The politics of affluenceThe politics of affluence

Europe in the 1960s & 1970sEurope in the 1960s & 1970s

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From stringency to affluenceFrom stringency to affluence

Economic miracle in the 1950s results Economic miracle in the 1950s results in sustained growth in western Europein sustained growth in western Europe• Annual growth rates of 5-6% in 1950s & Annual growth rates of 5-6% in 1950s &

1960s1960s• Full employment in Northern EuropeFull employment in Northern Europe• Importation of ‘guest workers’ from Importation of ‘guest workers’ from

Mediterranean rimMediterranean rim• Growing sense of wellbeing, welfare by Growing sense of wellbeing, welfare by

early 1960searly 1960s

Social changes:Social changes:

Urbanization: Urbanization: • Shift from countryside to townsShift from countryside to towns• Towns to citiesTowns to cities

Changes in workChanges in work• Further industrialization, then shift to Further industrialization, then shift to

service sectorservice sector Growth in new service sector occupationsGrowth in new service sector occupations Growth in public sector jobs – needed to run Growth in public sector jobs – needed to run

expanding welfare states, systems of social expanding welfare states, systems of social protectionprotection

Religion & social controlReligion & social control

Decreasing religiosityDecreasing religiosity• John XXIII & changes in the Roman Catholic John XXIII & changes in the Roman Catholic

ChurchChurch• Less inclination to instruct from pulpitLess inclination to instruct from pulpit• Changes in Protestantism?Changes in Protestantism?

Diminished social control:Diminished social control:• Less inclination to censure television or filmsLess inclination to censure television or films• Possibility of divorce opened upPossibility of divorce opened up• Gradual removal of prohibitions on Gradual removal of prohibitions on

homosexualityhomosexuality

Class differencesClass differences

Attempts to ensure more equal life chances Attempts to ensure more equal life chances – e.g. through comprehensive schools– e.g. through comprehensive schools

Greater upward mobility – for someGreater upward mobility – for some In Northern Europe decreasing sense of In Northern Europe decreasing sense of

deprivation: everyone is better off –deprivation: everyone is better off – UK: differences in speech, social mores UK: differences in speech, social mores

continuecontinue France & Italy: sharper tensions, reflecting France & Italy: sharper tensions, reflecting

late industrialization & strong position of late industrialization & strong position of Communist trade unions & Communist Communist trade unions & Communist partiesparties

Changing lifestyles?Changing lifestyles? HousingHousing ShoppingShopping ClothingClothing

• Blue jeans as a leveler -- Blue jeans as a leveler -- blurring of class blurring of class distinctionsdistinctions

TransportationTransportation Emergence of youth Emergence of youth

cultureculture LeisureLeisure

• MusicMusic• TelevisionTelevision• VacationsVacations

Broader exposureBroader exposure• Americanization?Americanization?

Political consequences:Political consequences:

Competing hypotheses:Competing hypotheses: An end to ideology: ‘the democratic An end to ideology: ‘the democratic

class struggle’ could go on without class struggle’ could go on without apocalyptic ideologies, red flags, May apocalyptic ideologies, red flags, May Day parades’Day parades’

Post-materialism: those coming of Post-materialism: those coming of age in affluence & relative security age in affluence & relative security have the freedom to pursue post-have the freedom to pursue post-material (quality of life) values: material (quality of life) values: Erst Erst das fressen, dan die morale’das fressen, dan die morale’

Changes in parties & party politicsChanges in parties & party politics

Centre right takes credit for new Centre right takes credit for new prosperity:prosperity:• British Conservatives, British Conservatives, • W. German Christian Democrats, W. German Christian Democrats, • Gaullists in FranceGaullists in France• Christian Democrats in ItalyChristian Democrats in Italy

So do Social DemocratsSo do Social Democrats

Social Democratic parties: Social Democratic parties: Abandon Marxism, doctrine of inevitable class Abandon Marxism, doctrine of inevitable class

conflict…conflict… Pragmatic leaders emphasize increasing the pie Pragmatic leaders emphasize increasing the pie

rather than dividing itrather than dividing it Emphasis on fairness, equality of life-chancesEmphasis on fairness, equality of life-chances Managing capitalism rather than public ownershipManaging capitalism rather than public ownership Evident inEvident in

• SPD: Bad GodesbergSPD: Bad Godesberg• British Labour…British Labour…• ScandinaviaScandinavia• Netherlands & Belgium Netherlands & Belgium

But not everyone agrees:But not everyone agrees:

Emergence of left socialist parties in Emergence of left socialist parties in Norway, Denmark, Netherlands…Norway, Denmark, Netherlands…• Reject of strong cold war, pro-NATO orientation Reject of strong cold war, pro-NATO orientation

of Social Democratic parties, of Social Democratic parties, • Insist on reality of class conflict Insist on reality of class conflict • Yet reject state socialism, Soviet dominationYet reject state socialism, Soviet domination

Ongoing divisions in British Labour Party:Ongoing divisions in British Labour Party:• Further nationalization of industryFurther nationalization of industry• Foreign policy: Foreign policy:

NATO membership v. unilateral disarmamentNATO membership v. unilateral disarmament EuropeEurope

Emergence of new conflicts & Emergence of new conflicts & tensionstensions

By late 1960s, not only the cold war, but By late 1960s, not only the cold war, but also Viet Nam as a backdropalso Viet Nam as a backdrop• Civil rights movement & anti-war protest in the Civil rights movement & anti-war protest in the

USUS• Doubts about arms race, Soviet threatDoubts about arms race, Soviet threat

Growing activism, questioning authorities, Growing activism, questioning authorities, search for alternate lifestyles, e.gsearch for alternate lifestyles, e.g• Emergence of JUSOs (Young Socialists) in W. Emergence of JUSOs (Young Socialists) in W.

GermanyGermany• PROVO & dissident groups in the NetherlandsPROVO & dissident groups in the Netherlands• Events of May 1968 in FranceEvents of May 1968 in France• Hot Autumn in ItalyHot Autumn in Italy

Events of May 1968Events of May 1968 Begin with demonstrations Begin with demonstrations

protesting limits on visiting protesting limits on visiting hours in women’s residenceshours in women’s residences

Spread throughout university Spread throughout university system, public institutions, system, public institutions, with occupation of buildingswith occupation of buildings

Result in general strike, Result in general strike, massive demonstrations, massive demonstrations, barricades in streetsbarricades in streets• At height, 10 million of a At height, 10 million of a

workforce of 17 m are out workforce of 17 m are out on strike or occupying on strike or occupying buildingsbuildings

• Economy at a standstillEconomy at a standstill Counter-demonstrations Counter-demonstrations

launched launched

Resolution Resolution

De Gaulle and his premier (George De Gaulle and his premier (George Pompidou) initially hesitatePompidou) initially hesitate

Efforts of the Communist Party, (PCF) to Efforts of the Communist Party, (PCF) to channel or stop the demonstrationschannel or stop the demonstrations

CGT (Communist Union) turns political CGT (Communist Union) turns political demands into economic demandsdemands into economic demands

Massive wage increases grantedMassive wage increases granted Protests dissipate when De Gaulle Protests dissipate when De Gaulle

dissolves parliament, calls new elections, dissolves parliament, calls new elections, blames Communists (‘Party of Fear’)blames Communists (‘Party of Fear’)

May 1968 in contextMay 1968 in context

Protests, occupations reflect deep-seated Protests, occupations reflect deep-seated grievancesgrievances• Combine modes and techniques of 1960s Combine modes and techniques of 1960s

(occupations) with modes from French (occupations) with modes from French Revolution – barricades in streetsRevolution – barricades in streets

Sufficient to make regime more attentive Sufficient to make regime more attentive and more responsive – but not completely and more responsive – but not completely soso

Continued protest potential, though rarely Continued protest potential, though rarely manifests on same scalemanifests on same scale• Cf. 1990s protests against education reform Cf. 1990s protests against education reform

The Hot Autumn in ItalyThe Hot Autumn in Italy Autumn 1969Autumn 1969 Wave of strikes and demonstrations, some Wave of strikes and demonstrations, some

spontaneousspontaneous• Rapid spreadRapid spread

As in France, a heady political moment, As in France, a heady political moment, Long term:Long term:

• Increased benefits for workersIncreased benefits for workers• Increased support for left, especially CommunistsIncreased support for left, especially Communists• Communists nearly brought into governmentCommunists nearly brought into government

Civil society begins to assert itself:Civil society begins to assert itself:• 1977 initiative results in a referendum legalizing divorce1977 initiative results in a referendum legalizing divorce

Was there an end of ideology?Was there an end of ideology? Left and right moved toward each otherLeft and right moved toward each other

• Agree on desirability on managed economy Agree on desirability on managed economy and the social protections of the welfare stateand the social protections of the welfare state

• But, Social Democratic parties retain But, Social Democratic parties retain commitment to socialism, understood as a commitment to socialism, understood as a fairer distribution of wealthfairer distribution of wealth

Example of Swedish Social Democratic PartyExample of Swedish Social Democratic Party Left socialist parties remainLeft socialist parties remain Student groups, extra-parliamentary pick Student groups, extra-parliamentary pick

up & use fragments of Marxismup & use fragments of Marxism• e.g. JUSOS in Germanye.g. JUSOS in Germany• Red Brigades in Italy, Baader-Meinhof group in Red Brigades in Italy, Baader-Meinhof group in

GermanyGermany