the palnet mars2
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Chapter 1
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Mars
Animation that rolls Mars around to show all the major features of the Martian
topography.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun in the Solar System. Named after the Roman god
of war, Mars, it is often described as the "Red Planet" as the iron oxide prevalent on its
surface gives it a reddish appearance.Mars is a terrestrial planet with a
thin atmosphere, having surface features reminiscent both of the impact craters of
the Moon and the volcanoes, valleys, deserts, and polar ice caps of Earth.
The rotational period and seasonal cycles of Mars are likewise similar to those of Earth,as is the tilt that produces the seasons. Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the highest
known mountain within the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, the largest canyon.
The smooth Borealis basin in the northern hemisphere covers 40% of the planet and
may be a giant impact feature.
Until the first successful flyby of Mars occurred in 1965, byMariner 4, many speculated
about the presence of liquid water on the planet's surface. This was based on observed
periodic variations in light and dark patches, particularly in the polar latitudes, which
appeared to be seas and continents; long, dark striations were interpreted by some asirrigation channels for liquid water. These straight line features were later explained
asoptical illusions, though geological evidence gathered by unmanned missions suggest
that Mars once had large-scale water coverage on its surface.In 2005, radar data
revealed the presence of large quantities of water ice at the poles, and at mid-
latitudes. The Mars roverSpiritsampled chemical compounds containing water
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molecules in March 2007. ThePhoenixlander directly sampled water ice in shallow
Martian soil on July 31, 2008.
Mars has two moons, Phobos and Deimos, which are small and irregularly shaped.
These may be captured asteroids, similar to 5261 Eureka, aMartian trojan asteroid.
Mars is currently host to three functional orbiting spacecraft:Mars Odyssey,Mars
Express, and theMars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and one on the surface, the Mars
Exploration RoverOpportunity. Defunct spacecraft on the surface include MER-A Spirit,
and several other inert landers and rovers, both successful and unsuccessful such as
the Phoenixlander, which completed its mission in 2008. Observations byNASA's now-
defunctMars Global Surveyorshow evidence that parts of the southern polar ice cap
have been receding. Observations by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiterhave revealed
possible flowing water during the warmest months on Mars.
Mars can easily be seen from Earth with the naked eye. Its apparent magnitude reaches
3.0 a brightness surpassed only by Jupiter, Venus, the Moon, and the Sun. Optical
ground based telescopes are typically limited to resolving features about 300 km (186
miles) across when Earth and Mars are closest, because of Earth's atmosphere.
Mars
Global view of Mars as seen by theViking 1orbiter in 1980, showing theValles
Marineris(center)
Designations
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Orbital characteristicsAphelion 249,209,300 km
1.665 861AU
Perihelion 206,669,000 km
1.381 497 AU
Semi-major axis 227,939,100 km
1.523 679 AU
Eccentricity 0.093 315
Orbital period 686.971 days
1.8808Julian years
668.5991sols
Synodic period 779.96 days
2.135 Julian years
Average orbital speed 24.077 km/s
Mean anomaly 19.3564
Inclination 1.850 toecliptic
5.65 toSun'sequator
1.67 toinvariable plane
Longitude of ascending node 49.562
Argument of perihelion 286.537
Satellites 2
Physical characteristics
Equatorialradius 3,396.2 0.1 km
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87 C63 C 20 C
Apparent magnitude +1.6 to 3.0
Angular diameter 3.525.1"
Atmosphere
Surfacepressure 0.636 (0.40.87)kPa
./Composition (mole fractions)
95.32%carbon dioxide
2.7%nitrogen
1.6%argon
0.13%oxygen0.08%carbon monoxide
210ppmwatervapor
100 ppmnitric oxide
15 ppm molecular hydrogen
2.5 ppmneon
850ppbHDO
300ppbkrypton
130 ppbformaldehyde
80 ppbxenon
18 ppbhydrogen peroxide10 ppbmethane
Physical characteristics
Size comparison of Earth and Mars.
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Geological history
Mars is a terrestrial planet that consists of minerals
containing silicon and oxygen, metals, and other elements that typically make up rock.
The surface of Mars is primarily composed of tholeiitic basalt,although parts are
more silica-rich than typical basalt and may be similar to andesiticrocks on Earth or
silica glass. Regions of low albedo show concentrations of plagioclase feldspar, with
northern low albedo regions displaying higher than normal concentrations of sheet
silicates and high-silicon glass. Parts of the southern highlands include detectable
amounts of high-calciumpyroxenes. Localized concentrations
of hematite and olivine have also been found. Much of the surface is deeply covered by
finely grainediron(III) oxide dust.
Like Earth, this planet has undergone differentiation, resulting in a dense, metallic core
region overlaid by less dense materials. Current models of the planet's interior imply a
core region about 1794 65 km in radius, consisting primarily of iron and nickel with
about 1617% sulfur. Thisiron sulfide core is partially fluid, and has twice the
concentration of the lighter elements than exist at Earth's core. The core is surrounded
by a silicate mantle that formed many of the tectonic and volcanic features on the
planet, but now appears to be dormant. Besides silicon and oxygen, the most abundant
elements in the martian crust are iron, magnesium, aluminum, calcium, and potassium.
The average thickness of the planet's crust is about 50 km, with a maximum thicknessof 125 km. Earth's crust, averaging 40 km, is only one third as thick as Mars crust,
relative to the sizes of the two planets.
Although Mars has no evidence of a current structured global magnetic
field,observations show that parts of the planet's crust have been magnetized, and that
alternating polarity reversals of its dipole field have occurred in the past.
This paleomagnetism of magnetically susceptible minerals has properties that are very
similar to the alternating bands found on the ocean floors of Earth. One theory,
published in 1999 and re-examined in October 2005 (with the help of theMars GlobalSurveyor), is that these bands demonstrate plate tectonics on Mars four billion years
ago, before the planetarydynamo ceased to function and the planet's magnetic field
faded away.
During the Solar System's formation, Mars was created as the result of a stochastic
process of run-away accretion out of the protoplanetary disk that orbited the Sun. Mars
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has many distinctive chemical features caused by its position in the Solar System.
Elements with comparatively low boiling points such as chlorine, phosphorus and
sulphur are much more common on Mars than Earth; these elements were probably
removed from areas closer to the Sun by the young star's energetic solar wind.
The geological history of Mars can be split into many periods, but the following are the
three primary periods:
Noachian period (named after Noachis Terra): Formation of the oldest extant
surfaces of Mars, 4.5 billion years ago to 3.5 billion years ago. Noachian age
surfaces are scarred by many large impact craters. The Tharsis bulge, a volcanic
upland, is thought to have formed during this period, with extensive flooding by liquid
water late in the period.
Hesperian period (named after Hesperia Planum): 3.5 billion years ago to 2.93.3billion years ago. The Hesperian period is marked by the formation of extensive lava
plains.
Amazonian period (named after Amazonis Planitia): 2.93.3 billion years ago to
present. Amazonian regions have few meteorite impact craters, but are otherwise
quite varied. Olympus Mons formed during this period, along with lava flows
elsewhere on Mars.
Some geological activity is still taking place on Mars. The Athabasca Valles is home to
sheet-like lava flows up to about 200 Mya. Water flows in the grabens calledthe Cerberus Fossae occurred less than 20 Mya, indicating equally recent volcanic
intrusions. On February 19, 2008, images from theMars Reconnaissance
Orbitershowed evidence of an avalanche from a 700 m high cliff.
Soil
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Rover exposes silica-rich dust
ThePhoenixlander returned data showing Martian soil to be slightly alkaline and
containing elements such as magnesium, sodium, potassium andchloride. These
nutrients are found in gardens on Earth, and are necessary for growth of
plants.[44]Experiments performed by the Lander showed that the Martian soil has
a basic pH of 8.3, and may contain traces of the salt perchlorate.
Streaks are common across Mars and new ones appear frequently on steep slopes of
craters, troughs, and valleys. The streaks are dark at first and get lighter with age.
Sometimes the streaks start in a tiny area which then spreads out for hundreds of
metres. They have also been seen to follow the edges of boulders and other obstacles
in their path. The commonly accepted theories include that they are dark underlyinglayers of soil revealed after avalanches of bright dust or dust devils. Several
explanations have been put forward, some of which involve water or even the growth of
organisms.
Hydrology
Microscopic photo taken byOpportunityshowing a gray hematite concretion, indicative
of the past presence of liquid water
Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure,
except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be
made largely of water. The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-bbc080627-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-bbc080627-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-bbc080627-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perchloratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_roverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_roverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spirit_Mars_Silica_April_20_2007.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spirit_Mars_Silica_April_20_2007.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasa_mars_opportunity_rock_water_150_eng_02mar04.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spirit_Mars_Silica_April_20_2007.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concretionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_roverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perchloratehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PHhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-bbc080627-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(spacecraft) -
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would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of 11
meters. A permafrost mantle stretches from the pole to latitudes of about 60.
Large quantities of water ice are thought to be trapped within the thick cryosphere of
Mars. Radar data fromMars Expressand theMars Reconnaissance Orbitershow large
quantities of water ice both at the poles (July 2005) and at mid-latitudes (November
2008). The Phoenix lander directly sampled water ice in shallow Martian soil on July 31,
2008.
Landforms visible on Mars strongly suggest that liquid water has at least at times
existed on the planet's surface. Huge linear swathes of scoured ground, known
as outflow channels, cut across the surface in around 25 places. These are thought to
record erosion which occurred during the catastrophic release of water from subsurface
aquifers, though some of these structures have also been hypothesised to result from
the action of glaciers or lava. The youngest of these channels are thought to have
formed as recently as only a few million years ago. Elsewhere, particularly on the oldest
areas of the martian surface, finer-scale, dendritic networks of valleys are spread across
significant proportions of the landscape. Features of these valleys and their distribution
very strongly imply that they were carved by runoff resulting from rain or snow fall in
early Mars history. Subsurface water flow and groundwater sapping may play important
subsidiary roles in some networks, but precipitation was probably the root cause of the
incision in almost all cases.
Other geological features, such as deltas and alluvial fans preserved in craters, also
argue very strongly for warmer, wetter conditions at some interval or intervals in earlier
Mars history. Such conditions necessarily require the widespread presence of
crater lakes across a large proportion of the surface, for which there is also independent
mineralogical, sedimentological and geomorphological evidence. Some authors have
even gone so far as to argue that at times in the martian past, much of the low northern
plains of the planet were covered with a true ocean hundreds of meters deep, though
this remains controversial.
Further evidence that liquid water once existed on the surface of Mars comes from thedetection of specific minerals such as hematite and goethite, both of which sometimes
form in the presence of water. Some of the evidence believed to indicate ancient water
basins and flows has been negated by higher resolution studies by the Mars
Reconnaissance Orbiter. In 2004, Opportunitydetected the mineral jarosite. This forms
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only in the presence of acidic water, which demonstrates that water once existed on
Mars.
Polar caps
Northern ice cap of Mars in 1999
South polar cap in 2000
Mars has two permanent polar ice caps. During a pole's winter, it lies in continuous
darkness, chilling the surface and causing the deposition of 2530% of the atmosphere
into slabs of CO2ice (dry ice). When the poles are again exposed to sunlight, the frozen
CO2 sublimes, creating enormous winds that sweep off the poles as fast as 400 km/h.
These seasonal actions transport large amounts of dust and water vapor, giving rise to
Earth-like frost and large cirrus clouds. Clouds of water-ice were photographed by
theOpportunityrover in 2004.
The polar caps at both poles consist primarily of water ice. Frozen carbon dioxide
accumulates as a comparatively thin layer about one metre thick on the north cap in the
northern winter only, while the south cap has a permanent dry ice cover about eight
metres thick. The northern polar cap has a diameter of about 1,000 kilometres during
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Mars equator is defined by its rotation, but the location of its Prime Meridian was
specified, as was Earth's (at Greenwich), by choice of an arbitrary point; Mdler and
Beer selected a line in 1830 for their first maps of Mars. After the spacecraft Mariner
9 provided extensive imagery of Mars in 1972, a small crater (later called Airy-0),
located in the Sinus Meridiani ("Middle Bay" or "Meridian Bay"), was chosen for the
definition of 0.0 longitude to coincide with the original selection.
Since Mars has no oceans and hence no 'sea level', a zero-elevation surface also had
to be selected as a reference level; this is also called the areoidof Mars, analogous to
the terrestrialgeoid. Zero altitude is defined by the height at which there is
610.5 Pa (6.105 mbar) of atmospheric pressure. This pressure corresponds to the triple
point of water, and is about 0.6% of the sea level surface pressure on Earth
(0.006 atm). In practice, today this surface is defined directly from satellite gravity
measurements.
An approximate true-color image, taken by Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity, shows
the view of Victoria Crater from Cape Verde. It was captured over a three-week period,
from October 16 November 6, 2006.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Meridianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airy-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinus_Meridianihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_roverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria_Crater,_Cape_Verde-Mars.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria_Crater,_Cape_Verde-Mars.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria_Crater,_Cape_Verde-Mars.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Victoria_Crater,_Cape_Verde-Mars.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Craterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opportunity_roverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinus_Meridianihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airy-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwichhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Meridian -
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Chapter 3
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region Tharsis, which contains several other large volcanoes. Olympus Mons is over
three times the height of Mount Everest, which in comparison stands at just over
8.8 km.
The large canyon, Valles Marineris (Latin forMarinerValleys, also known as
Agathadaemon in the old canal maps), has a length of 4,000 km and a depth of up to
7 km. The length of Valles Marineris is equivalent to the length of Europe and extends
across one-fifth the circumference of Mars. By comparison, the Grand Canyon on Earth
is only 446 km long and nearly 2 km deep. Valles Marineris was formed due to the
swelling of the Tharsis area which caused the crust in the area of Valles Marineris to
collapse. Another large canyon is Ma'adim Vallis (Ma'adimis Hebrew for Mars). It is
700 km long and again much bigger than the Grand Canyon with a width of 20 km and a
depth of 2 km in some places. It is possible that Ma'adim Vallis was flooded with liquid
water in the past.
Caves
THEMIS image of probable Mars cave entrances, informally named (A) Dena, (B)
Chloe, (C) Wendy, (D) Annie, (E) Abby (left) and Nikki, and (F) Jeanne.
Images from the Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) aboard NASA's Mars
Odyssey orbiter have revealed seven possible cave entrances on the flanks of the Arsia
Mons volcano.[98]The caves, named after loved ones of their discoverers, are
collectively known as the "seven sisters." Cave entrances measure from 100 m to
252 m wide and they are believed to be at least 73 m to 96 m deep. Because light does
not reach the floor of most of the caves, it is likely that they extend much deeper than
these lower estimates and widen below the surface. "Dena" is the only exception; its
floor is visible and was measured to be 130 m deep. The interiors of these caverns may
be protected from micrometeoroids, UV radiation, solar flares and high energy particles
that bombard the planet's surface.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tharsishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valles_Marinerishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canyonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27adim_Vallishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THEMIShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_Emission_Imaging_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Mars_Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Mars_Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsia_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsia_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-cushing_titus_wynn07-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-cushing_titus_wynn07-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-cushing_titus_wynn07-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_caves_from_NASA_orbiters.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_caves_from_NASA_orbiters.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_caves_from_NASA_orbiters.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_caves_from_NASA_orbiters.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_flarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-cushing_titus_wynn07-98http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsia_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsia_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Mars_Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001_Mars_Odysseyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_Emission_Imaging_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/THEMIShttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27adim_Vallishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Canyonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariner_programhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valles_Marinerishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everesthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tharsis -
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Atmosphere
The tenuous atmosphere of Mars, visible on the horizon in this low-orbit photo
Mars lost its magnetosphere 4 billion years ago, so the solar wind interacts directly with
the Martianionosphere, lowering the atmospheric density by stripping away atoms from
the outer layer. Both Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Express have detected ionised
atmospheric particles trailing off into space behind Mars. Compared to Earth,
the atmosphere of Mars is quite rarefied. Atmospheric pressure on the surface ranges
from a low of 30 Pa(0.030 kPa) on Olympus Mons to over 1,155 Pa (1.155 kPa) in
the Hellas Planitia, with a mean pressure at the surface level of 600 Pa (0.60 kPa).The
surface pressure of Mars at its thickest is equal to the pressure found 35 km above the
Earth's surface. This is 0.6% of the Earth's surface pressure (101.3 kPa). The scale
height of the atmosphere is about 10.8 km, which is higher than Earth's (6 km) because
the surface gravity of Mars is only about 38% of Earth's, an effect offset by both the
lower temperature and 50% higher average molecular weight of the atmosphere of
Mars.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_body_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_heighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_heighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_atmosphere.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_atmosphere.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_atmosphere.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mars_atmosphere.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_heighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_heighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellas_Planitiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympus_Monshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal_(unit)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_body_atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Global_Surveyorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_windhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetosphere -
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The atmosphere of Mars consists of about 95% carbon dioxide, 3% nitrogen,
1.6% argon and contains traces of oxygen and water.[6]The atmosphere is quite dusty,
containing particulates about 1.5 m in diameter which give the Martian sky
a tawny color when seen from the surface.
Methane map
Methane has been detected in the Martian atmosphere with a mole fraction of about
30 ppb; it occurs in extended plumes, and the profiles imply that the methane was
released from discrete regions. In northern midsummer, the principal plume contained
19,000 metric tons of methane, with an estimated source strength of 0.6 kilogram persecond. The profiles suggest that there may be two local source regions, the first
centered near 30 N, 260 W and the second near 0, 310 W. It is estimated that Mars
must produce 270 ton/year of methane.
The implied methane destruction lifetime may be as long as about 4 Earth years and as
short as about 0.6 Earth years. This rapid turnover would indicate an active source of
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the gas on the planet. Volcanic activity, cometary impacts, and the presence
of methanogenic microbial life forms are among possible sources. Methane could also
be produced by a non-biological process calledserpentinizationinvolving water, carbon
dioxide, and themineral olivine, which is known to be common on Mars.
Ammonia was also detected on Mars, but with its relatively short lifetime its not clear
what produced it. Ammonia is not stable there and breaks down after a few hours, so
one possible source is volcanic activity. By
Climate
Mars from Hubble Space TelescopeOctober 28, 2005 with dust storm visible.
Of all the planets in the Solar System, the seasons of Mars are the most Earth-like, due
to the similar tilts of the two planets' rotational axes. The lengths of the Martian seasons
are about twice those of Earth's, as Mars greater distance from the Sun leads to the
Martian year being about two Earth years long. Martian surface temperatures vary from
lows of about 87 C(125 F) during the polar winters to highs of up to 5
C (23 F) in summers. The wide range in temperatures is due to the thin atmosphere
which cannot store much solar heat, the low atmospheric pressure, and the low thermal
inertia of Martian soil. The planet is also 1.52 times as far from the sun as Earth,
resulting in just 43% of the amount of sunlight.
If Mars had an Earth-like orbit, its seasons would be similar to Earth's because its axial
tilt is similar to Earth's. The comparatively large eccentricity of the Martian orbit has a
significant effect. Mars is near perihelion when it is summer in the southern hemisphere
and winter in the north, and nearaphelion when it is winter in the southern hemisphere
and summer in the north. As a result, the seasons in the southern hemisphere are more
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Mars has a relatively pronounced orbital eccentricity of about 0.09; of the seven other
planets in the Solar System, only Mercury shows greater eccentricity. It is known that in
the past Mars has had a much more circular orbit than it does currently. At one point
1.35 million Earth years ago, Mars had an eccentricity of roughly 0.002, much less than
that of Earth today. The Mars cycle of eccentricity is 96,000 Earth years compared to
the Earth's cycle of 100,000 years. Mars also has a much longer cycle of eccentricity
with a period of 2.2 million Earth years, and this overshadows the 96,000-year cycle in
the eccentricity graphs. For the last 35,000 years the orbit of Mars has been getting
slightly more eccentric because of the gravitational effects of the other planets. The
closest distance between the Earth and Mars will continue to mildly decrease for the
next 25,000 years.
Images comparing Mars' orbit with Ceres, a dwarf planet in the asteroid belt. The left is
shown from the north ecliptic pole. The right is shown from the ascending node. The
segments of orbits south of the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors. The perihelia (q)
and aphelia (Q) are labelled with the date of nearest passage. The orbit of Mars is red,
Ceres is yellow.
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Phobos in color byMars Reconnaissance OrbiterHiRISE, on March 23, 2008
Deimos in color on February 21, 2009 by the same (not to scale)
Mars has two relatively small natural moons, Phobos and Deimos, which orbit close tothe planet. Asteroid capture is a long-favored theory but their origin remains
uncertain. Both satellites were discovered in 1877 by Asaph Hall, and are named after
the characters Phobos (panic/fear) and Deimos(terror/dread) who, in Greek mythology,
accompanied their father Ares, god of war, into battle. Ares was known as Mars to the
Romans.
From the surface of Mars, the motions of Phobos and Deimos appear very different
from that of our own moon. Phobos rises in the west, sets in the east, and rises again in
just 11 hours. Deimos, being only just outside synchronous orbitwhere the orbital
period would match the planet's period of rotationrises as expected in the east but
very slowly. Despite the 30 hour orbit of Deimos, it takes 2.7 days to set in the west as it
slowly falls behind the rotation of Mars, then just as long again to rise.
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Because the orbit of Phobos is below synchronous altitude, the tidal forces from the
planet Mars are gradually lowering its orbit. In about 50 million years it could either
crash into Mars surface or break up into a ring structure around the planet.
The origin of the two moons is not well understood. Their low albedo and carbonaceous
chondrite composition have been regarded as similar to asteroids, supporting the
capture theory. The unstable orbit of Phobos would seem to point towards a relatively
recent capture. But both have circular orbits, very near the equator, which is very
unusual for captured objects and the required capture dynamics are complex. Accretion
early in the history of Mars is also plausible but would not account for a composition
resembling asteroids rather than Mars itself, if that is confirmed.
A third possibility is the involvement of a third body or some kind of impact
disruption. More recent lines of evidence for Phobos having a highly porous interior and
suggesting a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates and other minerals known
from Mars, point toward an origin of Phobos from material ejected by an impact on Mars
that reaccreted in Martian orbit, similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of Earth's
moon. While the VNIRspectra of the moons of Mars resemble those of outer belt
asteroids, the thermal infrared spectra of Phobos are reported to be inconsistent
with chondritesof any class.
Search for life
Viking Lander 2 site May 1979
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Viking Lander 1 site February 1978.
The current understanding of planetary habitabilitythe ability of a world to develop and
sustain lifefavors planets that have liquid water on their surface. This most often
requires that the orbit of a planet lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun
currently extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars. During
perihelion Mars dips inside this region, but the planet's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere
prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past
flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Some recent
evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty
and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.
The lack of a magnetosphere and extremely thin atmosphere of Mars are a challenge:
the planet has little heat transfer across its surface, poor insulation against
bombardment of the solar wind and insufficient atmospheric pressure to retain water in
a liquid form (water instead sublimates to a gaseous state). Mars is also nearly, or
perhaps totally, geologically dead; the end of volcanic activity has apparently stopped
the recycling of chemicals and minerals between the surface and interior of the planet.
Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today,
but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The Viking probes of
the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at
their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase ofCO2 production on exposure to water and nutrients. This sign of life was later disputed
by some scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert
Levin asserting that Viking may have found life. A re-analysis of the Viking data, in light
of modern knowledge of extremophile forms of life, has suggested that the Viking tests
were not sophisticated enough to detect these forms of life. The tests could even have
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killed a (hypothetical) life form. Tests conducted by the Phoenix Mars lander have
shown that the soil has a very alkaline pH and it contains magnesium, sodium,
potassium and chloride. The soil nutrients may be able to support life but life would still
have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light.
At the Johnson Space Center lab, some fascinating shapes have been found in
the meteorite ALH84001, which is thought to have originated from Mars. Some
scientists propose that these geometric shapes could be fossilized microbes extant on
Mars before the meteorite was blasted into space by a meteor strike and sent on a 15
million-year voyage to Earth. An exclusively inorganic origin for the shapes has also
been proposed.
Small quantities of methane and formaldehyde recently detected by Mars orbiters are
both claimed to be hints for life, as these chemical compounds would quickly break
down in the Martian atmosphere. It is remotely possible that these compounds may
instead be replenished by volcanic or geological means such as serpentinization.
Exploration missions
Western rim of Endeavour Crater
In addition to observation from Earth, some of the latest Mars information comes from
four active probes on or in orbit around Mars as of 2012: 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars
Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, and Opportunity rover. The public can request
photos of Mars' surface at 25 cm a pixel with the HiWish program, which uses a 50 cm
diameter telescope in Mars orbit.In the past, dozens of spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been
sent to Mars by the Soviet Union, the United States, Europe, andJapan to study the
planet's surface, climate, and geology. As of 2008, the price of transporting material
from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars was approximately US$309,000
per kilogram.
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Current missions
The NASA Mars Odyssey orbiter entered Mars orbit in 2001. Odyssey's Gamma Ray
Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so
of regolith on Mars. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water
ice.
The Mars Express mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) reached Mars in
2003. It carried the Beagle 2 lander, which failed during descent and was declared lost
in February, 2004. In early 2004 the Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced
the orbiter had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June
2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.
In January 2004, the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers namedSpirit(MER-A)
andOpportunity(MER-B) landed on the surface of Mars. Both have met or exceeded all
their targets. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence
that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust
devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus
increased their lifespan. Spirit Rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped
sending data.
On March 10, 2006, the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in
orbit to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter began mapping the Martian
terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. The
MRO snapped the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet's north
pole, scientists said March 3, 2008.
The Mars Science Laboratory, named Curiosity, launched on November 26, 2011, and
is expected to reach Mars in August 2012. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars
Exploration Rovers, with a movement rate of 90 m/h. Experiments include a laser
chemical sampler that can deduce the make-up of rocks at a distance of 13 m.
Past missions
Attempted Martian missions
Decade
1960s 13
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1970s 11
1980s 2
1990s 8
2000s 8
2010s 2
Mars 3 lander on a 1972 Soviet stamp.
The first successful fly-by of Mars was on July 1415, 1965, by NASA's Mariner 4. On
November 14, 1971 Mariner 9 became the first space probe to orbit another planet
when it entered into orbit around Mars. The first to contact the surface were
two Soviet probes:Mars 2 lander on November 27 and Mars 3 lander on December 2,
1971 Mars 2 failed during descent and Mars 3 seconds after landing. Mars 6 failed
during descent but did return some atmospheric data in 1974. The 1975 NASA
launches of the Viking program consisted of two orbiters, each having a lander; both
landers successfully touched down in 1976. Viking 1remained operational for six
years, Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed the first color panoramas of
Mars and the orbiters mapped the surface so well that the images remain in use.
The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two
moons, but with a focus on Phobos. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos
2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed before it was set to
release two landers to the surface of Phobos.
Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed without completing
their missions, and it has a reputation as difficult space exploration target. Failures since
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Viking include Phobos 1 & 2 (1988), Mars Observer (1990), Mars 96 (1996), Mars
Climate Orbiter (1999), Mars Polar Lander with Deep Space
2 (1999), Nozomi (2003), Beagle 2 (2003), and Fobos-Grunt withYinghuo-1 (2011).
Mars Pathfinder rover on Mars, 1997
View from thePhoenixlander, 2008
Following the 1992 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, the NASA Mars Global
Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success, having
finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in
November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operationalyears in space. The NASA Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration
vehicle Sojourner, landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997, returning
many images.
The NASA Phoenix Mars lander arrived on the north polar region of Mars on May 25,
2008. Its robotic arm was used to dig into the Martian soil and the presence of water ice
was confirmed on June 20. The mission concluded on November 10, 2008 after contact
was lost.
Rosetta came within 250 km of Mars during its 2007 flyby.Dawn flew by Mars inFebruary 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and then Ceres.
Future missions
In 2008, NASA announced MAVEN, a robotic mission in 2013 to provide information
about the atmosphere of Mars. In 2016, the Russian and ESA plan to send rover and
static lander to Mars. In 2018 the ESA plans to launch its first Rover to Mars;
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the ExoMars rover will be capable of drilling 2 m into the soil in search of organic
molecules.
NASA requested innovative proposals for a new Mars mission by May 10, 2012. One
existing proposal is NASA Discovery program's InSight, which would place a
geophysical lander on Mars to study its deep interior, and understand the processes
that shaped the rocky planets of the inner solar system.
The Finnish-Russian MetNet concept would use multiple small vehicles on Mars to
establish a widespread observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric
structure, physics and meteorology.[166][167]MetNet was considered for a piggyback
launch on Phobos-Grunt.[168]
A Russian mission concept is Mars-Grunt, a Mars surface sample return
mission. Another proposal is the ESA-NASA three-launch architecture for Mars samplereturn, which uses a rover to cache small samples, a Mars ascent stage to send it into
orbit, and an orbiter to rendezvous with it above Mars and take it to Earth. Solar-electric
propulsion could allow a one launch sample return instead of three. Another sample
return concept was Mars Scout Program's SCIM, which would involve a probe grazing
the upper atmosphere to scoop up dust and air for Earth return.
Future mission ideas include new polar probes, Martian aircraft, or a network of small
stations. Longterm areas of study may include Martian lava tubes, resource utilization,
and electronic charge carriers in rocks. Micromissions are another possibility, such as
piggybacking a wok-sized spacecraft on an Ariane 5 launch and using a lunar gravity
assist to get to Mars.
Manned mission goals
The ESA hopes to land humans on Mars between 2030 and 2035. This will be preceded
by successively larger probes, starting with the launch of the ExoMars probe and a joint
NASAESA Mars sample return mission.
Manned exploration by the United States was identified as a long-term goal in the Vision
for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by then US President George W. Bush. TheplannedOrionspacecraft would be used to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by
2020 as a stepping stone to a Mars expedition. On September 28, 2007, NASA
administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a man on Mars by 2037.
Mars Direct, a low-cost human mission proposed by Robert Zubrin, founder of the Mars
Society, would use heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets, such as the SpaceX Falcon X, or,
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the Ares V, to skip orbital construction, LEO rendezvous, and lunar fuel depots. A
modified proposal, called "Mars to Stay", involves not returning the first immigrant
explorers immediately, if ever (see Colonization of Mars).
Astronomy on Mars
Phobos transits the Sun, as seen by Mars RoverOpportunityon March 10, 2004
With the existence of various orbiters, landers, and rovers, it is now possible to
study astronomy from the Martian skies. While Mars moon Phobos appears about one
third the angular diameter of the full Moon as it appears from Earth, Deimos appears
more or less star-like, and appears only slightly brighter than Venus does from Earth.There are various phenomena, well-known on Earth, that have been observed on Mars,
such as meteors and auroras. A transit of the Earth as seen from Mars will occur on
November 10, 2084. There are also transits of Mercury and transits of Venus, and the
moons Phobos and Deimos are of sufficiently small angular diameter that their partial
"eclipses" of the Sun are best considered transits (see Transit of Deimos from Mars).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_Vhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_to_Stayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_transithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MER-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MER-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MER-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurorashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Earth_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Venus_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Deimos_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:15-ml-06-phobos2-A067R1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:15-ml-06-phobos2-A067R1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:15-ml-06-phobos2-A067R1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:15-ml-06-phobos2-A067R1.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Deimos_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Venus_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Mercury_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transit_of_Earth_from_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurorashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_diameterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MER-Bhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_transithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization_of_Marshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_to_Stayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ares_V -
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Chapter 6
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Viewing
Animation of the apparent retrograde motion of Mars in 2003 as seen from Earth
Because the orbit of Mars is eccentric its apparent magnitude at opposition from the
Sun can range from 3.0 to 1.4. The minimum brightness is magnitude +1.6 when the
planet is in conjunction with the Sun.[7]Mars usually appears a distinct yellow, orange,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitudehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-MallamaSky-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-MallamaSky-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-MallamaSky-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apparent_retrograde_motion_of_Mars_in_2003.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apparent_retrograde_motion_of_Mars_in_2003.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apparent_retrograde_motion_of_Mars_in_2003.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apparent_retrograde_motion_of_Mars_in_2003.gifhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars#cite_note-MallamaSky-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitude -
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or reddish color; the actual color of Mars is closer to butterscotch, and the redness seen
is just dust in the planet's atmosphere; considering this NASA's Spirit rover has taken
pictures of a greenish-brown, mud-colored landscape with blue-grey rocks and patches
of light red colored sand. When farthest away from the Earth, it is more than seven
times as far from the latter as when it is closest. When least favorably positioned, it can
be lost in the Sun's glare for months at a time. At its most favorable timesat 15- or 17-
year intervals, and always between late July and late SeptemberMars shows a wealth
of surface detail to a telescope. Especially noticeable, even at low magnification, are
the polar ice caps.
As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which means it
will appear to move backwards in a looping motion with respect to the background stars.
The duration of this retrograde motion lasts for about 72 days, and Mars reaches its
peak luminosity in the middle of this motion.
Closest approaches
Relative
The point Mars geocentric longitude is 180 different from the Sun's is known
as opposition, which is near the time of closest approach to the Earth. The time of
opposition can occur as much as 8 days away from the closest approach. The
distance at close approach varies between about 54 [188]and about 103 million km due
to the planets' elliptical orbits, which causes comparable variation in angular size. The
last Mars opposition occurred on March 3, 2012 at a distance of about
100 million km.[190]The average time between the successive oppositions of Mars,
its synodic period, is 780 days but the number of days between the dates of successive
oppositions can range from 764 to 812.
As Mars approaches opposition it begins a period of retrograde motion, which makes it
appear to move backwards in a looping motion relative to the background stars. The
duration of this retrograde motion is about 72 days.
Absolute, around the present time
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Mars oppositions from 20032018, viewed from above the ecliptic with the Earth
centered
Mars made its closest approach to Earth and maximum apparent brightness in nearly
60,000 years, 55,758,006 km (0.372719 AU),magnitude 2.88, on 27 August 2003 at
9:51:13 UT. This occurred when Mars wa