The Roman HistoriansThe Roman Historians

The Greek Antecedents and The Greek Antecedents and modelsmodels

What is HistoryWhat is HistoryAccording to the Greeks:According to the Greeks:

historiahistoria - Greek term defined as: - Greek term defined as: a) a learning by inquiry; knowledge a) a learning by inquiry; knowledge

or information obtained by inquiry; b) or information obtained by inquiry; b) a narration of what one has learnt, a narration of what one has learnt, historical narrative (historical narrative (Ancient Greek Ancient Greek DictionaryDictionary – Lidell and Scott) – Lidell and Scott)

Modern Definitions of Modern Definitions of HistoryHistory

A science or an answering of A science or an answering of questions concerned with human questions concerned with human actions in the pastactions in the past

An account of events of the past; a An account of events of the past; a written text that contains the written text that contains the reconstruction of past eventsreconstruction of past events

the study and interpretation of the the study and interpretation of the record of human societies record of human societies

How does History proceed: How does History proceed:

By the interpretation of evidenceBy the interpretation of evidence Evidence such as documents and Evidence such as documents and

material evidencematerial evidence Documents – in a variety of forms Documents – in a variety of forms

(Documents that exist here and now)(Documents that exist here and now)

Cicero on the purpose of Cicero on the purpose of historiahistoria

““To be ignorant of what happened To be ignorant of what happened before your birth is to remain always before your birth is to remain always a child. For what is the meaning of a a child. For what is the meaning of a man’s life unless it is intertwined man’s life unless it is intertwined with that of our ancestors by the with that of our ancestors by the memory of history.” (Cicero, Orator memory of history.” (Cicero, Orator 120, tr. Hubbell (Loeb))120, tr. Hubbell (Loeb))

The Idea of History as it The Idea of History as it belongs to our own time belongs to our own time

History is a science or an answering of History is a science or an answering of questionsquestions

concerned with human actions in the pastconcerned with human actions in the past pursued by interpretation of evidencepursued by interpretation of evidence pursued for the sake of human self-pursued for the sake of human self-

knowledge knowledge History is about change and continuityHistory is about change and continuity Essential for human beings since it provides Essential for human beings since it provides

the link between the past, present, and the link between the past, present, and future.future.

HistoriographyHistoriography

Both the writing of history and the Both the writing of history and the study of historical writing study of historical writing

The Greaco-Roman WorldThe Greaco-Roman World Roman culture influenced by Greek culture Roman culture influenced by Greek culture

from its earliest days (Hellenization)from its earliest days (Hellenization) Wave 1: Via Etruscans and Greek colonists; Wave 1: Via Etruscans and Greek colonists;

through trade with Greece, through trade with Greece, Wave 2: Conquest of Greek city states in Italy Wave 2: Conquest of Greek city states in Italy

and Sicily; Conquest of Greek Eastand Sicily; Conquest of Greek East Influx of Greek slaves – during conquest Influx of Greek slaves – during conquest

many Greek intellectuals brought to Rome as many Greek intellectuals brought to Rome as teachers for the children of teachers for the children of prominent/wealthy Romansprominent/wealthy Romans

Greek education in rhetoric, philosophy, Greek education in rhetoric, philosophy, literature, art, etc, and fluency in Greek literature, art, etc, and fluency in Greek became essential for Roman elite became essential for Roman elite

Cultures of Ancient ItalyCultures of Ancient Italy

The Ancient Mediterranean The Ancient Mediterranean WorldWorld

Emergence of Greek Emergence of Greek HistoriographyHistoriography

Beginning of Greek literature: 8Beginning of Greek literature: 8thth century BCE Homeric epics (traditional century BCE Homeric epics (traditional date of founding of Rome)date of founding of Rome)

Homer: The Iliad and The OdysseyHomer: The Iliad and The Odyssey Written versions of traditional stories Written versions of traditional stories

transmitted orally for centuries transmitted orally for centuries Written down ca. 500 years after Written down ca. 500 years after

eventsevents Didactic poetry: transmitting cultural Didactic poetry: transmitting cultural

values, traditionsvalues, traditions

Homeric epicsHomeric epics The Iliad: setting war – Greek expedition against Troy The Iliad: setting war – Greek expedition against Troy

(cause Helen, wife of Menelaos, went with Paris to Troy) (cause Helen, wife of Menelaos, went with Paris to Troy) Reflects world of aristocrats, heroes, godsReflects world of aristocrats, heroes, gods Language elevated, reverent, solemn – not everyday Language elevated, reverent, solemn – not everyday

languagelanguage Heroic history – not concerned with ordinary people or Heroic history – not concerned with ordinary people or

collective human fatecollective human fate The Odyssey – belongs to stories about the returns of The Odyssey – belongs to stories about the returns of

heroes (Odysseus) from Troy, set in peace timeheroes (Odysseus) from Troy, set in peace time Focus on family values, household, includes pictures of Focus on family values, household, includes pictures of

every-day life in archaic world, economy, trade, etc every-day life in archaic world, economy, trade, etc Not history in modern sense but represented history and Not history in modern sense but represented history and

traditions for the ancient Greeks and Romanstraditions for the ancient Greeks and Romans Purpose: transmitted cultural values, traditions, cultural Purpose: transmitted cultural values, traditions, cultural

identityidentity

Homeric audienceHomeric audience

Everyone in the village - aristocrats Everyone in the village - aristocrats and ordinary peopleand ordinary people

Form of escapism: audience did not Form of escapism: audience did not want to be reminded of their own want to be reminded of their own (miserable) daily life (miserable) daily life

Wanted to be entertained, inspired Wanted to be entertained, inspired and excited, and excited,

Homer and the RomansHomer and the Romans

Homeric Epics central to basic Homeric Epics central to basic education of Greeks and Romanseducation of Greeks and Romans

Roman foundation legends was Roman foundation legends was connected to the cycle of Trojan connected to the cycle of Trojan myths: Aeneas, the founder of the myths: Aeneas, the founder of the Roman race was a Trojan refugeeRoman race was a Trojan refugee

Ancient and Modern Perception Ancient and Modern Perception of Homeric Epicsof Homeric Epics

Ancient perception: – timeless ideals and Ancient perception: – timeless ideals and virtues taught by heroes of the pastvirtues taught by heroes of the past

Past consisted of grand heroic deeds and Past consisted of grand heroic deeds and divine actionsdivine actions

Modern perception: - Homeric period – as a Modern perception: - Homeric period – as a blend of Mycenaean age with Greek Dark blend of Mycenaean age with Greek Dark Ages and the Archaic period, provides Ages and the Archaic period, provides information about values, customs, trade information about values, customs, trade relations, military expeditions, plunder, relations, military expeditions, plunder, strategies of war, social hierarchies, strategies of war, social hierarchies, household structures, and more household structures, and more

modern perceptions and concepts would modern perceptions and concepts would have been totally alien to Homeric audiences.have been totally alien to Homeric audiences.

Hesiod ca. 700 BCEHesiod ca. 700 BCE

Works: Works: Theogony; Works and Days Theogony; Works and Days Theogony: Theogony: aa genealogy of the gods from genealogy of the gods from

the creation of the universe to the present the creation of the universe to the present reign of the Olympian gods; inspired reign of the Olympian gods; inspired literature literature

Works and Days: Form of Works and Days: Form of didactic, didactic, moralistic poem and farmer’s almanac – moralistic poem and farmer’s almanac – all in one, all in one,

contains advice on farming, when to take contains advice on farming, when to take a wife, how to be just etc.,a wife, how to be just etc.,

Hesiod’s TheogonyHesiod’s Theogony Includes view of a Includes view of a collective human pastcollective human past: : 5 5

Ages of Man:Ages of Man: 1. Golden Age (man was godlike, no care, no 1. Golden Age (man was godlike, no care, no

suffering, no toils) suffering, no toils) 2. Silver Age (cruelty, passion for war,) 2. Silver Age (cruelty, passion for war,) 3. Bronze Age (worse, extremely strong people 3. Bronze Age (worse, extremely strong people

wasted lives in warfare); wasted lives in warfare); 4. Age of heroes (noble humans and demi gods, 4. Age of heroes (noble humans and demi gods,

destroyed themselves in wars – Trojan War); destroyed themselves in wars – Trojan War); 5. Iron Age ( present time of ordinary people, 5. Iron Age ( present time of ordinary people,

misery, injustice, no kindness, aging and death)misery, injustice, no kindness, aging and death)

Hesiod and the RomansHesiod and the Romans

The idea of a collective human past The idea of a collective human past in terms of a decline from Golden in terms of a decline from Golden Age to present became a prominent Age to present became a prominent theme in Roman historiographytheme in Roman historiography

Romans did not include the Heroic Romans did not include the Heroic AgeAge

Romans adopted and adapted Romans adopted and adapted tradition of Greek mythstradition of Greek myths

External Changes that External Changes that influenced Greek influenced Greek HistoriographyHistoriography

After 800 BCE development of Greek After 800 BCE development of Greek poleispoleis (sing. (sing. polispolis) – independent city states ) – independent city states (autonomous urban centers with own (autonomous urban centers with own territory) territory)

Political organization of city states varied: Political organization of city states varied: Athens – developed into a democracy, Athens – developed into a democracy, others had a tyrant, oligarchy, monarchy, others had a tyrant, oligarchy, monarchy, etc. etc.

Colonization – founding of new city states Colonization – founding of new city states throughout the Mediterranean world throughout the Mediterranean world including Italy and Black sea cost.including Italy and Black sea cost.

Contacts with other cultures influenced Contacts with other cultures influenced Greek poetry, art, philosophyGreek poetry, art, philosophy

The Ionian The Ionian Intellectual Revolution Intellectual Revolution

Ca. 6Ca. 6thth century BCE in Ionia, Asia Minor century BCE in Ionia, Asia Minor Began with Thales of Miletus continued by othersBegan with Thales of Miletus continued by others Sought rational explanations for natural Sought rational explanations for natural

phenomena; phenomena; Explored: 1. The origins of the universe, 2. basic Explored: 1. The origins of the universe, 2. basic

substance all things were made from 3. the substance all things were made from 3. the transformation of basic substance into variety of transformation of basic substance into variety of things in the cosmosthings in the cosmos

Scientific explanations of cosmos replaced Scientific explanations of cosmos replaced anthropomorphic structure of physical world, i.e. anthropomorphic structure of physical world, i.e. Zeus – sky god, etc.,Zeus – sky god, etc.,

Focus was on physical cosmos not on human Focus was on physical cosmos not on human phenomenaphenomena

The IoniansThe Ionians

Subsequent Ionian philosophers also Subsequent Ionian philosophers also investigated geography and investigated geography and ethnographyethnography

Changed Greek views about space Changed Greek views about space and timeand time

Sophist movementSophist movement

44thth century BCE the age of Socrates century BCE the age of Socrates and Plato, turned philosophers’ and Plato, turned philosophers’ interests to problems of human interests to problems of human existenceexistence

The political and intellectual The political and intellectual developments had far-reaching developments had far-reaching impact on Greek History writingimpact on Greek History writing

The First Greek The First Greek HistoriansHistorians

Hecataeus of Miletus ca. 500 B.C.Hecataeus of Miletus ca. 500 B.C. Works:Works: Journey round the World Journey round the World GenealogiesGenealogies Hellanicus of Lesbos, late 5Hellanicus of Lesbos, late 5thth century century Herodotus of Halicarnassus c Herodotus of Halicarnassus c

490/480-429/5 B.C. 490/480-429/5 B.C. The HistoriesThe Histories Thucydides Thucydides History of the History of the

Peloponnesian WarPeloponnesian War c. 460/55-399/8 c. 460/55-399/8

Hecataeus of MiletusHecataeus of Miletus Only fragments survivedOnly fragments survived Shaped understanding of Geography of his Shaped understanding of Geography of his

timetime Evidence suggests that he tried to link age Evidence suggests that he tried to link age

of humans with mythical age by of humans with mythical age by constructing sequence of constructing sequence of ‘generations’. ‘generations’.

New concept of continuous timeNew concept of continuous time Link to past established in human termsLink to past established in human terms Resulted in tradition of looking for Resulted in tradition of looking for

divine/semi- divine ancestors for cities and divine/semi- divine ancestors for cities and familiesfamilies

Continued tradition in Roman period (the Continued tradition in Roman period (the Julian family–divine ancestry – Venus Julian family–divine ancestry – Venus mother of Aeneas)mother of Aeneas)

Hecataeus and the godsHecataeus and the gods

He did not deny the gods and heroes He did not deny the gods and heroes but reduced the mythical tradition to but reduced the mythical tradition to human experience:human experience:

““I wrote about that in the way it I wrote about that in the way it seems to me to be true; because seems to me to be true; because what the Greeks tell about the what the Greeks tell about the mythic tradition varies quite a bit mythic tradition varies quite a bit and is, it appears to me, laughable.” and is, it appears to me, laughable.”

Hellanicus of LesbosHellanicus of Lesbos Late 5Late 5thth century – century – Important contribution: applied ‘generations’ Important contribution: applied ‘generations’

count to establish date for fall of Troy ; placed count to establish date for fall of Troy ; placed it around 1240 BCE;it around 1240 BCE;

Proposed new method for dating events: use of Proposed new method for dating events: use of office holders and victors at gamesoffice holders and victors at games

Result: other lists followed: Olympic victors; Result: other lists followed: Olympic victors; Spartans dated based on office of ephors,Spartans dated based on office of ephors,

Romans followed tradition – dating by Romans followed tradition – dating by consulshipsconsulships

But no universal dating – type varied from But no universal dating – type varied from place and authorplace and author

Herodotus of HalicarnassusHerodotus of Halicarnassus 490/480-429/5 B.C. 490/480-429/5 B.C.

The Histories – The Histories – concerned with the Persian concerned with the Persian WarsWars

Broad approach that includes much Broad approach that includes much ethnography (origins and customs of ethnography (origins and customs of different peoples) and geographydifferent peoples) and geography

In his inquiry into how Greeks and Persians In his inquiry into how Greeks and Persians came into conflict he includes many came into conflict he includes many sections that appear to be digressions as sections that appear to be digressions as far away as Egypt, Arabia and India. In the far away as Egypt, Arabia and India. In the end, however, he unifies all of these end, however, he unifies all of these sections in his History of the Persian Wars.sections in his History of the Persian Wars.

Herodotus: War and GodsHerodotus: War and Gods Herodotus recounts period of Persian War Herodotus recounts period of Persian War

– Greek victory and glory– Greek victory and glory War itselfWar itself is not glorified as in Homer not glorified as in Homer War is a collective experience of ordinary War is a collective experience of ordinary

people – invited questions such as why, people – invited questions such as why, when, etc., (causation)when, etc., (causation)

Gods still have prominent position but still have prominent position but rarely intervene in human affairsrarely intervene in human affairs

Gods only became angry when provoked Gods only became angry when provoked by by hybris (arrogance, excessive pride)(arrogance, excessive pride)

Otherwise gods are silent, do not Otherwise gods are silent, do not intervene intervene

Herodotus and causationHerodotus and causation

Human beings seem to shape their Human beings seem to shape their own livesown lives

Generally: not the gods cause doom Generally: not the gods cause doom but human weaknesses (but human weaknesses (hybris; hybris; greed, etc.) i.d. example of king greed, etc.) i.d. example of king Croesus’ downfall is caused by his Croesus’ downfall is caused by his hybrishybris

Some confusion remains about human Some confusion remains about human decisions, human fate, and divine decisions, human fate, and divine judgments.judgments.

Herodotus – and causationHerodotus – and causation

Gives as causes for war – man’s Gives as causes for war – man’s hybris hybris which provoked the disastrous outcome which provoked the disastrous outcome for the Persians by angering the gods, for the Persians by angering the gods, scheming exiles (Athenians ex-tyrant scheming exiles (Athenians ex-tyrant Pisistratus) in Persian court; false oracles, Pisistratus) in Persian court; false oracles, hope for booty, revenge for Athen’s hope for booty, revenge for Athen’s support of Ionian revolt and many other support of Ionian revolt and many other reasonsreasons

Even if gods became angry - it was Even if gods became angry - it was nevertheless due to human actionsnevertheless due to human actions

Dating in HerodotusDating in Herodotus

No systematic scheme. Each No systematic scheme. Each segment (Egypt, Greece, Persia, segment (Egypt, Greece, Persia, etc.,) had its own timing schemeetc.,) had its own timing scheme

Chronology becomes more Chronology becomes more systematic when he talks about systematic when he talks about Ionian revolt and subsequent events Ionian revolt and subsequent events – more recent events in Greek – more recent events in Greek history – closer to his own days. history – closer to his own days.

ThucydidesThucydides c. 460/55-399/8 c. 460/55-399/8

Thucydides Thucydides History of the History of the Peloponnesian WarPeloponnesian War

Writes about the conflict between Writes about the conflict between Sparta and her allies and Athens and Sparta and her allies and Athens and her Allies; describes Athens growth her Allies; describes Athens growth from leader of alliance against from leader of alliance against Persians after Persian Wars into Persians after Persian Wars into tyrannical empire and its final defeat.tyrannical empire and its final defeat.

Thucydides and CausationThucydides and Causation

Introduced distinction between Introduced distinction between immediate causes (quarrel between immediate causes (quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra over Epidamnus) Corinth and Corcyra over Epidamnus) and underlying causes (Spartan fear and underlying causes (Spartan fear of growing Athenian Power):of growing Athenian Power):

In his view, the Athenians were In his view, the Athenians were driven by the basic human obsession driven by the basic human obsession with dominating others with dominating others

Thucydides and causationThucydides and causation Gives as causes a combination of human Gives as causes a combination of human

nature and chance (idea of right or wrong nature and chance (idea of right or wrong person at a particular point in time or event)person at a particular point in time or event)

View of human nature: very grim - exposed View of human nature: very grim - exposed under stress, illustrated by his description of under stress, illustrated by his description of the plague at Athens and the civil war in the plague at Athens and the civil war in Corcyra (cultural veneer such as customs, Corcyra (cultural veneer such as customs, laws, respect for gods and fellow human laws, respect for gods and fellow human beings falls away)beings falls away)

Passions such as greed, obsession with power, Passions such as greed, obsession with power, vanity, etc –are particularly dangerous in vanity, etc –are particularly dangerous in demagogues (leaders of people)demagogues (leaders of people)

The nature of Thucydides’ The nature of Thucydides’ historyhistory

Analytical and narrative historyAnalytical and narrative history Analytical: exploration of (constants) Analytical: exploration of (constants)

general patterns (i.e. human nature, general patterns (i.e. human nature, human behaviour)human behaviour)

Narrative: exploration of Narrative: exploration of interrelationships between particular interrelationships between particular events. events.

StyleStyle Herodotus and Thucydides wrote in proseHerodotus and Thucydides wrote in prose Herodotus was still entertaining enough to Herodotus was still entertaining enough to

be successfully recited like the poets be successfully recited like the poets (Homer)(Homer)

Thucydides tells audience that he does not Thucydides tells audience that he does not want to please his audience with want to please his audience with entertaining stories.entertaining stories.

Both continue to use speeches – Both continue to use speeches – characteristic of Homeric Epicscharacteristic of Homeric Epics

Tradition continued in Roman Tradition continued in Roman historiographyhistoriography

PurposePurpose

Homer: to tell of the wrath of Achilles and Homer: to tell of the wrath of Achilles and the consequences, the consequences,

Herodotus: to preserve memory of past Herodotus: to preserve memory of past by recording the astonishing by recording the astonishing achievements of the Greeks and achievements of the Greeks and Persians, also to inspire, inform, Persians, also to inspire, inform, entertain. Also includes stories that teach entertain. Also includes stories that teach about proper conduct. Broad approach to about proper conduct. Broad approach to past.past.

Thucydides: narrowly focused (Thucydides: narrowly focused (polispolis), ), contemporary analytical historycontemporary analytical history

Public reception Public reception

Homer – powerful held influence for Homer – powerful held influence for centuries, recited, rhythmic, loved by centuries, recited, rhythmic, loved by audiencesaudiences

Co-existed with Herodotus and Thucydides Co-existed with Herodotus and Thucydides as version of the pastas version of the past

Herodotus still more traditional narrative – Herodotus still more traditional narrative – popular with wider audience – pleasing to popular with wider audience – pleasing to be recitedbe recited

Thucydides’ history – like Greek cosmology Thucydides’ history – like Greek cosmology and philosophy not popular with wider and philosophy not popular with wider audiences, limited to small educated elite. audiences, limited to small educated elite.