessian outpost, where the Hessians stationed there began a desperate retreat. Once in Trenton, Washington instructed the escape route to Princeton cut off. Washington’s army was soon joined by armies under the command of Generals Nathaniel Greene and John Sullivan. Cannons and artillery were set up at the heads of King and Queen Streets, the two main streets running through the city, which did tremendous damage to the Hessian ranks. Hessian soldiers advancing up the streets were quickly repulsed. Elsewhere in the city, Hessian forces were being overrun. Eventually, the majority of Hessian forces would become surrounded by American forces in an orchard. They were forced to surrender. Others surrendered when their escape routes had been cut off.

In the battle, only two American soldiers were killed and five were injured, though many more died from hypothermia and disease. The Hessians suffered 83 casualties, 22 of which were fatalities. 896 Hessians were captured, though several hundred did manage to escape. All four Hessian colonels, however, were killed. Although the battle was not important tactically, it inspired the American war effort and raised the morale of the army, which seemed to be threatened with dissolution.

Battle of Saratoga

In 1777, British war generals devised a plan to bring a quick end to the war: They would effectively sever New England from the rest of the colonies by taking control of New York City, Albany, and the Hudson River. First, British General John Burgoyne would lead 8,000 troops from Canada. Barry St. Leger would direct his troops east from Lake Ontario, and General Howe would move his troops north from New York City, where all three would meet at Albany to destroy the Rebel armies.

General Howe, however, had different plans. Howe brought his army south from New York and invaded the Patriot capital of Philadelphia. Although he succeeded in capturing the city and forcing Congress to flee to York, Pennsylvania, he decided to camp his army in the capital for the winter, rather than proceeding with the plan and marching to Albany. Furthermore, stubborn Patriot resistance under the infamous General Benedict Arnold kept St. Leger from making it to Albany, and Burgoyne’s progress was slowed by excess baggage and entire groves of trees felled by the Patriots to make his travels even more difficult. Low on supplies, Burgoyne sent a detachment to capture an American supply base at Bennington, Vermont. The detachment was defeated by John Stark and the Green Mountain Boys, causing Burgoyne to withdraw to Saratoga, N.Y.

Burgoyne’s army soon became trapped in Saratoga, blocked in the south by Patriot General Horatio Gates’ army. Howe’s army remained in Philadelphia, and St. Leger’s Army was defeated at Fort Stanwix. On October 7, 1777, Burgoyne made a desperate attempt to attack the larger Patriot force at Saratoga which now comprised the armies of both Gates and Arnold. Despite initial success at Freeman’s Farm, Burgoyne’s Army would be routed by Arnold’s at Bemis Heights. Beset by a lack of supplies and horrendous casualties, Burgoyne had no choice but to surrender.

The Patriot victory at Saratoga is often seen as the turning point in the war. A turning point is a single event that causes important and dramatic change. Not only did it renew the morale of the American public, but it convinced potential foreign partners, such as France, that American could win the war, and that it might be in their best interests to send aid. In February of 1778, with the help of Benjamin Franklin and his charisma while Minister to France, the United States and France signed a treaty of alliance. As a result, France sent generals, troops, ships, supplies, and money to America to help in the war effort. France declared war on England. Spain would declare war on England in 1779.

Winter at Valley Forge

One of the hardest battles George Washington and his troops fought wasn't against the British. It was against the winter. In the fall of 1777, the British Redcoats occupied Philadelphia, one of the most important colonial cities. Many congressmen wanted General Washington to reclaim the city. But Washington knew the Continental Army was not ready. Instead of attacking Philadelphia, Washington took his army to a plateau nearby, above the town of Valley Forge. There, he waited out the winter months.

The winter was bitterly cold. Colonists had hidden supplies for the army, but the British had raided their goods. The months from December 1777 to February 1778 were the hardest three months of the war. The troops had little food beyond the squirrels and small animals they could hunt in the forest. Many did not have uniforms, and many more lacked boots. A soldier's feet would get so cold from walking on the snow and ice that his entire leg might turn black from frostbite. Sometimes, the frostbite was so severe that the soldier's leg would have to be amputated.

The men lived in wooden huts. Each hut was one room and had a small fireplace. Twelve men shared a hut. They had just enough space to lie down, but they did not have blankets. The temperatures often fell below freezing. Many men became sick, and some died. Diseases such as smallpox, dysentery, and typhus killed as many as 3,000 men. The winter tested the loyalty of American troops. Some soldiers abandoned the army. Washington did what he could to help his troops. A new man was put in charge of sending supplies to the soldiers. He built bridges and improved roads so that food could reach the army.

In these hard times a German soldier named Friedrich von Steuben reported to Washington at Valley Forge. At Valley Forge, von Steuben's job was to organize and drill the Continental Army so that it could move quickly on command. This would allow it to attack and retreat faster. Von Steuben also taught the American soldiers how to use bayonets. A bayonet is a knifelike weapon attached to a rifle. Bayonets were standard equipment for European soldiers. By the spring of 1778, Washington's soldiers were marching well.

Von Steuben was one of many soldiers from other countries who believed in the Patriots' cause and helped them. A 20-year-old named Marquis de Lafayette from France also supported the Patriots. Washington liked the young Lafayette and immediately gave him important duties.

Traitor

By May of 1779, Benedict Arnold had begun bargaining with the British. Why would a man commit treason against his country, especially one who had fought so valiantly? He was certainly angry and hurt over the many slights he received over the years. He probably felt unappreciated by his country and those he fought with, even sacrificing his own leg for the cause. His pride was most likely the biggest piece of his life that was damaged. Money, of course, played a big part.

Washington offered Arnold a lead position of left wing of the army. This position came a little too late. Arnold would have embraced the opportunity, but his feelings had now changed. Arnold used his crippled leg as an excuse and asked to take command of West Point instead.

Arnold offered West Point to the British in exchange for over 10,000 pounds and a commission in the British army. He began correspondence with England’s Major John Andre. Andre was an adjutant general and intelligence chief of Sir Henry Clinton. Andre carried messages between Arnold and Clinton regarding the closing of the deal

Behind American lines, Andre met Arnold to finalize the plan. After the meeting, Andre’s ship was forced back by American troops, Andre had to walk through enemy territory back to British lines. Andre dressed in civilian clothes and carried a pass from Arnold (as well as documents for Clinton in his sock). He was captured and placed into American custody when the documents were found.

Arnold heard of his capture and was able to make his escape (to the same ship, the Vulture, which Andre had arrived on). Andre was put on trial, and met his death as a spy. Arnold joined the British side and received money, land in Canada, and a military commission as a British Provincial brigadier general. The British may have provided handsomely for Arnold, but they never completely trusted him.

American Heroes

During the war the Americans cheered as they heard news about the deeds of many brave people from all over the United States. Their acts of courage helped make Americans sure that they could win the war.

When General George Washington asked for volunteers to spy on the British in New York City, a young man named Nathan Hale from Connecticut came forward. Dressed as a Dutch schoolteacher, Hale obtained the information Washington needed. As he returned to the American side, the British captured him. According to legend, Hale told the British soldiers before they hanged him, "I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country."

From bases in the swamps of South Carolina, Francis Marion led daring raids against the British. The British called him the Swamp Fox because they could never catch him and his soldiers. At sea John Paul Jones, a navy commander, battled larger and better-equipped British ships. In one famous battle in the North Sea near Britain, the British asked Jones to surrender. He replied, "I have not yet begun to fight." Jones kept fighting until the British ship gave up.

Many women also won fame for their bravery during the war. Deborah Sampson, was a woman who disguised herself as a man in order to serve in the Continental Army. She served 17 months in the army, as "Robert Shurtliff", was wounded in 1782 and honorably discharged at in 1783.

Mary Ludwig Hays McCauley earned the name Molly Pitcher by carrying water to the troops during the Battle of Monmouth in New Jersey in 1778. When her husband was wounded, she took his place firing the cannons.

Victory at Yorktown

The British had already captured important cities in the North—Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. They hoped now to defeat the Patriots once and for all. So they concentrated on the South, where there was greater Loyalist support.

In 1778 the British captured Savannah, Georgia. In 1780, they captured the city of Charles Town, later known as Charleston, in South Carolina. From there, they attacked and defeated the Americans at Camden, also in South Carolina. This victory gave the British new hope of quickly defeating the Continental Army and winning the war.

By late summer of 1781, British General Charles Cornwallis had set up his headquarters at Yorktown, a small Virginia town on Chesapeake Bay. At Yorktown, it was easy for the British ships to land supplies. However, since the town was on the bay, the British could also be surrounded easily. Knowing this, the French and the Americans made a plan to defeat Cornwallis at Yorktown.

The French army joined the Continental Army near New York City and marched south to Virginia in order to surround Yorktown. At the same time, the French navy took control of Chesapeake Bay. Now the British navy could not get supplies to the British army or leave the area. Cornwallis was trapped.

In late September, Cornwallis sent word to his commander, General Clinton, in the North. "If you cannot relieve me very soon," he said, "you must be prepared to hear the worst." The worst happened. Surrounded and under attack for weeks from both land and sea, Cornwallis surrendered. A person who was there wrote, "At two o'clock in the evening Oct. 19th, 1781, the British army, led by General Charles O'Hara, marched out of its lines, with colors cased [flags folded] and drums beating a British march." When the French and American soldiers heard the drums, they stopped their fire. The British soldiers then marched out of Yorktown and laid down their weapons.

In Yorktown a British military band reportedly played a popular tune of the time. It was fittingly called "The World Turned Upside Down." When news of the surrender at Yorktown reached Philadelphia, the Liberty Bell rang out the news of the American victory.

Though fighting dragged on in some places for more than two years, it was clear that the war had been decided at Yorktown in 1781. The Patriots had won after a long, hard fight.

The Treaty of Paris

The Battle of Yorktown did not officially end the war. The Treaty of Paris did that. Work on the treaty began in April 1782, when the British and Americans sent representatives to Paris.

There the representatives stated the American terms—that is, what the Americans wanted in the treaty. They wanted the British king and Parliament to accept American independence and to remove all British soldiers from American soil. They also asked that the British pay the Americans whose property had been destroyed in the war.The British, in turn, asked that Loyalists who chose to remain in the United States be treated fairly. Many Loyalists had fled to Nova Scotia and other parts of Canada and to the Bahamas. Some returned to Britain but were sorry they did. Most of them could not find jobs and soon became very poor. The British government ignored them.British and American representatives negotiated, or talked with one another to work out an agreement. After more than a year of such talks, the representatives signed the Treaty of Paris on September 3, 1783.

The Treaty of Paris officially named the United States of America as a new country and described its borders. The United States reached to Florida on the south. The northern border would be an imaginary line through the Great Lakes. The Mississippi River formed its western border. The Treaty of Paris was just as much a victory as winning at Yorktown had been. Independence was now a fact.

Washington's Farewell

Soon after the Treaty of Paris was signed, General Washington and his officers had made their headquarters in New York City. Though joyful about their victory, the American military leaders were sad to say good-bye to one another after the long war.In early December 1783, Washington and his officers met at Fraunces Tavern in New York City for a farewell dinner. Near the end of the meal, Washington stood up. "With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take my leave of you," he said. One by one, each man at the dinner went up to say good-bye to the general. Tears streaming down his cheeks, Washington hugged each one. "Such a scene of sorrow and weeping I have never before seen," wrote one of the officers.

After saying his farewells, Washington started home to Virginia. On the way he stopped in Annapolis, Maryland, where Congress was then meeting. He told the representatives that, with peace, his work was done. "Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great theater of action," Washington said. He was leaving public service forever, he thought.