the rochester institute of technology department of communication

THE ROCHESTER INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION

2003-2009 TRAVEL & LEISURE ADVERTISEMENTS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF

TRAVEL GROUPS AND GENDER

By

SHERRY HOAG

A Paper submitted

In partial fulfillment of the

Bachelor of Science degree

In Advertising & Public Relations

Degree Awarded:

Summer Quarter, 2010

Content Analysis of Travel Groups and Gender 2

The members of the Committee approve the thesis of Sherry Hoag presented on February 12,

2010.

Bruce Austin

Professor Directing Thesis

Ki-Young Lee

Thesis Advisor

Bruce Austin

Department Chair


Table of Contents

Page

Introduction 5

Research Question 7

Rationale 8

Review of Literature 10

Methods 15

Results 17

Discussion 22

Appendix A 29

Appendix B 33

Appendix C 35


2003-2009 TRAVEL & LEISURE ADVERTISEMENTS: A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF

TRAVEL GROUPS AND GENDER

Name: Sherry L. Hoag

Department: Communications

Professor: Dr. Bruce A. Austin

Degree: Advertising & Public Relations

Term Degree Awarded: Summer 20093

Travel is an industry that forecasts earnings in the billions of dollars. The media that

support this lucrative industry is in business to sell travel to very specific consumer markets that

can be grouped together in subcategories. Niche marketing caters to groups that have developed

in recent years that never before were considered a group of its own. One of these groups is

women who are interested in traveling for leisure and tourism alone. A content analysis of 2003-

2009 Travel & Leisure magazine advertisements was utilized in this study to lend focus and

support to future communication studies. These studies may center on cultivation theory and uses

and gratification theories to determine effect and effectiveness of communication messages

aimed at this unique, narrow and ―fascinating‖ market.


The online publication of AOL News reported on February 9, 2009, that a young

American woman was killed while jogging alone in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The woman was a

chef onboard a yacht cruising for months at a time in the Caribbean. For recreation while off the

yacht, the woman was in the habit of taking jogs alone. It was pointed out in the report that she

regularly went into undesirable neighborhoods. The killer, someone she did not know, saw her,

grabbed her and packed her into the trunk of his car later killing her. Obviously, societal and

cultural norms tell us that running alone in foreign countries, especially bad neighborhoods, is

unwise.

Leisure travel alone is regarded a trend in the travel industry as seen by January 2010

industry promotional material sent out to travel agents in Rochester, New York, by Norwegian

Cruise Line. They advised travel agents that the latest ship in their fleet, the Norwegian Epic, has

a ―completely new concept‖ which is specifically designed for independent travelers who like to

travel on their own. ―Freestyle Cruising gives solo travelers more freedom of choice than ever

before,‖ is a line from the body copy. The indication is the new concept will sell based on

receptiveness of a target market of single travelers.

Women traveling as tourists alone is a social phenomena which has been called

―fascinating‖ (Salamone, 2009), and could signal a change in social attitudes toward traveling

alone. I suggest that media messages crafted in support of these changes and ―innovations‖ in

response give consideration understanding the possibilities of encouraging women to travel alone

based on perceived social acceptability—acceptability that is learned through media

consumption.


Traditionally in American culture women highly regard safety as a decision making issue

and often do not practice leisure travel alone. There is a negative connotation attached. To travel

alone, if not necessary, seems like an act of defiance or desperation. In other cultures risk is not

the biggest concern. Women in China, for instance, consider traveling alone an empowering act

that leads to self-actualization (as in Maslow‘s Hierarchy of Needs) and are admiringly called

―bold‖ (Kit-wai, 2008). That is not to say they are careless, this is merely a different perspective

on traveling alone.

Despite this cultural difference, secondary media sources quoting a 2001 US Census

Bureau Report say that 28 million U.S. women age 35 and older do not have a husband and 40%

of this number will travel alone. Additionally, there were 19.5 million U.S. travelers who in 1999

visited foreign places. Out of this number nine million were women, 35% traveled alone, and

were of the average age of 43 (Asberry, 2009). In March, of 2009, the Boston Globe ran an

article online saying that more than half of leisure travelers are women and that 22% took a solo

travel trip. The article gives advice on how to travel alone with a heading entitled the ―world can

be your oyster, too‖ (Bodnarchuk, 2009). Another article, found April, 2009 on enduring

Wanderlust Web site, explicitly encourages women to travel alone for leisure (Salamone, 2009).

A study of how gender is reflected in media may provide additional data for cultivation

analysis theory. It also may provide an additional source of relevant information regarding a

narrow and specifically targeted group (women who travel alone). Research could provide

support to media use studies that are looking for patterns. Based on uses and gratifications theory

questions may be answered about how effective the messages are and just as importantly what


effect they are having. What gratifications are sought in media and what gratifications are

obtained is a basis of empirical study that requires measurements (McQuail, 1987). Research

may also suggest whether media are cultivating a trend or if they are reflecting a trend. How this

niche market of travelers can best be represented would certainly be a worthwhile outcome.

Research Question

The initial response is to ask how the representation of gender found in travel magazine

advertisements relates to statistical data representing the real numbers of people who travel

alone, or otherwise. Do travel and tourism advertisements reflect the social trend? After not

finding any studies focused on cultivation analysis with the topic being females who travel alone

for leisure. I decided to investigate Travel & Leisure magazine advertisements for specific

content data.

The first question posed concerns how advertisements in Travel & Leisure magazine

group tourist/travelers most often. Is there a difference between the number of times females are

shown traveling alone and times males are shown traveling alone in Travel & Leisure

advertisements? Do these depictions differ from the statistics that can be found on persons who

travel? These questions lead to the following hypotheses:

H1: The true proportion of males and females depicted in 2003-2009 Travel & Leisure

magazine advertisements and statistics reported by the Office of Travel & Tourism

Industries/International Trade Administration are not the same.

H2: The true proportion of travel groups found in 2003 – 2009 Travel & Leisure

magazine advertisements and the Office of Travel & Tourism Industries/International Trade

Administration are not the same.


Rationale

Even though, historically, it was considered taboo and socially unacceptable for females

to travel alone, things have obviously changed. A distinct niche market that consists of women

only travelers has emerged. With this trend certain companies and media have become dedicated

solely to catering and advising women on travel and tourism. That‘s not all; niche travel

companies for singles have seen women traveling singly as the largest majority of their

consumers (Singles Women Only, 2006).

It was stated in an investigative report entitled Singles and Travel ‒US ‒March 2006

(Mintel Oxygen online database) that the trend in women only travel has been ―propelled by

organizations, agencies, books, and Web sites focused on female only travel.‖ The report also

says that cable Travel Channel programs, magazines and Web sites have significantly changed

the travel industry adding niche sectors. Further, they found that ―34% of singles turned to travel

magazines for destination ideas at least some of the time‖ (Singles and Travel, 2006, Travel TV

network section, para. 1). This suggests that media may be influential in the dissemination of

information leading to an increase in niche travel media markets like solo women.

Media in the forms of travel related broadcast television programming such as Samantha

Brown and Anthony Bourdain, No Reservations and leading travel magazines Conde Nast and

Travel & Leisure are major sources of information that meet the specific needs of travel

consumers. Further, influences such as transportation add to the effects of these media.

Transportation especially relates to television viewing and creates an effect on the viewer of

―being there and the reality of the program seems even more real than the ―actual world‖

(Bilandzic, 2006, p. 337). Glossy magazines full of travel pictures could have this effect as well.


Kenneth Burke stated that ―persuasion [is] really the artful use of the resources of

ambiguity‖ (cited in Larson, 2007, p. 13). Based on the premise of identification, used by

advertisers in creating messages for target audiences, a persuader and a persuadee will share

similarities. The travel industry offers experiences that embody adventure, spiritualism and

emotional gratification especially to niche markets looking for excitement.

Through media women are very well aware of the opportunities, amenities and

experiences to be had (Jauneaud, 2008). Young women travel alone as freely, and are as invested

in seeking adventure, as their male counterparts always have been. A recently written article by a

woman found in Australia‘s Sunday Telegraph entitled, Take Care When Going it Alone, gives

specific advice to women on traveling alone. The author states she has ―long been aware of the

pros and cons of travel alone.‖ She further tells readers ―70% of backpackers travel alone,

around 50% are females and it‘s predicted that the strongest growth sector for travel will be

single women…‖ (Macmillan, 2008, p. 2).

On a personal note interest in the study began after preparing for and taking a solo travel

trip to the Galapagos Islands in 2007. As I researched information before traveling I found some

helpful advice on being female and traveling alone in foreign countries. After the trip, I observed

a substantial increase in images of women traveling alone on broadcast media and found many

print articles with specific travel advice to women traveling alone. I believe the travel industry

needs to know how to address the emerging market of solo travelers, truly whether male or

female, with clear understanding, and in an ethical manner, considering that risk is a part of the

sales pitch.


Review of Literature

―Tourism involves processes that are ‗complex and varied,‘ and are also, ‗often hierarchal

and usually unequal‘ (Kinnaird & Hall, 1996, p. 95).‖ It is pointed out in the reviewed literature

that women become the target for travel industry advertising and travel-related media. As they

become central figures in various travel contexts this creates a need for gender-awareness in the

construction of implicating messages (Kinnaird & Hall, 1996).

Scholars believe, based on the cultivation analysis studies of George Gerbner, that media

and advertisements not only reflect society but also influence it (Gerbner, 1998, Bowen, 1996).

Communication researchers would therefore agree that consumers of travel-related print media,

as well as viewers of broadcast advertising and travel-related programming messages, will form

perceptions of travel as a result of their media use. The construction of media programming and

advertisements is done with intention and knowledge of the audience and encoded messages are

directed at specific target audiences.

While travel media may represent travel in a prescribed manner, the representations

found in media may reflect reality, or not. The social reality is women, who take travel trips

alone and plan to visit local culture, must judiciously prepare for the inherent risks they face as

solo female travelers. The Department of State is often recommended as a comprehensive and

reliable source of information for travel information offering safety and other precaution advice.

Studies found involving the topic of communication in tourism were concerned with issues of

risk messaging. How tourism media represent reality, and if they are able to prepare travelers for

meaningful cultural exchange, is a question posed and researched. One study showed that the

reliability of media sources to prepare for trips involving cultural exchange is questionable


because editorializing limits the effectiveness of the media sources. Researchers concluded that

the gatekeeper will impose limitations based on a bias for what is relevant to travelers, and what

is not. The media source variable in this research was guidebooks. They were found to be limited

and not true purveyors of real cultural experience. Guidebooks carry a level of expectancy, of

relevant information to be used in travel. This is what users think they will get from them, when

in fact they may only get a symbolic representation of travel to throw in their suitcase (Thurlow

& Jaworski, 2007).

News sources also are suspect for true preparation and may act as a source of promotion.

The enterprising aspect of broadcast news creates a tendency to over and/or under report world

events making it difficult to know whether it actually portrays what is ―real.‖ These issues,

media agenda say in related studies, make the reliability of these sources to provide reality

questionable (Severin & Tankard, 1992).

There are consequences for misinterpretation of the real world. One study determined

how lack of knowledge of the real world situation, and/or fear of engaging the culturally

unknown, leads women to less than satisfying travel experiences. They may behave in a manner

which both stifles a natural curiosity and the desire to have a cultural experience in the travel

destination place, or lead to risky behavior (Sobre, 2007). Individuals have different perspectives

of what is risk or risky; what they deem acceptable and not acceptable in cultural exchange; and

what they find to be gratifying experiences. Some perceive financial risk as relevant while others

are concerned about physical dangers when thinking of risk. Whatever the source of the

perceived risk, images are formed as a result of information gathering resulting in behavior.


In another study researchers questioned what effect individual perceptions of risks and

safety have on a travel decision (Sonmez & Graefe, 1998). They examined psychophysical

judgments and value judgments as part of the decision making process of tourists. The

information integration theory and protection motivation theory provided a framework for this

study. N. H. Anderson, (1981, 1982) (as cited in Sonmez & Graefe, 1998) proposed ―that

individuals form psychophysical and value judgments according to complex decision-making

steps (i.e., need awareness, information search, choice) (Sonmez & Graefe, 1998, p. 172).‖

Psychophysical and value judgments are components of information integration where

psychophysical judgments refer to decisions that tourists reach based on personal knowledge

such as might be gained through physical images portrayed in media.

Value judgments are an overall assessment that is based on personal experience or

knowledge. Primary sources such as friends, family or colleagues, in addition to secondary

source information gleaned from perhaps State Department, newspapers or other media coverage

on crime reported, natural disaster, terrorist activity, or political upheaval provide the judgment

value. The source of perceived risk is examined by Sonmez and Graefe, (1998), who state that

―travel experience and risk perceptions influence future travel behavior (p. 175).‖ These

researchers conclude that travelers‘ own perceptions are most relevant and that further

investigation is needed to determine how these perceptions develop (Sonmez & Graefe, 1998).

Another argument made by Kinnaird and Hall, (1996) in a study on tourism development

and tourism-related activity states that tourism can, and should be, analyzed through a gender-

aware framework. They believe gender plays an informing role in the construction of tourism.

They say that ―tourism involves processes which are constructed out of complex and varied


social realities and relations that are often hierarchal and usually unequal. Gender relations are

one element of this complex (Kinnaird & Hall, 1996, p. 95).‖

The trend for women to travel alone creates a social construct where, as Kinnaird and

Hall, (1996) argue: ―tourism‘s identification as an industry based on the economic, political or

social power relations between nations or groups of people represents an extension of the politics

of gender relations.‖ Therefore, they believe it is prudent for research to focus on ―the dynamics

of gender relations in both host and guest societies (Kinnaird & Hall, 1996, p. 95). In conclusion

to their review of existing tourism research literature, they suggest discussion is necessary

regarding gender effects because it has specific impact on touristic practices and politics

beginning with the development processes. They focus particularly on gender effects on host and

origination culture. This study points out that when journalistic media report on gender tourism,

with results of experimental studies from social scientists, and government statistics, the article

carries the weight of ethics.

―‗The most important textual feature of journalism is the fact it counts as true.

The most important component of its system is the creation of readers as publics,

and the connection of these readerships to other systems, such as those of politics,

economics, and social control. (as cited in Hartley, 1996, p. 35),‘‖ (Kinnaird &

Hall, 1996, p. 95).

Print journalism and newspapers articles provide knowledge about destinations and they

play a role of third party endorsers. Magazine articles and viewing televised broadcast messages

have an effect on what tourists expect when they participate in travel. Mass media, as Marshall


McLuhan and other media theorists see it, pervasively, determinedly and thoroughly transfers

knowledge about places that individuals otherwise would not know (West & Turner, 2007).

George Gerbner (1998) believes that the pervasive presence of television in the daily

lives of individuals shapes the expectations, beliefs, attitudes and values of all society. Applying

Gerbner‘s thinking leads to the thought process that especially heavy viewers, like women who

watch travel-related television programs for inspiration on a regular basis would perceive that it

is perfectly acceptable and natural to travel alone simply because it is on television. The

assumptions of mass media theories including media ecology theory, cultivation analysis and

uses and gratifications theory all address this issue in some form (West & Turner, 2007).

Perhaps as stories and images are viewed over and over again through media, the themes

of these stories and images become a shared reality. Gerbner believes reality becomes consistent

with what is persistently viewed, watched or read and socializes on a mass scale.

Are the ―assumptions and values‖ of women being reflected in mainstream television

programming via the Travel Channel and travel programming where the host is female and

shown traveling alone? Do travel magazines, newspapers, guidebooks and the Internet reflect the

trend, or is the trend cultivated by the media? What is the reality of women traveling and is there

an association between the relationship of media use and consumer gratification? These

questions will not be answered in one undergraduate thesis project. The scope is too broad and

the researcher does not have the skills or ability to perform such research. Therefore, I have

attempted to analyze Travel & Leisure advertisements from 2003 to 2009 to examine what is

depicted in this time frame, make some comparison to a past content analysis of 1969-1999


Travel & Leisure, and compare the relatively scarce statistics that could be found on women who

travel alone.

Methods

An empirical study based on content analysis of Travel & Leisure magazine 2003 to 2009

was conducted to discover differences between aspects in the advertisements and reported data

statistics. The coding elements were adapted from Bowen‘s, 2002 doctoral thesis on gender in

1969 to 1999 Travel & Leisure advertisements.

Advertisements were selected from a population consisting of a complete set of Travel &

Leisure magazine dated 2003 to 2009 that was available to researcher. A simple random sample

was selected from a random table using a dollar bill number and coin toss. Eight issues,

representing 10% of the available 84 issues, were matched with the random numbers. These were

February 2004, May 2004, May 2003, January 2004, April 2009, November 2007, December

2005 and April 2005. Every 10th

advertisement consisting of 1/6th

of a page or more was

numbered for a total of 80 advertisements.

The unit of analysis coded was the advertisement. In the absence of a model(s) researcher

proceeded to next ad. If a model or models were depicted then the ad was coded according to the

categories contained in the code book (Appendix A). The total number of ads with people

numbered 52.

Each unit was analyzed for ten variables that had subcategories assigned to them. Coding

units were the variables of number of persons in the ad, group composition, age group,

ethnicity/race, role within the ad, category of advertised product, setting of the ad, place of

physical ad, visual locale, and type of activity.


Ads were looked at according to what an everyday person would see when looking at the

advertisement. No qualitative or semiotic analysis was attempted.

The category of group composition of ads with people was analyzed and assigned a

number for that subcategory. They were 1) female only; 2) male only; 3) heterosexual couple; 4)

2 females; 5) 2 males; 6) a mixed sex group of 3 or more; 7) a same sex group of 3 or more; and

8) cannot determine. Each ad was given one number that corresponded to the numbered

subcategory.

Age was looked at for what the general grouping of the ad depicted. If it was a single

person then one single subcategory of either 1) baby; 2) young child; 3) teenager; 4) young adult;

5) adult or 6) older adult was coded for the ad. If there were more than one model then a

subcategory number was given to identify the combined group age of either 7) Adults of 2 or

more; 8) Adult(s), Child(ren), Teen(s) Mixed; 9) Young Adult(s), Adult(s), Older Adult(s)

Mixed; 10) Young Adults, 2 or more; 11) Children, 2 or more; 12) Teenagers, 2 or more; 13)

Older Adults, 2 or more; 14) unable to determine; or 15) Mixed age group of Baby to Adult.

Ethnicity/race subcategories were coded similarly, either as a single person or the group.

Subcategories were: 1) Black; 2) Asian/Asian American; 3) Mixed Race Group of any

combination; 4) Hispanic/Latin American/Caribbean/South American; 5) White/European; 6)

Cannot determine an ethnic or racial group for ad; 7) Indigenous/Native.

Role within the ad was coded with either 1) Audience member; 2) Co-worker(s); 3)

Performer(s); 4) Pickpocket(s); 5) Romantic Partner(s); 6) No Additional Role(s); 7) Art or Non-

Living Representation(s); 8) Craftsman(men) & Professional(s); 9) Family Member(s); 10)


Person(s) with Notoriety; 11) Service Role(s); 12) Travel or Recreation Partner(s) or Friend(s);

13) Host(s) & Guest(s); or 14) Multiple roles shown within the ad.

The categories under the headings of Where are they pictured and What are they doing

were similarly coded by the most prominent aspect of the category seen in the ad (Appendix A).

Coding was done by researcher with a test for inter-coder reliability performed using one other

coder and 6 randomly selected ads from the September 2004 issue of Travel & Leisure. Coders

agreed 70% to 95% on all variables except for only 50% agreement on type of activity variable.

Data was collected from the Office of Travel & Tourism Industries Web site located at

tinet.ita.doc.gov in the 2006 Profile of U.S. Resident Travelers Visiting Overseas Destinations –

Outbound. Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, ITA, Office of Travel & Tourism Industries,

―In-Flight Survey,‖ July 2007.

Results

Data was put in a spreadsheet and tallied for counts and percentages. 2003-2009 data

were compiled for gender and group composition in order to make a comparison with 1969-1999

data found in Bowen, (2002), and Office of Travel & Tourism/International Trade

Administration 2006 data on gender and group compositions with their percentages. Because of

the presence of independent samples for two of the categories a data analysis was performed

using a chi-square test for homogeneity (Peck, Olsen & Devore, 2009). This was used to

determine if there was sufficient evidence at the .05 level of significance to say that there is a

difference in the proportions between the data gathered from these three sources as follows:


Male Female Other

T&L 2003-2009 28% 41% 31%

T&L 1969-1999 52% 43% 5%

OTTI /ITA 2006* 44% 56% 0%

*Percentage based on 30,148,000 U.S. travelers

H1: The true proportion of males and females are not the same for all three

groups.

Chi-square = 56.235; DF = 4; P-value = 0.00.

The null hypothesis was rejected. There is sufficient evidence at the .05 level of

significance that the true proportion of males and females depicted in 2003-2009 Travel &

Leisure advertisements and OTTI/ITA data statistics is not the same.

Group categories reported by the Office of Travel and Tourism Industries were put in a

table with data found in Travel & Leisure 2003 to 2009 ads. The same chi-square test of

homogeneity was done on the following data:

Travel Alone Spouse Friends Tour Group Undetermined

OTTI/ITA 06 40% 32% 35% 2% 7%

T&L 03-09 39% 17% 14% 27% 31%

H2: The true proportion of travel groups found in 2003 – 2009 Travel &

Leisure advertisements and Office of Travel & Tourism Industries

statistics on travel groups are not the same.

Chi-square = 49.845; DF = 4 and P-value = 0.00.


The null hypothesis was rejected. There is sufficient evidence at the .05 level of

significance to say that the true proportion of groups found in Travel & Leisure 03-09 and

statistics of OTTI/ITA are not equal.

Comparison was made on the number of reported adult group and adults with children

groups as found and reported with the following results:

Travel Party Size OTTI/ITA 2008* 2003-2009 T&L

Adults Only 92% 48%

Adults and Children 8% 17%

Average Party Size 1.5 3.7

Median Party Size 1.0 2.0

*Data from Profile of U.S. Travelers Visiting Overseas Destinations: 2008 - Based on

30,789,000 total U.S. travelers.

H3: The true proportion of adults and adults only are not be the same for 2003 – 2009

Travel & Leisure and Office of Travel & Tourism Industries/International Trade

Administration reported statistics.

Chi-Sq = 10.099, DF = 1, P-Value = 0.001

The null hypothesis is rejected. There is sufficient evidence at the .05 level of

significance that there is a difference in the true proportions of adults and adults with children

who are seen in 2003-2009 Travel & Leisure advertisements and OTTI/ITA statistics.

All variables were tested with the goodness of fit procedure. The fact that the sample size

is greater than 30 and sample is a random sample met the required assumptions for goodness of

fit procedure. Therefore, it was performed on all the variables individually. Those variables that


did not meet the assumptions of expected values of more than five were not included in the

following results.

Expected and observed values are compared in the graphs providing insight into which

subcategory contributed most to the chi-square statistic. Each category number corresponds to

the subcategories in the codebook (Appendix A).

V2 Group Composition:

N = 52; DF = 6; Chi-Sq = 20.4231; P-value = 0.002

Category 8654321

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Co

mp

osit

ion

Expected

Observed

Chart of Observed and Expected Values Group Comp

V3 Age Group:

N = 52; DF = 8; Chi-Sq = 25.5385; P-Value = 0.001

Category 14109875432

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

Ag

e G

rou

p

Expected

Observed

Chart of Observed and Expected Values of Age Group


V4 Ethnicity/Race:

N = 52; DF = 5; Chi-Sq = 65.2308; P-value = 0.00

Category 765432

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

Eth

nic

ity

/R

ace

Expected

Observed

Chart of Observed and Expected Values Ethnicity/Race

V5 Category of Product:

N = 52; DF = 7; Chi-Sq = 60.6154; P-value = 0.000

Category 1413121110965

25

20

15

10

5

0

Pro

du

ct

Ca

teg

ory

Expected

Observed

Chart of Observed and Expected Values of Product Category


V6 Place of Physical Ad:

N = 52; DF = 6; Chi-Sq = 89.6154; P-value = 0.000

Category 1413121110965

25

20

15

10

5

0

Pla

ce

of

Ad

Expected

Observed

Chart of Observed and Expected Values for Place of Physical Ad

Discussion

Data gathered suggest that the proportion of males and females as found in both the

2003-2009 and 1969-1999 Travel & Leisure magazine advertisements and travel industry

statistics is significantly different.

The average party size found in the ads is significantly different to the proportions found

in industry reports. The median party size reported by OTTI/ITA was 1.0 compared to 2.0 in

2003-2009 Travel & Leisure. The average party size was quite a bit larger in 2003-2009 Travel

& Leisure – 3.7 compared to 1.5 reported in the industry‘s statistics.

Travel groups as analyzed by the code book were compiled in order to compare with the

industry statistics. Categories of travel alone, spouse, friends, tour group and undetermined were

developed and compared. The chi-square was large implicating good indication of difference

among the groups. Significant to this study is the difference shown between numbers of spouses


shown (17%) and number of spouses reported (39%). This suggests that another group is the

focus of the ads that is not related to who is really traveling. These data support the suggestion

that advertisements do not reflect the reality of those who travel.

Further, in consideration of whether 2003-2009 Travel & Leisure advertisements are

cultivating the trend in women to travel alone, the percentage of males (28%) as compared to

females (41%) depicted in 2003-2009 Travel & Leisure ads might be construed as evidence.

Results of the chi-square lead to a conclusion that there is a measurable difference between

males, females and other who are reported and shown.

There is substantial evidence that 2003-2009 Travel & Leisure advertisements do not

mirror the true picture of U.S. travel abroad during the year 2006. The OTTI/ITA 2006 data do

show a substantially higher number of females than males traveling. Because Travel & Leisure

magazine is a known source of information for women who travel these women would want

increased coverage of females traveling based on this information.

Weaknesses of this content analysis can be found in the discernment of groups. This

creates difficulty in making valid comparisons with the gathered statistical data. The variables of

the codebook are valid but difficult to match to existing data. The categories of groups should be

re-examined and revised. Perhaps analysis of a unit of individuals would make better sense of

what is portrayed in the advertisements. This content analysis could be taken, therefore, and

continued for better and more valid results.

This study has assumed leisure travel, but business and other travel are also part of the

reality. Other was used as a group for those images that researcher was not able to discern or for


groupings that were ambiguous. All of these constitute weaknesses of the 2003-2009 data and

are recognized.

This was a worthwhile attempt at gathering data researcher believes. The codebook was

revised a couple of times during the study seeking validity. For example, the initial adaptation of

the coding sheets from Bowen, 2002 study was revised to exclude the categories and

subcategories intended for qualitative analysis. It was also realized during initial coding attempts

that too many subcategories had been included to manage with available resources. Therefore,

categories initially used from Bowen, 2002 were further reduced and simplified.

Researcher suggests a need to more narrowly focus analysis and use the individual person

as a coding unit for future studies. For these reasons researcher does not claim conclusive results

about the cultivating effect of 2003-2009 Travel & Leisure advertisements from this content

analysis. It may provide a starting point for future study where content analysis could provide

data that could be triangulated with in-depth interviews or survey methods. It could also be used

for analyzing cultivation with regards to Travel Channel broadcast programming to see what

messages are found and if there is a relationship between viewing and decisions to travel alone.

Qualitative studies could attempt to discover whether women are influenced by media to take

more risk by traveling alone simply because they see it being done in the media.

This study concludes that it is relevant to discern if women are influenced to travel alone,

and thereby take more risk, as a result of media consumption of programs, Internet and print

media. Uses and gratification theories could also be tested to determine how effective the media

is in meeting the needs of the industry to reach its target markets. It would be helpful in serving

needs of the women who are influenced by media.


References

Asberry, D. (2009). Statistics on women traveling alone. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from

http://www.women-traveling.com/.

Bilandzic, H. (2006). The perception of distance in cultivation process: A theoretical

consideration of the relationship between television content, processing experience, and

perceived distance. Communication Theory 16 (3), 333-355. Retrieved April 25, 2009

from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.

Bodnarchuk, K. (2009). A woman traveling alone? The world can be your oyster, too. Retrieved

fromhttp://www.boston.com/travel/articles/2009/03/15/a_woman_traveling_alone_the_w

orld_can_be_your_oyster_too/?page=full.

Bowen, H. E. (2002). Images of women in tourism magazine advertising: A content analysis of

advertising in ―Travel & Leisure‖ magazine from 1969 to 1999. Ph.D. dissertation, Texas

A&M University, United States -- Texas. Retrieved January 4, 2010, from ABI/INFORM

Global. (Publication No. AAT 3060773).

Chiang, C. & Jogaratnam, G. (2006). Why do women travel solo for the purposes of leisure?

Journal of Vacation Marketing,12(1), 59. Retrieved February 2, 2009 from sagepub.com.

Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communications (5th

ed.). Boston, Burr Ridge,

Illinois, Dubuque, Iowa, Madison, Wisconsin, New York, San Francisco, St. Louis:

McGraw Hill.

Gerbner, G. (1998). Cultivation analysis: An overview. Mass Communication & Society, 1 (3/4)

175-194. Retrieved March 29, 2009 from Communication & Mass Media Complete

database.

http://www.women-traveling.com/


Hyde, K. & Lawson, R. (2003). The nature of independent travel. Journal of Travel Research

2003, 42, 13-23. Retrieved February 14 2009, from Communication & Mass Media

Complete database.

Jack, G. & Phipps, A. (2003). On the uses of travel guides in the text of German tourism to

Scotland. Tourist Studies 2003, 3(3), 281-300. Retrieved February 1, 2009 from Sage

Journals Online.

Jauneaud, S. (2008). The travel channels. Communication World, 25(1), 28-31. Retrieved April

20, 2009, from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.

Kinnaird, V. & Hall, D., 1996. Understanding tourism processes: a gender-aware framework.

Tourism Management, 17(2), 95-102. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from Science Direct

database.

Kit-wai, L. (2008, August 7). It‘s a woman‘s world. South China Morning Post [online].

Features, p. 5. Retrieved January 6, 2010, from Lexis Nexis database.

Larson, C. U. (2007). Persuasion reception and responsibility (11th

ed). Australia, Brazil,

Canada, Mexico, Singapore, Spain, United Kingdom, United States: Thomas Wadsworth.

Macmillan, S., 2008. Take care when going it alone. Sunday Telegraph Australia. April 20, 2008

Sunday t-Escape Edition. Retrieved January 6, 2010 from Lexis Nexis database.

McQuail, D. (1987). Mass communication theory: an introduction, (2nd

ed.). London: Sage

Publications.

Pan, S., Ryan, C. (2007). Gender, framing, and travelogues. Journal of Travel Research 45, 464.

Retrieved from sagepublishing.com.


Passport to Adventure Web site. (2009). Retrieved April 20, 2009 from

http://www.passporttoadventure.com/index.shtml.

Peck, R., Olsen, C. & Devore, J. (2009). Introduction to statistics & data analysis: Rochester

Institute of Technology. Mason, Ohio: Cengage Learning.

Reinard, J. C. (2008). Introduction to communication research, (4th

ed.). Avenue of the

Americas, New York: McGraw Hill.

Salamone, G., (2009). More women traveling solo. Retrieved May 9, 2009 from

http://www.enduringwanderlust.com/more-women-traveling-solo/.

Severin, W. J. & Tankard, J. W. (1992). Communication theories: Origins, methods, and uses in

the mass media (3rd

ed.). White Plains, New York: Longman.

Singles and Travel US, March 2006, (2006). Women only travel. Retrieved February 8, 2010

from Mintel Oxygen database.

Singles and Travel US, March 2006, (2006). Market size and trends. Travel tv networks.

Retrieved February 8, 2010 from Mintel Oxygen database.

Sobre, M., (2007, 2007 Conference). Building a better risk message: A guide for solo female

travelers. Conference Papers—International Communication Association. Retrieved

January 12, 2009 from Communication & Mass Media Complete database.

Sonmez, S., & Graefe, A. (1998). Determining future travel behavior from past travel experience

and perceptions of risk and safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(2), 171-7. Retrieved

January 11, 2010, from OmniFile Full Text Mega database.

Thurlow, C. & Jaworski , A. (2007). Scripting Global Discourse: The commodification of local

linguacultures in tourist guidebooks. Conference Papers -International Communication

http://www.passporttoadventure.com/index.shtml


Association, 2007 Annual Meeting. Retrieved January 20, 2009 from Communication &

Mass Media Complete.

West & Turner, (2007). Introducing communication theory analysis and application (3rd

ed.).

Avenue of the Americas, New York: McGraw Hill.

Women Traveling Together Web site. (2009). Retrieved April 21, 2009, from

http://www.women-traveling.com/.

―World tourism exceeds expectations in 2007—Arrivals grow from 800 million to 900 million

in two years.‖ (2007, January 29). Retrieved February 14, 2009, from

www.unwto.org/media/news/en/press_det.php?id=1665.

http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/arts_recreation_travel.html

http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/view/m-2009-O-001/index.html

http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/cat/f-2006-101-009.html Male Female Stats

http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/outreachpages/download_data_table/2008_Outbound_Profile.pdf

http://www.ustravel.org/news

http://www.unwto.org/media/news/en/press_det.php?id=1665

http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/cats/arts_recreation_travel.html

http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/view/m-2009-O-001/index.html

http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/cat/f-2006-101-009.html

http://tinet.ita.doc.gov/outreachpages/download_data_table/2008_Outbound_Profile.pdf

http://www.ustravel.org/news


APPENDIX A

Coding Sheet

Travel & Leisure Magazine

Month and Date ________________________

Ad ID number (Every 10th

Ad) _____________Page Number __________________________

Ad Size: (No ad smaller than 1/6 of a page will be considered)

2 pages . Full page. ½ page. 1/3 page 2/3 page. ¼ page. 1/6 page. Other _________

v1. Number of people depicted in ad _______ If NO Models, then go to next ad)

WHO IS PICTURED?

V2. Group Composition

1 Female only

2 Male only

3 Heterosexual Couple2 Females

4 2 Males

5 Mixed Sex Group (3 and over)

6 Same Sex Group (3 and over)

7 Cannot be determined

V3. Age Group

1 Baby

2 Young Child

3 Teenager

4 Young Adult

5 Adult

6 Older Adult

7 Adults only (2 or more)

8 Adult(s) and Child(ren) or Teen(s) Mixed Group

9 Mixed Aged Adults (any combination of Young Adult, Adult, Older Adult)

10 Young Adults (2 or more)

11 Children (2 or more)

12 Teenagers (2 or more)

13 Older Adults (2 or more)

14 M Unable to Determine

15 Mixed age – Baby to Adult

V4. Ethnicity/Race

1 Black

2 Asian/Asian American

3 Mixed Race – Multiple Images with Different Race combinations


4 Hispanic/Hispanic American/Caribbean/South American/Latin American

5 White Caucasian/European

6 Cannot Determine

7 Indigenous/Native

V5. Role Within the Ad

1 Audience member

2 Co-worker

3 Performer

4 Pickpocket

5 Romantic Partner

6 No Additional Role

7 Art or Non-living Representation

8 Craftsmen & Professionals

9 Family Members

10 Persons with Notoriety

11 Service Roles

12 Travel or Recreation Partner, Friend

13 Hosts & Guests together

14 Multiple Roles with Multiple Scenes

WHERE ARE THEY PICTURED?

V6. Category of Advertised Product

1 Accommodations (Hotel, Motel, Resort)

2 Cruises

3 Health

4 Media

5 Telecommunications

6 Real Estate

7 Attractions& Events

8 Business Services & Accessories

9 Camera & Gear

10 Consumables

11 Consumer Goods (non-travel specific)

12 Destinations

13 Fashion & Accessories

14 Luggage & Travel Accessories

15 Money

16 Restaurants

17 Social Organizations

18 Tobacco & Alcohol Products

19 Transportation

20 Travel & Vacation Packages & Facilitators

21 Other


V7. Setting Physical of Ad- the Setting Models are within

1 Indoors

2 Outdoors – Urban

3 Outdoors – Nature

4 Outdoors – Built resort

5 Pavilion – In or outdoors

6 On the road – Urban

7 On the road – Nature

8 Multiple images – In & Outdoors

9 Multiple images – Nature and Urban

10 No physical setting

11 Inside airplane

12 Cruise ship on water

13 Map

14 On the road

15 Historical Site


V8. Place of Physical Ad

1 Tourist Destination

2 Transition to/from

3 Home of Tourist(s)

4 Work of Tourist

5 Cruise

6 No physical setting


8 Multiple Places with Multiple Scenes

V9. Visual Locale

1 Cruise Ship

2 On the Road

3 Ranch

4 Resort

5 Shop/Market

6 Stage

7 Veranda/Porch/Patio/Balcony

8 Yard/Garden

9 None

10 Attractions/Events

11 Eating/Drinking Establishments/Area

12 Indoors (home-like or home)

13 Indoors (leisure area)

14 Indoors (work area)

15 Nature (NOT beach or water related)

16 Ocean Beach or Other Water


17 Recreation or Sports Arena/Area (NOT water related)

18 Transportation (NO boats)

19 Urban/Suburban

20 Other

21 Multiple Locales in Multiple Scenes

WHAT ARE THEY DOING?

V10. Type of Activity

1 Dancing

2 Filming/Photographing

3 Looking/Watching (people, animals)

4 Posing

5 Sightseeing (nature/buildings)

6 Wading in the Water/Walking or Running in the Surf

7 Waiting

8 Walking

9 Working

10 None

11 Getting Into/Out of / Riding in Transportation (NON water based)

12 Leisure Activity (NOT outdoor sport or recreation)

13 Negative Actions or Activity

14 Personal Maintenance

15 Outdoor Sport or Recreation Activity

16 Relaxing Activity

17 Romantic or Love Activity

18 Service Activity

19 Social Activity

20 Water Based Sport or Recreation Activity

21 Other

22 Multiple Activities in Multiple Scenes


APPENDIX B

Tables

V1: Table of Most Frequent Number of People in Ads:

Number of People in Ad N=80

Frequency Percent

0 people 28 35

1 person 23 28.75

2 people 13 16.25

4 people 4 5.00

2 people 2 2.50

V2: Most Frequent Groups Depicted in T&L 2003-2009:

Group Composition N = 52

Frequency Percent

Female Only 14 26.92

Mixed Sex Group of 3 or more 14 26.92

Heterosexual Couple 9 17.31

Male Only 6 11.54

Two Males 4 7.69

Two Females 3 5.77

Cannot determine 2 3.85

Table of Adult Groups and Group Size Comparisons:

Travel Party Size OTTI/ITA 2008* 2003-2009 T&L

Adults Only 92% 48%

Adults and Children 8% 17%

Average Party Size 1.5 3.7

Median Party Size 1.0 2.0

*Data from Profile of U.S. Travelers Visiting Overseas Destinations: 2008

V3: Table of Most Frequent Age Grouping:

Age Group Composition N = 52

Frequency Percent

Young Adults Only 14 17.50

Adult(s), Child(ren) or Teen(s)

in mixed grouping (family) 9 11.25


Adults, Young Adults, Older

Adults in Mixed Grouping 8 10.00

Unable to determine age

group 7 8.75

Young Adults of 2 or more 6 7.50

V4: Table of Most Frequent Ethnic/Racial Groupings:

Ethnic/Racial Composition N = 52

Frequency Percent

White 29 55.77

Mixed Race Group 10 19.23

Hispanic/Latin American 3 5.77

V5: Table of Most Frequent Depicted Role Within Ad:

Role Within Ad N = 52

Frequency Percent

No Additional Role 23 44.23

Hosts & Service 10 19.23

Romantic Partner 9 17.31

Family Members 2 3.85

Service Roles 2 3.85

V10: Table of Most Frequent Activity Types:

Type of Activity N = 52

Frequency Percent

Multiple Activity Scenes 11 21.15

Posing 7 13.46

Leisure Activity (NOT Sport

or Recreation)

6 11.54

Romantic or Love 5 9.62

Service 5 9.62

Other 3 5.77

Group by Gender 03-09 Percent

1 Females 17

2 Males 10

3 Heterosexual Couple 9

6 Mixed sex group, 3 or more 14

8 Cannot determine 2


APPENDIX C

Minitab Output

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v1 - People

Test Contribution

Category Observed Proportion Expected to Chi-Sq

1 23 0.0714286 3.71429 100.137

2 13 0.0714286 3.71429 23.214

3 2 0.0714286 3.71429 0.791

4 4 0.0714286 3.71429 0.022

5 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

6 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

8 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

9 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

10 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

11 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

12 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

15 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

18 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

28 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.984

N N* DF Chi-Sq P-Value

52 0 13 144 0.000

14 cell(s) (100.00%) with expected value(s) less than 5.

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v2 - Group Comp

Test Contribution


1 14 0.142857 7.42857 5.81319

2 6 0.142857 7.42857 0.27473

3 9 0.142857 7.42857 0.33242

4 3 0.142857 7.42857 2.64011

5 4 0.142857 7.42857 1.58242

6 14 0.142857 7.42857 5.81319

8 2 0.142857 7.42857 3.96703


52 0 6 20.4231 0.002

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v3 - Age Group

Test Contribution


2 2 0.111111 5.77778 2.4701

3 1 0.111111 5.77778 3.9509

4 14 0.111111 5.77778 11.7009

5 4 0.111111 5.77778 0.5470


7 1 0.111111 5.77778 3.9509

8 9 0.111111 5.77778 1.7970

9 8 0.111111 5.77778 0.8547

10 6 0.111111 5.77778 0.0085

14 7 0.111111 5.77778 0.2585


52 0 8 25.5385 0.001

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v4 - Ethnicity

Test Contribution


2 1 0.166667 8.66667 6.7821

3 10 0.166667 8.66667 0.2051

4 3 0.166667 8.66667 3.7051

5 29 0.166667 8.66667 47.7051

6 8 0.166667 8.66667 0.0513

7 1 0.166667 8.66667 6.7821


52 0 5 65.2308 0.000

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v5 – Role Within the Ad

Test Contribution


5 9 0.125 6.5 0.9615

6 23 0.125 6.5 41.8846

9 2 0.125 6.5 3.1154

10 1 0.125 6.5 4.6538

11 2 0.125 6.5 3.1154

12 3 0.125 6.5 1.8846

13 10 0.125 6.5 1.8846

14 2 0.125 6.5 3.1154


52 0 7 60.6154 0.000

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v6 - Category of Product

Test Contribution


1 18 0.0909091 4.72727 37.2657

2 3 0.0909091 4.72727 0.6311

4 1 0.0909091 4.72727 2.9388

7 2 0.0909091 4.72727 1.5734

10 1 0.0909091 4.72727 2.9388

11 4 0.0909091 4.72727 0.1119

12 13 0.0909091 4.72727 14.4773

13 4 0.0909091 4.72727 0.1119


1 0.0909091 4.72727 2.9388

19 3 0.0909091 4.72727 0.6311

20 2 0.0909091 4.72727 1.5734


52 0 10 65.1923 0.000


Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v7 - Setting of Physical Ad

Test Contribution


1 7 0.0714286 3.71429 2.9066

2 3 0.0714286 3.71429 0.1374

3 17 0.0714286 3.71429 47.5220

4 6 0.0714286 3.71429 1.4066

5 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835

7 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835

8 5 0.0714286 3.71429 0.4451

9 5 0.0714286 3.71429 0.4451

10 2 0.0714286 3.71429 0.7912

12 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835

14 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835

15 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835

16 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835

17 1 0.0714286 3.71429 1.9835


52 0 13 67.5385 0.000


Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v8 - Place of Physical Setting

Test Contribution


1 31 0.142857 7.42857 74.7940

2 3 0.142857 7.42857 2.6401

3 2 0.142857 7.42857 3.9670

5 4 0.142857 7.42857 1.5824

6 7 0.142857 7.42857 0.0247

7 2 0.142857 7.42857 3.9670

8 3 0.142857 7.42857 2.6401


52 0 6 89.6154 0.000

Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v9 - Visual Locale

Test Contribution


1 3 0.0769231 4 0.25


2 1 0.0769231 4 2.25

4 2 0.0769231 4 1.00

7 2 0.0769231 4 1.00

9 5 0.0769231 4 0.25

11 1 0.0769231 4 2.25

12 3 0.0769231 4 0.25

13 2 0.0769231 4 1.00

15 3 0.0769231 4 0.25

16 14 0.0769231 4 25.00

18 3 0.0769231 4 0.25

19 2 0.0769231 4 1.00

21 11 0.0769231 4 12.25


52 0 12 47 0.000


Chi-Square Goodness-of-Fit Test for Categorical Variable: v10 - Type of Activity

Test Contribution


3 1 0.0625 3.25 1.5577

4 7 0.0625 3.25 4.3269

5 1 0.0625 3.25 1.5577

6 3 0.0625 3.25 0.0192

7 2 0.0625 3.25 0.4808

8 1 0.0625 3.25 1.5577

9 1 0.0625 3.25 1.5577

11 1 0.0625 3.25 1.5577

12 6 0.0625 3.25 2.3269

16 1 0.0625 3.25 1.5577

17 5 0.0625 3.25 0.9423

18 5 0.0625 3.25 0.9423

19 2 0.0625 3.25 0.4808

20 2 0.0625 3.25 0.4808

21 3 0.0625 3.25 0.0192

22 11 0.0625 3.25 18.4808


52 0 15 37.8462 0.001


the rochester institute of technology department of communication

Documents