1

The

Romans

753B.C –

A.D 476

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Concept Definition Example related to the topic

1. Government The system, or thing, where there are people who make the decisions about the way a place, or organisation, is run- the people in charge

In ancient Rome during the Republic the government was made up of the senate. After the time of Julius Caesar the government of Rome was the Emperor of Rome, the first of which was Augustus Caesar

2. Monarchy A system of government where a king or queen is in charge and passes the crown to their child when they die

Ancient Rome was not a monarchy after the creation of the republic, even when it had an emperor, although it was very similar to one

3. Aristocracy (1) a system of government whereby decisions are produced by a small group of noble individuals, (2) the group in society who are made up of members of the nobility

Rome during the time of the Republic was partly an aristocracy because of the way voting worked, most people on the senate tended to be wealthy, old men

4. Democracy A system of government whereby decisions are produced based on a large group of society voting

Rome during the time of the Republic was partly a democracy because some people were able to vote for members of the senate

5. Republic A place or country which does not have a king or queen- it is not a monarchy Before the time of Julius Caesar Rome was a republic- it was not governed by a king or queen, but by a senate. America today is also a republic

6. Dictatorship When the government of a place or country is just one person on their own who gives out orders

Julius Caesar became a dictator in 45 B.C.- he alone was in charge of Rome. Rome was a dictatorship after this

7. Army An organised group who fight on land, usually for a particular country The Roman army fought for Rome and was used to help Rome to expand her empire

8. Empire A group of countries, or land, that contain different people that are controlled by one other country

The Roman Empire was controlled by Rome, but was made up of other countries that included Spain, Britain and parts of what is now France

9. Colony A country or land that is controlled by a different country or place Britain was a colony of Rome- it was part of the Roman Empire but was controlled by Rome

10. Colonisation The process of expanding a country’s empire by adding new colonies The colonisation of Britain in 43 A.D. meant Britain had become part of the Roman Empire

11. Invasion One country attacking another country with troops In 43 A.D. the Romans invaded Britain with an army- it was an invasion

12. Conquering When a country successfully invades another and takes it over In 43 A.D. the Romans successfully conquered Britain

13. Generals The leaders of an army Julius Caesar was a famous Roman general who commanded a legion (a part of the Roman army)

14. Warfare The activities involved in fighting a war

Julius Caesar took part in warfare against the Celts in Gaul in order to conquer the county and expand the Roman Empire.

15. Propaganda Information which makes people think a particular way about something or someone

Augustus Caesar rebuilt Rome using marble as a form of propaganda- he wanted people to see these buildings and think that was he was powerful and magnificent

16. Architecture The way in which buildings are designed Roman architecture was often very magnificent- the colosseum is a stunning piece of architecture

17. Society All the people that live in a particular place- they might have different ranks The emperor was at the top of Roman society. At the bottom were the slaves. Plebs were somewhere in the middle

18. Slavery Where someone does not have freedom and is owned by somebody else The Romans brought slaves in from all over the empire. Slavery was common and people did not mind it

19. Patronage and loyalty

A system where a client is loyal to a patron. In return for that person’s loyalty the patron does them favours and protects them

A rich man and powerful man, like Julius Caesar, needed loyalty from people. In return for this he would give them patronage and look after them- it was a system where each provided the other what he needed

20. Settlement A place where people live- can be very small or very large In Iron Age Britain people lived in villages. The Romans changed settlements by building larger towns

21. Agriculture The technical name for farming Lots of Romans were also farmers- they took part in agriculture

22. Transportation The way in which people are able to move around The Romans had a very advanced transportation system because they built such good roads

23. Taxation Money that people are expected to pay to the government When countries were added to the Roman Empire they were expected to pay taxation to the Romans

24. Technology Tools or machines that are developed that help people to do things The Romans had advanced technology- they were able to move water over many miles for example

25. Iron age The period when we do not have historical records (things written down) when people used iron as a tool

Before the Romans came to Britain it was said to be Iron Age Britain because people did not really write things down and they used lots of iron tools

26. Chronology The study of where things happen and the part of time the happen in The chronology of the Romans- the Roman period starts in the 8th century B.C. and goes until the 5th century A.D. Roman Britain goes from 43 A.D. to 410 A.D.

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Key dates

Growth of empire 753 B.C. Founding of the city of Rome Julius Caesar

100 B.C. Julius Caesar born

509 B.C. Founding of the Roman Republic 55 B.C. Britain invaded by Caesar

272 B.C. Rome conquered most of Italy 45 B.C. Became dictator of Rome for life

146 B.C. Carthage and Greece conquered 44 B.C. Assassinated by members of the senate

Augustus Caesar and the first emperors

27 B.C.

Augustus Caesar becomes emperor. Roman Republic ends Roman Britain

43 A.D. Britain conquered by the Emperor Claudius- Roman Britain begins

19 B.C.-14 A.D.

Augustus Caesar rebuilt large parts of Rome during these years 410 A.D. Romans abandon Britain and return home

14 A.D. Augustus Caesar died

Key people

Romulus and Remus Brothers who were associated with the founding of Rome, with Romulus killing his brother and naming the city after himself

Julius Caesar Dictator of Rome from 45 B.C. until his death by assassination in 44 B.C.

Augustus Caesar Rome’s first emperor from 27 B.C. to A.D 14. Was the adopted son of Julius Caesar Vespasian Emperor (A.D 69 – 79) who started to build the Colosseum. It was finished by his son, Titus (emperor A.D. 79 – A.D 81)

Augustus Caesar

1. Senate Group of older men that ran Rome in the Republic

2. Plebeian Lowest rank in society 3. B.C. Before Jesus was born in A.D. 1

4. A.D. Year Jesus was born- A.D. 1 (year of the lord)

5. Vigiles Official name of Rome’s ‘police’ force

6. Amphitheatre Name given to a large stadium, the colosseum being a famous example

1. 7. Aqueduct Large stone structure used to carry water over long distances

8. Latin Language spoken by the Romans

9. Decade 10 years 10. Century 100 years 11. 11. Millennium 1000 years 12. 12. 1st century A.D. 1 A.D. – 100 A.D.

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Part of speech What it is Example

1. Sentence Arrangement of words containing a clause that expresses a complete thought or idea NOTE- all a sentence needs to be grammatically correct is to contain one clause and to express a whole idea or thought

Mr Jadayel taught the class history. Here, the complete thought is that Mr Jadayel taught the class history

2. Clause Part of a sentence that contains both a subject and predicate During the day, Mr Jadayel taught the class history. Here the subject is Mr Jadayel and the predicate is ‘taught the class’

3. Subject What a clause is actually about- the subject of the clause Mr Jadayel taught the class history. Mr Jadayel is what the sentence is about

4. Predicate Part of a sentence that contains at least a verb and might contain more information about the subject or the verb

Mr Jadayel killed in anger. The predicate contains the verb (‘killed’) and tells us it was in anger

5. Main clause Part of sentence that makes sense on its own, expresses a complete thought and contains a subject and predicate

Oliver read the knowledge organiser carefully. Oliver is the subject, and ‘read the knowledge organiser carefully the predicate’

6. Subordinate clause

Part of a sentence that contains a subject and predicate but starts with a subordinating conjunction that makes it depend on the main clause to make sense

I put a coat on because it was cold. Although it was cold, I didn’t bother to wear a coat. Whenever I see him, it makes me really angry.

7. Co-ordinating conjunction

Word which joins two main clauses together- use FANBOYS to help you remember (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

I read the sheet and I understood it. I read the sheet but I didn’t understand it.

8. Subordinating conjunction

Conjunction that joins two clauses together but means one only makes sense when joined with the main clause

I understood the sentence because I paid attention. When I read carefully, I understand much better.

Note taking symbols

9. / Comma or full stop I read/ I slept

10. = Means that Working hard = good grades

11. + or & And Believed God & miasma caused plague

12. * This is important *revise this*

13. # Number # of causes of plague

14. Causes this People believed miasma plague

15. £ Money Rich had £ to afford doctors

16. < or > Less or greater than Black Death killed > than any other disease

17. Goes up or down # deaths

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Transitions

Compare and contrast

Explanatory

Emphasis

Change of direction

Illustration Time and sequence Conclusion

Similarly Likewise

A similarity As with

In the same way Like

Equally A difference In contrast Conversely Whereas

Alternatively Instead of Otherwise

Unlike On the other hand

In comparison Comparatively

Meaning

Resulting in Causing

Therefore Consequently

So Thus

As a result Showing

Presenting Suggesting Conveying Portraying

Highlighting Reinforcing

Implying

Especially

In particular Obviously Above all

Most important Primarily Certainly

Particularly Moreover Notably

Keep in mind Clearly Surely

Significantly Mainly Indeed

Prominently

However

Even though In contrast Otherwise

On the other hand Although

But Yet

Instead On the contrary

Whereas Conversely

Despite Alternatively

Except

For example For instance Specifically Particularly

As an illustration Namely Such as

Expressly Like

Including In particular

Evident when Demonstrated by

Which can be witnessed by Evidenced by

Highlighted by Conveys

Reinforces Presents Portrays Evokes

First(ly)

Second(ly) In addition

After Last(ly) Then Next Also

Before Finally Initially

Previously Soon

Later on At last

Additionally Currently

Earlier Meanwhile Ultimately

During Moreover

Furthermore

In conclusion

In closing In summary As a result

Consequently Finally

Therefore So

Thus In the end

To conclude/ sum up

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Coordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions

For- we use to join two main clauses when one happened because of the other- it is like because

And- we use to join two related clauses or to connect idea

Nor- we use to join two similar clauses which express something negative

But- we use to join two clauses which don’t agree

Or- we use to join two clauses which give different possibilities

Yet- we use when one clause does not necessarily follow the other

So- we use when one clause leads to another

after although as because before even if even though if in order that once provided that rather than since so that than that though unless until when whenever where whereas wherever whether while why

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Lesson One: The origins of Rome 1 2 In this topic, we will be studying how Rome went from being a small unimportant village/town in the 3

centre of Italy to the capital of a great empire. The problem we have is that we know little about its 4

beginnings. Traditionally, Rome is meant to have started in the 8th century B.C. (753 B.C. to be exact) 5

and there are no surviving written records from the time. With this lack of information, stories start 6

to be created to ‘fill in the gaps.’ Therefore, in this lesson, you will be introduced to two different 7

views on the origins (beginnings) of Rome. The first will be the myth of Romulus and Remus and the 8

second will be what historians now believe about the origins of Rome. 9

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Traditional view- The story of Romulus and Remus 11

12

As with many stories from the ancient world, this peculiar (meaning strange) one begins with a 13

family argument. Numitor had been a great king of a city called Alba Longa, but jealous of his 14

brother’s position, his younger brother Amulius forced him from power. Once Amulius was in 15

control, he locked up his older brother and sent Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia to become a 16

priestess who was banned from having children. However, according to the myth (story), the god of 17

war, Mars, saw Rhea Silvia and, feeling sorry for her, impregnated her. Nine months later, Rhea Silvia 18

gave birth to twin boys Romulus and Remus who were the sons of a god! Amulius did not want to 19

anger Mars by personally killing his children (never a good idea in the ancient world to anger a god), 20

so ordered that a servant throw the twins into the River 21

Tiber as it would be the river that killed them, not him. The 22

servant took pity on the twins and placed them in a basket, 23

to be carried away by the river to safety. 24

25

Supposedly the twins were then found by a she-wolf who 26

suckled them (gave them her milk) until a shepherd and his 27

wife found the twins. The two boys grew up to be 28

shepherds and when they were older, Remus was arrested 29

and taken before Amulius, who did not know him. Romulus 30

and some friends went to free Remus and in the process killed Amulius before releasing their 31

grandfather, Numitor, from prison and restoring him as king. 32

33

After restoring Numitor to the throne, the brothers went off in search of a place to build a city of 34

their own. Eventually they came to two hills and quarrelled (as brothers do) over which one would 35

be best to build the city on. Romulus wished to start the city on the Palatine Hill, while Remus 36

wished to build it on the Aventine Hill. In order to settle the argument, they agreed to let the gods 37

decide. Whoever saw the most birds, would be judged to have the gods’ support. Each brother went 38

to their hills and began to watch for birds. Remus claimed to have seen six birds, while Romulus said 39

he saw twelve. Romulus believed that he was the clear winner by six birds, but Remus argued that 40

since he saw his six birds first, he had won. 41

8

The brothers remained at a standstill and continued to quarrel 1

until Romulus began to dig trenches and build walls around his hill. 2

In response to Romulus' construction, Remus made continuous 3

fun of the wall and his brother's city by jumping back and forth 4

over the walls. Angry at his brother’s mockery (and for jumping 5

over his wall), Romulus killed him. After this, Romulus buried his 6

brother and named the city Roma (Rome) after himself and made 7

himself king. 8

9

Modern historians’ view 10

11

As you may not be surprised to know, most ancient historians do not believe the story of Romulus 12

and Remus to be true! Many in fact suggest that the story was made up to explain why the city was 13

called Rome. Using archaeological excavations (digging holes in the ground), historians are starting 14

to get a better understanding of Rome’s early history. We know that there were early farmers living 15

in villages in what is now Rome by the end of the 14th century B.C. (around 1300 B.C.) and that by 16

the mid-8th century B.C., these villages gradual merged together to make a settlement, based on the 17

Palatine Hill. Therefore, the date of 753 B.C may not be far out and the original settlement being on 18

the Palatine may have some basis in fact. However, it seems that Rome’s origins may not be as 19

unique as the Romulus and Remus story had you believe. 20

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1

Lesson Two: Types of government 2 3 Last lesson we learnt about the origins of Rome, comparing the myth of Romulus and Remus to the 4

view of modern historians. Before we look at how Rome was governed, it is important to pause to 5

look at several key words and ideas. In this lesson we will be looking at three types of government: 6

namely monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. But before we look at these words, let us first 7

consider what a government is. 8

9

The government is responsible for running a country. In 10

our country, the government is made up of Members of 11

Parliament (MPs) that represent 650 constituencies 12

(areas) of the United Kingdom. The party with the most 13

(326+) forms the government. In Britain, the head of the 14

government is the leader of the largest party in the House 15

of Commons and is called the Prime Minister. It is the Prime Minister’s responsibility to lead the 16

government and pass laws. Not all countries have systems like ours. In America, there is the 17

President, who is voted in once every four years and is their head of their government. 18

19

The final point to make here is that there are also other 20

types of governing bodies. Sports have governing bodies 21

that decide the rules and organise competitions within 22

those sports. Examples include FIFA for football and the 23

IOC for the Olympics. Schools even have governments- 24

namely the governors who decide what should and what should not happen in schools, just like the 25

Prime Minister does for the country. Now that we have learnt what a government is, we should look 26

at the different types of governments that run a country. 27

28

Monarchy 29

30

The word monarchy comes from two Greek words Monos (meaning one) and Kratos (meaning rule 31 of). A country is a monarchy if it ruled by a king or queen. In the purest sense, this means someone 32 who is leader (called a monarch in a monarchy) and becomes leader because either their mother or 33 father was (like our current queen), or because they win a war to become king (like William the 34 Conqueror, whom you will learn about in the next topic). 35 36 In a true monarchy, the monarch has all the power in the country. This would include: the power to 37 raise armies, have people killed, arrested, jailed, and to raise taxes. In an absolute monarchy the 38 monarch can do as they wish- they are all powerful. Absolute monarchies still exist today, in 39 countries such as the UAE, Vatican City and Swaziland to name a few. 40

41 Aristocracy 42

43 The term aristocracy comes from two Greek words, Aristos (meaning excellent) and Kratos, meaning 44 rule of, so rule of the most excellent or best. This usually refers to the most privileged in society and 45 throughout most of history, this has meant the richest. In an aristocracy, a small group will make the 46 laws and decide how government should operate as they are usually the individuals who would be in 47 the it. This is the main use of the word for the Roman topic we are currently studying. 48 49

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However, aristocracy can also mean a group of people in society who are very rich, own lots of land 1 and are very important based on their family background. In the next topic, the Middle Ages, we will 2 look at these people more as they play a significant role in what happens during that time. 3 4

Democracy 5 6

The final type of government is the one that you are probably most familiar with. Democracy comes 7 from the Greek words DEMOS (meaning people) and KRATOS (meaning rule). It therefore means 8 that it is a system of government where people decide how they want to be ruled for themselves, 9 this would include voting on all the laws and being involved in the decisions that the country makes. 10 11 There has never been a true democracy, where everyone did this all the time as it is highly 12 impractical and would mean that no one would do anything else. We are said to live in a democracy, 13 but really, we choose who we want to rule us and then they do it for us. In a real democracy, the 14 people make all their own decisions. 15

16 Next lesson we will turn our attention to looking at how Rome’s government worked whether it was 17

more monarchy, aristocracy or democracy. 18

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Lesson Three: The Roman government during the Republic (509 B.C- 100 B.C) 1 2

As you will remember from last lesson, a government is the organisation that controls a country. You 3

will also remember that there are three main types of government, namely monarchy, aristocracy 4

and democracy. In today’s lesson, we will be learning about how Rome was governed and which one 5

of these types of government it most closely looked like. 6

7

If you remember when we looked at its origins, Rome became a major settlement around the middle 8

of the 8th century B.C. (c. 750 B.C.). According to tradition, kings ruled Rome until 509 B.C when the 9

last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, was overthrown and Rome became a republic (a country 10

without a king or a queen). Unlike Romulus, there is some historical evidence that Tarquinius did 11

exist. After the overthrow of the kings, power was transferred to two main groups in Rome, the 12

Senate and the people. The ancient historian Polybius (who was Greek), described it as being part 13

democracy and part aristocracy. Will now look at both of these parts to see whether this was the 14

case. 15

16

The Senate 17

18

The most important part of the government was the Senate. In some ways, it was quite similar to 19 Parliament in Britain today. The Senate was mostly full of very rich men who were elected by the 20 people of Rome. They would make the decisions about how Rome was run, and it was from the 21 Senate that the other important figures in Rome were selected. These men were very wealthy, 22 owned large amounts of land, and believed it was their right to control what happened in Rome. 23 24 In order to become a Senator, these men had to stand for elections and be voted by the people of 25 Rome. Each citizen (a free man from Rome) was allowed to vote in elections. However, the elections 26 were not fair. When people voted in them, the rich got to vote first and only rich people could 27 actually afford to vote in the elections. This was because the poor ordinary people, called plebeians 28 (see more below), were allowed to vote but many had to remain in work- they couldn’t afford to 29 take the day of work to be able to vote! 30 31 Moreover, generally the rich people stood in elections meaning that they dominated the Senate. 32 They would also bribe people to vote for them, by putting on large gladiatorial shows, which were 33 very popular in ancient Rome. Once they became senators, they would be able to vote on the laws 34 of Rome and stand for higher offices in the government. Many would eventually lead Roman armies 35 against other countries/states as the generals. With the Senate dominated by the rich, it can be said 36 that Rome was at least partly an aristocracy as this is the form of government that is dominated by 37 the rich. 38 39 The people 40 41 On face value, the fact that every Roman citizen (free man) was able to vote would lead us to believe 42 that it was a democracy. However as we have already learnt, bribery was common but there was 43 also violence, intimidation and threats used to get poor people to vote for certain candidates. In this 44 atmosphere, it can hardly be said that was a democracy. 45

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Lesson Four: How did the Roman Empire expand and what problems did it create by 100 B.C.? 1

2

As you learnt last lesson, a small group of rich men in the Senate controlled Rome. These men bribed 3

people to vote for them in elections so that they could join the Senate and help to make the laws of 4

Rome. These men will be the focus of today’s lesson. As you may be aware from primary school, 5

Rome is famous for having an empire (one country ruling other countries). This empire grew from 6

around 300 B.C onwards up to 100 B.C and beyond, though we will only focus on the growth up to 7

100 B.C. Although the expansion brought wealth and prosperity to Rome, it also created new 8

problems for the republic (a country without a 9

king or queen). 10

11

The growth of the Roman Empire (up to 100 12

B.C) 13

14

As you have learnt previously, Rome began as a 15

small town around the middle of the Eighth 16

Century B.C and became a republic around 509 17

B.C. In the next 400 years, Rome grew to 18

become the dominant power around the Mediterranean. Over the next two hundred years, Rome 19

looked to expand on the Italian mainland, controlling most of what we now call Italy by 282 B.C. 20

Rome then came into conflict with another powerful civilisation called Carthage (see map above). 21

Between 264 B.C and 146 B.C, Rome and Carthage fought three brutal and devastating wars, with 22

Rome eventually becoming the victor and Carthage literally being wiped out. During these wars with 23

Carthage, Rome expanded into Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, North Africa, parts of Turkey and 24

invaded and conquered Greece, who had been an ally to Carthage. So by 100 B.C, Rome controlled a 25

large empire around the Mediterranean (see map to the right) and had to find some way to control 26

it. 27

28

How did Rome keep control of the empire? 29

30

Rome had a large and extensive empire by 100 31

B.C and had to find some way to control it. 32

Before the expansion, Rome had never needed 33

to worry about controlling territory as most of it 34

was within a couple of days march of Rome. 35

With territories now going from Spain to 36

modern day Turkey, Rome needed to have a 37

better solution to handle any potential uprisings against their authority. Rome used three main 38

methods to control their empire. 39

40

Firstly, the newly conquered land was split up into provinces. A province is a part of an empire and 41

could be large or small. This allowed Rome to send a governor, usually someone who had been in 42

the government of Rome, to control the province, make the laws and keep law and order. 43

44

Secondly, this governor would have/be given an army to help control the province. The army, legions 45

as the Romans called them, would be there to ensure that no one rebelled against Roman rule and if 46

they did, they would be expected to put down the rebellion quickly. These soldiers were citizens of 47

Rome and by 100 B.C, were paid, professional soldiers. 48

13

The final way that Rome tried to maintain control was through bribery. To put it simply, Rome 1

wanted to rule people that were happy to be part of the Roman Empire. The way to make this 2

happen was to get the local leaders of the community on side. To do this, the Romans kept them in 3

control of their local communities and bribed them to support Roman rule. 4

5

With these three methods, Rome was able to expand its empire to the size it became by 100 B.C in 6

the map above. However, this did not come without problems for Rome. 7

8

What problems did it create for Rome? 9

10

However, this expansion created new problems for Rome. The senators all wanted the same thing, 11

to win glory and wealth for their family and make their mark on history. The poor soldiers wanted 12

rewards for their hard work. This encouraged generals to seek further expansion so that they could 13

reward their men and win glory for Rome. While this did increase the glory of Rome, it also created a 14

problem for the Senate, namely that the soldiers’ loyalty started to move away from Rome and 15

towards their general. What would happen if a general decided to march on Rome instead of the 16

enemy? It is to one such man, Julius Caesar, that we will turn our attention to next lesson. 17

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Lesson Five: The life and times of Julius Caesar (Part 1) (100 B.C – 55 B.C) 1 2 As you learnt last lesson, Rome had an aristocratic government, which was dominated by the Senate 3 full of rich men. However, by 100 B.C., Rome was facing a problem of members of the Senate 4 becoming powerful generals who had the potential to turn their armies on Rome. Today, we will 5 focus on one of these men, whom many of you may have heard of, namely Julius Caesar. Caesar had 6 an eventful life and if we were to teach it all we would be here for the rest of the year. We will focus 7 on his later life but before we do, we will have brief summary of what happened in his life up until 8 60 B.C. 9 10 Caesar’s early life 11 12 Caesar was born in 100 B.C. and his father died when he was 16 years old (84 B.C.). He married in 83 13 B.C. a women called Cornelia who gave him his only child, a daughter named Julia. In this year, he 14 was also elected to become High Priest of Jupiter, Rome’s most important God, which was a very 15 important position. Over the next 23 years, Caesar led an eventful life, which involved being 16 captured by pirates, whom he then had crucified after his ransom was paid, a lawyer in the law 17 courts of Rome, commander of a fleet, commander of an army, held many positions in government 18 and became governor, the person in charge, of Spain in 61-60 B.C. This would be considered a lot on 19 its own but it is what happened next that makes Caesar historically important. 20 21 Consulship (60 – 59 B.C.) 22 23 By 60 B.C., Julius Caesar had had a successful military and political career in Rome, winning many 24 friends and enemies in the process. He now set his eyes on the top job: that of consul. Every year in 25 Rome, two senators would be elected consuls, a little like our prime minster. They would be in 26 charge of leading meetings of the Senate, leading armies in battle and making other important 27 decisions. They would also give their name to the year and whatever happened in that year would 28 be remembered as happening ‘in the year of the consulship of…’ Finally, the consuls would be given 29 command of a province (part of the Roman Empire) to command the year after their consulship 30 ended, which would give them the ability to become wealthy by taking money off the locals. For all 31 of these reasons, Caesar wanted to become one of the consuls for 60 B.C. 32 33 Through a massive amount of bribery on Caesar’s part, he was elected one of the consuls for 60 B.C. 34 and during his year in office, he made many enemies who want to put him on trial for his corruption 35 (doing things that were illegal but not being caught), amongst other things. However, there was a 36 rule in Rome that those in government positions could not be put on trial but once they were out of 37 office they could. Caesar, who remember had been a lawyer, knew this and wanted to be given 38 control of a province for a long time. With the help of his friends, he was given control of what is 39 now northern Italy and soon was given control of southern France and modern day Croatia. He now 40 had a large army and was ready to win glory for Rome. 41 42 Conquest of Gaul (59 B.C. – 55 B.C.) 43

44

Caesar did not originally plan to conquer Gaul (what we now call France). In fact, he planned to 45

invade Romania. However, when a Celtic tribe planned to migrate (move) from Switzerland to 46

southern France, they needed to go across Roman territory. This was a chance for a victory in battle, 47

which would impress the Senate, the people and win eternal glory. Over the next four years, Caesar 48

launched a ferocious (meaning violent) invasion of and conquest of most of modern day France, 49

Switzerland and Belgium, bringing it under Roman control. Once Gaul appeared to be under his 50

control, Caesar planned to do something no Roman had done. We will look at that, next lesson. 51

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Lesson Six: The life and times of Julius Caesar (Part 2) (55 B.C. – 44 B.C.) 2 3

Last lesson we learnt about what Julius Caesar had achieved up to 55 B.C., including being consul 4

and appearing to conquer most of Gaul. In this lesson, we will look at the last eleven years of 5

Caesar’s life that would lead to massive changes in the way Rome was ruled. It is also the first point 6

in our study of Roman history that Britain comes into it. 7

8

Invasion of Britain (55 B.C and 54 B.C) and final conquest of Gaul (54 B.C – 50 B.C) 9

10

No Roman army had ever stepped foot in Britain before Caesar’s arrival in 55 B.C. For the Romans, 11

crossing the English Channel was like entering another world. Caesar knew this and wanted the glory 12

that would come with being the first into Britain. Between 55 and 54 B.C., he launched two separate 13

landings in Britain, neither of which were particularly successful or long lasting. However, it did not 14

really matter to Caesar what happened in Britain (he fought a battle near London but not much 15

else), the simple fact was that he had taken Roman power to the edge of the world, however 16

tentative (small) the steps were. However, problems in Gaul would stop any further direct Roman 17

involvement in Britain. In fact, they would not return until A.D. 43, 97 years later. 18

19

Caesar had believed that Gaul, modern day France, had been conquered but there was an uprising 20

led by a man called Vercingetorix between 52 B.C. and 50 B.C. After many more battles, Caesar was 21

eventually able to bring all of Gaul under Roman control. It is estimated that out of Gaul’s population 22

of six million, one million had been killed and another one million were sold into slavery. For Caesar, 23

it was a triumph and he now had the best-trained soldiers in the Roman world under his command. 24

These would be needed again soon enough. 25

26

Civil War, Dictatorship and Death (49 B.C- 44 B.C) 27

28

You may remember that no Roman could be put on trial when they held public office (positions like 29

consul) and that Caesar had made enemies when he was consul. After Caesar’s conquest of Gaul was 30

complete, Caesar was ordered by the Senate to leave his soldiers in Gaul and come back to Rome. 31

He knew this would leave him open to being put on trial and losing everything he had worked for up 32

to this point. He now had a choice to make: obey the Senate or take his army with him to Rome. 33

After much consideration, he chose the strategy (plan) of taking his army with him and starting a civil 34

war (a war between two sides in the same country). 35

36

Between 49 B.C. and 45 B.C., Caesar was able to win the civil war against the Senate and was given 37

the title dictator for life. A dictator is someone who rules on his own and makes all the decisions 38

within a country. He returned to Rome to celebrate his victories and began to pass new laws, which 39

he believed were needed, including sorting out taxation (the money citizens paid to the 40

government), giving land to his soldiers and changing the calendar to 12 months from 10 and the 41

introduction of a leap year. However many of those left in the Senate were unhappy about Caesar 42

having almost complete control of Rome. They believed that the Senate should be in charge and not 43

a dictator like Caesar so a plan was launched to assassinate him. 44

45

Led by Marcus and Decimus Brutus, the senators planned to kill Caesar during a meeting of the 46

Senate. Many had been supporters of Caesar in the past while others had been pardoned after the 47

civil war. When Caesar entered, many of the Senators surrounded him and he was stabbed 23 times, 48

16

falling to the floor in a pool of his own blood. As his life ebbed away, the Senators believed that 1

Rome would return to what it had once been. However, we shall see that they were mistaken. 2

17

Lesson Seven: Changes in government in the time of Julius Caesar and Augustus (45 B.C – 27 B.C) 1 2 If you think back to the work we did on the government of Rome a few weeks ago, you should 3

remember that a Senate had governed Rome since the last king of Rome in 509 B.C. The Senate was 4

selected by people voting for who should be on it- and it was mostly full of rich people. This system 5

worked from the founding of the Roman Republic in 509 B.C. all the way down to the start of the 1st 6

century B.C. 7

8

However, by 100 B.C., this system had begun to fail as soldiers in the army started to have more 9

loyalty to their generals than to the Senate. Caesar used his army to march on Rome in 49 B.C., 10

effectively ending the Republic. Caesar was made dictator for life and with it came the idea of one 11

man, not a king, having power for a very long time, which was a big change to the system of 12

government that had ruled before. Julius Caesar was the government all on his own, though Rome 13

was still technically what we call a republic- this is a country without a king or queen. 14

15

The coming of Augustus (44 B.C – 27 B.C) 16

17

With Caesar’s blood seeping onto the floor of the Senate, the assassins (those that killed him) 18

believed that Rome would return to what it had been before. However, the assassination of Caesar 19

in 44 B.C. threw Rome into a state of war between the people who had killed Caesar on one side and 20

on the other his adopted son Augustus (great nephew before he was adopted) and close friend Mark 21

Anthony. Augustus had gained all of Caesar’s wealth and was supported by Caesar’s former soldiers 22

who were unsurprisingly, unhappy that their former general had been murdered. The assassins lost 23

the civil war and Augustus and Mark Antony were victorious and decided to split the empire 24

between them, with Augustus ruling the west from Rome and Mark Antony ruling the east. 25

26

Rome had fought two civil wars in the space of just over a decade (ten years) and many hoped that 27

peace could be restored. However, both Mark Antony and Augustus became distrustful of each 28

other. Eventually, Mark Antony (with Cleopatra by his side) and Augustus Caesar fought another war 29

between them, which Augustus was able to win in 31 B.C. Soon after, Mark Antony and Cleopatra 30

committed suicide, leaving Rome in the control of one man again. Finally, in 27 B.C he became 31

Rome’s first emperor. But we might well ask what does this even mean? 32

33

The changes in Roman government 34

35

In order to understand the changes that occurred in Roman government between 509 B.C and 27 36

B.C, It will probably help to recap the systems of government that existed in this time. 37

38

1. When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 B.C. Rome was governed by a senate. The 39

senate was chosen by people voting for in elections and dominated by the rich. By 100 B.C., 40

this was failing as many soldiers, who were poorly paid, became more loyal to their general 41

than the government. 42

2. In 45 B.C., Julius Caesar made himself dictator for life. Rome was still a republic (it had no 43

king or queen), and though Caesar was largely in charge on his own (he WAS the 44

government!), when he died control of Rome would return to the Senate. 45

3. By 27 B.C, the position Augustus took was something different altogether. With his coming 46

to power, Rome was no longer a republic. Augustus’ title of emperor meant he was in charge 47

18

of the country himself, but there was no expectation the country would pass back to the 1

Senate when he died- he would choose who would take over as emperor. 2

3

So what type of government was in control of Rome by 27 B.C.? People had no say in who was in 4

charge- so Rome was no longer a democracy. A small group of rich people did not rule Rome- so it 5

was no longer an aristocracy. Instead, one man ran Rome on his own, and could pass his position to 6

who he wanted. Rome had become a monarchy. Next lesson, we will look at what Augustus did to 7

try and keep control in Rome as he did not want to end up assassinated like Julius Caesar. 8

9

19

Lesson Eight: Augustan propaganda and the rebuilding of Rome 1 2 When Augustus gained power over the Roman Empire in 31 B.C. and became emperor in 27 B.C., no 3

one could challenge his position. His main priority was not to end up like his adoptive father Julius 4

Caesar, whom had rubbed people’s noses in his authority (power). Even though the Senate had no 5

power, Augustus wanted to keep up the appearance of Rome being ruled by them. A key factor 6

(point or reason) in maintaining his control, was trying to influence the way people thought about 7

him as he wanted to have unanimous (total) support for his rule. 8

When people try to influence the way other way people think about them we call this propaganda. 9

You see propaganda every day with adverts on TV, the internet and billboards trying to convince 10

people to buy things. Augustus was doing the same thing, except he wanted to be popular with the 11

people, so they would not plot against him. Three key forms of propaganda for Augustus were 12

buildings, chariot racing and gladiatorial games. 13

Buildings 14

15

When Augustus gained power over Rome, it 16

was not in a good state. Twenty years of wars 17

had meant that many buildings in Rome were 18

falling apart. Augustus was keen to rebuild and 19

repair many buildings, as this would make him 20

popular with the people. For Augustus, the way 21

he rebuilt Rome was a way of showing off his 22

own power, status and wealth. If he rebuilt 23

Rome so it was beautiful, people would think 24

he was rich and powerful himself. 25

26

There were three types of building that Augustus focussed on: celebrating his family, baths and 27

religion. He built the Temple of the Divine Caesar for his adoptive father Julius. After he was 28

murdered, the senate passed a decree saying he was a God. This was not uncommon in the ancient 29

world. People would come and give offerings to Caesar for favours from him. His friend Marcus 30

Agrippa built the Baths of Agrippa (see above) for the people to use. People would come here to 31

socialise and bathe. The final one was the Ara Pacis (the alter of peace). This was an alter (a table 32

made from marble) on which animals would be sacrificed in honour to the gods, so that they would 33

continue to bring Rome good fortune. 34

35

Chariot Racing 36

37

Chariot racing was the most popular 38

entertainment in Ancient Rome. The Circus 39

Maximus (great circuit) in Rome hosted chariot 40

races for over 250,000 people to come and 41

watch. That meant it could seat a quarter of 42

Rome’s population, which made it a powerful 43

propaganda tool. Julius Caesar had done 44

paperwork while watching the races, which had made him unpopular. Augustus made sure that he 45

was seen watching the races and being involved. By paying for and watching these games, Augustus 46

was trying to be seen as one of the people and gain popularity. 47

20

1

Gladiatorial Games, beast fights and naumachia 2

3

Gladiatorial games were popular in Rome, but they were watched by fewer people as there was no 4

permanent arena for them (the Colosseum would not be built until A.D 80). Augustus wanted to be 5

seen as being generous in these games also, so paid for temporary arenas to be built so people could 6

watch them. It is said that in the eight games Augustus paid for, 10,000 gladiators took part in the 7

combat, with 3,500 animals also being killed as part 8

of the entertainment. The final type of entertainment 9

was the naumachia (naval battles). Augustus widened 10

the River Tiber and had thirty warships with 3,000 11

men fighting a battle on the river. 12

13

All of these entertainments and construction projects 14 made Augustus popular with the people, as no one 15 was ever able to remove him from power. When he 16 died in A.D. 14 (41 years after becoming emperor in 17 27 B.C.), a document was published across the empire called the Res Gestae Divi Augusti (‘The 18 Achievements of the Divine Augustus’). In this, he stated everything he did for Rome in terms of his 19 buildings and entertainments. Of his buildings, he said that ‘I found Rome a city of brick and I left it a 20 city of marble.’ While this was not entirely true, his propaganda had ensured that the emperors that 21 followed him would have a good example of how to control the people of Rome. 22

21

Lesson Nine: What was daily life like in Rome in the Second Century A.D? 1 2 Last lesson we looked at how Augustus changed Rome. We are now going to move forward in time 3

to the second century A.D. (A.D. 100 – A.D 199) and see what life was like for the average Roman, 4

living in Rome. Rome now had a population of over 1 million people, continued to have fine marble 5

buildings and was the centre of the known world as far as the Romans were concerned. 6

7

The streets of Rome 8

9

At the centre of Rome were many public 10

buildings, like the law courts and meeting 11

rooms where the Senate would meet, 12

and this area was very splendid and built 13

of marble. This architecture (style of 14

building) is what people tend to think 15

about when they imagine Rome. 16

However, the rest of Rome was not so 17

beautiful- the streets were busy, noisy 18

and housing in poorer areas was crammed together. It was common to find people in Rome from all 19

over the empire- slave dealers, animals and black men and women from Africa, people from Britain. 20

Walking down a street in Rome it would be surprising if you did not hear people speaking different 21

languages. 22

23

Law and order 24

25

Rome had law courts where criminals could go on trial, and also a form of police (and fire service) 26

called vigiles. They were responsible for acting as city guards and discouraging people from 27

committing crimes. This was just as well, as Rome had a high crime rate and it was common for 28

there to be violence on the streets. 29

30

Entertainment 31

32

In A.D. 70, the city of Jerusalem was captured by Rome. The 33

money from this capture was used to fund the building of 34

the Colosseum, a great amphitheatre in the middle of 35

Rome. Built by an army of slaves and freemen who would 36

control the slaves and supervise the building work, it took over 10 years to complete. The idea for 37

the Colosseum came from the Emperor Vespasian but was finished by Titus. Like Augustus before 38

him, he wanted to demonstrate Rome’s magnificence and dominance over the world and the games 39

to commemorate the opening of the lofty (huge or tall) Colosseum were hugely impressive, with 40

animal hunts and gladiatorial fights for many days. 41

42

As well as the Colosseum, the Romans could also go to the Circus Maximus to watch chariot racing 43

with over 250,000 people being able to watch a single chariot race. There were also places to drink 44

and eat, just as there are in modern cities. 45

46

22

Baths 1

2

Huge bath complexes were common throughout 3

the Roman Empire and Rome itself was no 4

different. After paying a small amount to enter 5

the baths, people would remove their clothes and 6

hand them to an attendant. There were three 7

main rooms they would use- a frigidarium that 8

would warm the visitors up, a caldarium, which 9

would make them sweat, a further room where 10

they would be covered in oil by slaves and then be scraped cleaning using a device called a strigil, 11

and finally the tepidarium, where they would cool down. The baths were often a gathering place 12

where people would gossip and do business and were completely public- so open to everyone. 13

14

Patrons and clients 15

16

People who were looking to advance through the political system in 17

Rome would often have clients. These clients would visit their 18

houses and look to be giving rewards- food, money or jobs. In 19

return, they would be loyal to their patron by supporting him in 20

elections. The patron would also provide legal support to clients if 21

needed. In many cases the clients were poorer citizens, and so it 22

was common to visit the house of a wealthy patron every day and 23

for help to be given. 24

25

Slaves 26

27

By now, you will have seen slaves mentioned twice. Slaves made up nearly a third of Rome’s 28

population. When countries were conquered, slaves were taken back to Rome to be sold. Slaves 29

might eventually earn their freedom, but before they did, they would do things such as fight as 30

gladiators, work in the baths or work on building projects like the Colosseum. 31

32

As you have seen, Rome in the Second Century A.D was very much like a modern city. It had crime, 33

waste was a problem, there were many languages, places to go and be entertained, fed and 34

refreshed. However, its entertainments were violent and slavery was legal. We may admire parts of 35

Roman civilisation (civilisation is another way of saying society) but there are others which are truly 36

shocking to us today. 37

23

Lesson Ten: Gladiatorial combat and the Colosseum 1 2 One of the most famous buildings in Roman history is the Colosseum. As you learnt last lesson, it 3

was built by the Emperor Vespasian (A.D 69 – A.D 79) and the Emperor Titus (A.D 79 – A.D 81) from 4

money and wealth they had gained from capturing the city of Jerusalem. In order to be popular, as 5

Vespasian was a new emperor, it was decided that this money should be spent on a new 6

Amphitheatre (arena) for gladiatorial shows, beast hunts and supposedly even naumachia (naval 7

battles). 8

9

Seating in the Colosseum 10

11

The Colosseum could hold an estimated 50,000 spectators at a 12

time for the shows put on by the emperors and their families. But 13

you were not able to just sit anywhere you wanted. Where you sat 14

depended entirely on your position in society. The emperor, his family, and the senators were the 15

closest to the action. Behind them were the other important officials that worked for the emperor 16

and the senators. Behind them were the ordinary citizens of Rome (all men, as only men could be 17

citizens) and in the final rows, furthest away from the action, were the women and the slaves. All 18

spectators were given free tickets to the shows and all would have an uninterrupted view of the 19

action and all were kept safe from the animals using nets. 20

21

Advanced technology at the Colosseum 22

23

Even though it was nearly two millennia (2,000 years) ago, the 24

Colosseum had many ‘modern’ technologies. Firstly, the Colosseum 25

had flushing toilets with perfume to help keep down the smells 26

from the arena. There were also sails on the top of the Colosseum, manned by sailors, to cover the 27

spectators and protect them from the sun. Underneath the floor of the Colosseum there were trap 28

doors, through which animals, scenery, and even fighters would dramatically appear. There are even 29

reports of the Colosseum being flooded in a day, a naval battle fought and then emptied again over a 30

third day. All of this would be a struggle for modern arenas to put on. 31

32

A day at the Colosseum 33

34

Going to the Colosseum was like going to a festival more than like going to a football match. The 35 entertainments would be varied and would last the entire day. In the morning there would be exotic 36 animal hunts being common including animals like elephants, tigers, lions and possibly even bears. 37 There would also be time for the emperor to give food and gifts to the crowd, showing his care for 38 the people. At lunch time, the executions of criminals would take place, often with the animals 39 attack the people who had been tied to posts in the centre of the arena. The third and final part of 40 the entertainment were the gladiators. These, along with the chariot racers, were the superstars of 41 the day. People would cheer on their favourite gladiator, with ladies even being able to buy the oil 42 scrapped from the body of their favourite gladiator as perfume. Unlike in films, gladiators were not 43 going to be killed at the end of every fight. Training gladiators was expensive, and the emperor 44 would have to reimburse the owner of the gladiators if they were. The Romans wanted to see a 45 good fight with a close fight that kept the crowd in suspense (uncertain about what will happen) 46 being the most remembered. The emperor who gave the people entertainment would command 47 their loyalty and be popular. The many emperors who did not do this, tended to not last long. 48 49

24

Lesson Eleven: What was life in Britain like before the arrival of the Romans? 1 2 Up to this point in our study of Rome, we have only briefly mentioned Britain when we learn about 3

Julius Caesar. The final two lessons of this topic will focus on Britain itself. We will learn about what 4

Britain was like before the Romans arrived (properly) in A.D 43 and then look at the extent to which 5

it changed under Roman rule and occupation. The period in Britain before the arrival of the Romans 6

is known as the ‘Iron Age’ as iron was used to make many of the weapons and items people used. 7

8 Firstly, it is important to understand that Britain as a 9

country did not exist at this point. What we now call 10

Britain (England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland) was 11

divided up into tribes (see map). Each tribe had its 12

own leader and laws and these tribes would often 13

fight with each other, with some becoming more 14

powerful. Historians today call them Celts as they all 15

had a similar language, Celtic (an ancient version of 16

what would become Welsh, Gaelic and Cornish), a 17

common religion (see more later) and a similar 18

artistic style (what they wore or made). They would 19

not consider themselves ‘Celts’ but would think of 20

themselves as part of their tribe (Iceni, Silures, 21

Caledonii etc.). 22

23

These ‘Celts’ lived in villages and lived in huts like the ones to 24

the right. These were called roundhouses and were very basic 25

compared to what came later. Sometimes the Celts built groups 26

of houses together on tops of hills- they were known as hill forts 27

and would provide protection from attacks by other tribes. 28

29

The Iron Age was a time before roads, as we would understand 30

them. There were mud tracks that people used, though these 31

were uneven which slowed journeys down. For this reason, people tended not to go very far from 32

their village and stayed within the local area. Sometimes people would travel by boat on rivers or on 33

the seas to trade with other places but this was on a small scale with only a few people travelling on 34

these boats. 35

36

A key aspect of everyday life in Britain during the Iron Age was what was grown/produced and what 37

was eaten. In this period of history, people generally ate what was growing around them and what 38

they could find. The diet of Iron Age Britain primarily contained berries, fish, eggs, herbs, vegetables, 39

wheat and meat from mainly pigs or cows. Overall, a very simple diet. A lot of this would be 40

produced in local farms and consumed very close to where it came from. However, the British did 41

begin to export (means send to another country) wheat, cattle, animal skins, and dogs to sell in in 42

places like France. They also sold gold, iron, silver and slaves, which all made Britain a tantalising 43

conquest for future Roman leaders, like Julius Caesar, as they believed Britain could make them and 44

the empire rich. 45

46

The final aspect of life in Britain that we will look at in this lesson is religion. Religion was one thing 47

that linked the various tribes of Britain at this point. The British were polytheistic (believed in many 48

25

gods) and their gods were used to try and explain the 1

world around them. Gods were blamed/thanked for the 2

weather, the growth of the harvest, where water springs 3

appeared amongst other things. Put simply, if there was 4

something that they could not explain, the British said 5

that a god had caused or created it. Remember that this is 6

a time before our modern understanding of the world. 7

The British were very keen not to anger the gods, so 8

needed to know what they should do to please them. To 9

help with this, a class of people known as the Druids 10

appeared in within Celtic tribes. They acted almost as ‘super priests’ and where considered to have a 11

connection to the gods. Their opinions would often be heard before the opinions of a king of a tribe. 12

For this reason, they became very influential and important in Celtic society. 13

14

Before the arrival of the Romans, Britain was divided up into many tribes who shared a common 15

religion, language, customs and diet. Travel was difficult, so most people did not travel far from their 16

local community. These communities were based around roundhouses, which may have been built 17

on top of hills in hill forts. 18

26

Lesson Twelve: What was life in Britain like after the arrival of the Romans? 1 2 As we learnt last lesson, Britain during the Iron Age was divided up into various small kingdoms who 3 spent a lot of time fighting against each other- today we call them Celts. Transport was difficult due 4 to no roads and people lived in roundhouses in villages and hill forts. They had a common language, 5 religion, customs, food and farming techniques. The focus for this lesson is to what extent this 6 changed after the arrival of the Romans in A.D 43, though it is true that Caesar had come over for a 7 couple of months in 55 and 54 B.C but for the most this achieved nothing. 8 9 For the most part, the Roman invasion and conquest of Britain (England and Wales) was a long and 10 drawn out affair (meaning it took a long time) lasting from Claudius’ invasion in A.D 43 (his generals 11 and army invaded, he did not invade himself but supposedly turned up later with elephants to 12 celebrate!) to around A.D. 160, when Hadrian’s Wall became the edge of the Roman Empire. It is 13 here that we will look at Roman Britain and see how much the occupants of Britain had changed 14 from the Celts of Iron Age Britain. 15 16 Let us begin with transportation. The one fact that you 17 probably learnt in primary school is that the Romans built 18 straight roads. This was done for several reasons. Firstly, it 19 allowed soldiers to march around the country more quickly 20 and quell (stop) any rebellions that were happening. This 21 happened with the rebellion led by Queen Boudicca of the 22 Iceni tribe (A.D. 60-61) as the Roman army in North Wales 23 was able to march back down Watling Street (the A5 today) 24 and defeat her. Secondly, it meant that people and items could move around more easily, increasing 25 trade. However, people still either travelled on horseback, on foot or on carts pulled by oxen but the 26 Romans just made this a lot quicker. 27 28 You will remember from last lesson that roundhouses had 29

dominated Iron Age Britain. After their arrival, the Romans 30

wanted people in Britain to do as they wanted- to pay taxes 31

and to acknowledge they were ruled by the Emperor in 32

Rome. To do this they started to build towns, including 33

Colchester and London. As these places started to become 34

rich from trade, the British started to build towns in the same 35

style. These towns were characterised by the Roman style 36

they took: a forum at the centre with houses around the 37

town (smaller wooden structures for poorer people, more elaborate ‘villas’ which were much bigger 38

for rich people), often containing an aqueduct (a large structure for bringing water into the 39

settlement), baths and sewers. In some settlements (such as Chester) we know they even had an 40

amphitheatre, where gladiators would fight for the entertainment of the people. 41

42

Today when people move from one country to another, they bring with them their own foods, hence 43 why we eat a lot of Italian, Chinese, and Indian food to name a few. The Romans were the same and 44 brought with them new food with them and started to grow them in Britain. For example, the 45 following foods were all introduced by the Romans: garlic, onions, shallots, leeks, cabbages, peas, 46 celery, turnips, radishes, and asparagus. Moreover, they also introduced many animals, such as 47 white cattle, guinea fowl and Spanish rabbits along with large amounts of wine and olive oil. 48 49

27

Finally, we turn our attention to religion and language. The Romans had many gods- in many ways 1

they were not that different to the British. For the most part people in Britain continued to worship 2

their gods as they had always done. However, the Romans often tried to merge gods: when they 3

learned that the Celt goddess Sulis was like the Roman god Minerva they created a new goddess, 4

Sulis-Minerva. Even though they were accommodating to a certain extent, some things did change. 5

Druids were outlawed after A.D 61 and brutally wiped out by the Roman Army and temples were 6

built to the emperor so that he would be worshipped as a God. Many Britons did not like this. 7

8

Fundamentally, language did not change. Although the official language of the Roman Empire was 9

Latin and all acts of administration (law reports, letters to Rome etc.) were in Latin, people still spoke 10

the language they had before. Latin never became the language of Britain- most people simply 11

continued to speak Celtic. 12

13