the nature and function of conspiracy theory

NATURE AND FUNCTION OF CONSPIRACY

Nature and Function of Conspiracy Theories.

Lanny M. Hackney

Northeastern State University.

NATURE AND FUNCTION OF CONSPIRACY 2

Abstract

This paper is designed to seek out and explain the elements of a conspiracy theory, the nature

and functions a conspiracy theory may have, and to determine if conspiracy theories in general

are deceptive. I will seek to uncover what will serve as evidence to this paper by examining

several current conspiracies that are already in major circulation, conspiracies of the past and

prophesied conspiracy, or future conspiracies if that terminology even if exists. I feel it is

necessary to outline what makes up a conspiracy theory for those who may not know and to give

those who do know a broader perspective on that knowledge. It is important to note that not all

things that are conspired are theory, but in turn, can and have actually happened. I will examine

the nature of conspiring to commit, as it relates to those who are in criminal activity or a

situation unaware of the facts in what is being conspired. Definitional, conspiring to commit is

actually verifiable, whereas a conspiracy theory is just that, a theory if something happened. It is

most interesting to us where the theories or the particular assertions being conspired even come

from. In general, I posit that it is the inherent need for people to have closure on things rather

than to be in the dark that they even create, think up, or manufacture controversial ideas about

the unknown occurrences going on in the world around them. Simple curiosity, combined with

the individual’s respective mindset, is detrimental it seems in determining whether one believes

in conspiracy theories narratives or not. If an individual is prone to high needs satisfaction in

relation to world or self understanding with high emotional connections to things, they may

believe these theories. Since the JFK assassination, the idea of conspiracy theories being

mainstream phenomena appears self evident. The beginning of mainstream media was taking off

then, and the television set was the first big channel for information local and abroad, that

brought the world to those at home. It is the inherent need of humans to seek satisfactions of


curiosity or to see patterns or even symbolically interact, that enables us to even fathom the

notion of an alternate narrative to official accounts. A worldview imposed upon us by various

biases heavily portrayed in our media, it is easy for misinformation to travel to would be viewers.

It is within this misinformation that conspiracy theories develop.

Methodology

In the process of seeking to determine the nature and function of a conspiracy theory, I

will examine known theories of Deception and Communication as well as past or present

academic research and analyze those findings. It is presumable that the quality of information in

a Deception seminar taught at Northeastern State University will be most useful in identifying

the types of deception in a conspiracy. I will deconstruct a number of popular conspiracy

theories in order to find common elements among them that may aide in determining what a

conspiracy theory looks like. This project seeks to identify the nature of conspiracy theories, the

societal functions that conspiracy theories may serve, and the extent to which conspiracy theories

are deceptive. Some currently circulating conspiracy theories will be examined for the purpose

of this analysis including the 9/11 conspiracy (did President Bush orchestrate the 9/11 attacks?),

the Council on Foreign Relations, the Federal Reserve Bank conspiracy, and the notion that

powerful energy companies are suppressing free energy devices. I will approach this

examination with exploratory observations. In addition attempt to apply an abstract idea of

conspiracy theories that attempts to explain core components that must exist for it to have its

function, whatever the function may be. I do not see practicality of using an experiment or

subjects in order to complete this examination of data and creating the discussion.


Literature Review

It is very well known that there are many conspiracies being spread throughout the world

via mass media and individuals, and many other means. Conspiracies such as the President

Obama of America, not being a US citizen or the idea that the government had firsthand

knowledge of the 9/11 or Pearl Harbor attacks. There are many published writings on conspiracy

theories, their aspects, types and functions, but the cumulative works cover a somewhat broad

range of information on either particular theories or their being a compelling narrative. Jeffery

A. Hall, in a 2003 article for the National Communication Association, writes that, “Identifying a

conspiracy theory, recognizing its social implications, and demonstrating its inherent flaws are

routine exercises.” He goes on to outline two types of conspiracy theory discourse. The first

Anti-Institutional, and second, the Anti-Insurgent conspiracy he says manifest themselves in

different ways depending on why the conspiracy text is created. I do not wish in this essay to

elaborate on the reasons why conspiracy theory is created, but to simply acknowledge that Hall

considers them determinates of their functions. The Anti-Insurgent conspiracy functions to

identify and punish a peripheral minority for some negative aspect of society by laying the blame

on a certain group. (Hall, 2003). In contrast the Anti-Institutional conspiracy he says, accuses

the government of hurtful actions. Actions like the idea that the CIA, a government agency,

created Crack Cocaine and put it on the streets of America. Additionally, Michael Barkun

proclaims 3 types; the event, systemic, and super conspiracies, which have a 3rd categorization to

encompass conspiracy about conspiracy (Collins, pp.61-65). The nature of politically biased

media and emotionally curious people take these pieces of fact and falsehoods, and weaves them

into questionable narratives easily publicly disseminated (Lazar, 2011). It is in the believer that


this essay focuses its discussion, by examining the functions a conspiracy of the Anti-Insurgent

or Anti-Institutional, event, systemic and super conspiracies may have for them or society.

Michael Shermer, of Skeptic magazine and writer for Scientific American, says that it is the

inherent human need to find meaningful patterns in the world around us that can create the belief

in a conspiracy.(Shermer, 2008). The need for explanation of and understanding of things is

rooted in the nature of being human, one can easily agree who has ever pondered over an

unexplainable phenomena. It is this powerful need for understanding that we see innovations all

around us, i.e. PC, i-Product, etc. Although, it seems to follow the mainstream, “It’s us vs.

them”, explanations blindly without examination of past or present alternative conclusions, could

lead to an error in judgment or understanding. Shermer refers to the believers as being self

deceived in following these explanations of things. If there is evidence of self deception as

Shermer indicates, then the importance put on the closure a particular conspiracy theory

epistemologically gives to its believer would make sense. If individuals or groups can fall prey

to self deception as a result of a conspiracy belief, then what other elements of deception are

contained within the nature of conspiracy theories? The notions of there being deception in

conspiracy theories, then alludes that the narratives being disseminated to the public seeking

believers, either an individual or group, a facilitator may exist if you will, seeking those

believers. I am easily in agreement with Shermer that people seek out patterns, it is these patterns

perceived meanings that I expect to assist in the deceptive nature of conspiracy theories.

Carl Stempel performed a study to discover the effects of media involvement on the

likely hood of conspiracy belief in 9/11 conspiracy theories. He tested multiple hypotheses that

sought to identify the less media involved an individual was the more likely to believe a

conspiracy. The test was put through multiple parameters; hypothesis claiming the opposite,


more media use more likely and so on. These researchers have found there is a paranoid style

mindset in some people. Researchers such as Richard Hofstatder, whom invented of the term

"paranoid style” (Bratich, Fenster, Lee). Social Science category of paranoid style theory, posits

that conspiratorial thinking is more prevalent along the lines of marginalized groups or declining

groups. Finally, Stempel declares that along a cultural sociological perspective that, conspiracy

theories sometimes oversimplify complex events and social conditions, and may assign

responsibility for those events and conditions on one particular entity (Stempel, 2007). A survey

of 1010 random respondents at Ohio University showed that 36.1% believed that it was at least

somewhat likely that the American Government assisted or took no action to stop the 9/11

attacks (Stempel, 2007). These questions asked were in line with those considered to be of a

paranoid style of thinking. So it is within these believers paranoid style of thinking that I will

begin seek seeking any answers relating to conspiracy theory; what it looks like, function(s), and

it’s would be deception.


The Nature and Function of Conspiracy Theory.

There are many phenomena in this world that cannot simply be written off as

coincidence. Writer Emma Bull is recently quoted in Resourceful School (p.1) as saying,

“Coincidence is the word we use when we cannot see the Levers and Pulleys.” Whether we can

or cannot see the Levers, Pulleys or Strings for that matter, I think we still need to acknowledge

they exist and furthermore seek out to possibly identify who or what they are. I argue this for

the reason that any particular conspiracy in and of itself must have a trigger, facilitator, and

maintenance function in order to exist, as they do not manifest themselves out or proverbial,

“thin air”. There is a force or forces that execute each particular theorized expansion of ideas,

whether abstract or concrete, which stirs up the minds of the deceit-prone faithful masses. It is

clear that conspiracy theory is defined within its believers and is more accurately defined in

those parameters as conspiracy belief as mentioned by Michael Barkun in his book, Culture of

Conspiracy (2003). Conspiracy belief is the belief that an organization made up of individuals or

groups was or is acting covertly to achieve some malevolent end (Barkun, p.3). Barkun also

offers his three types of Conspiracies, mentioned by author and published academic journalist,

Loren Collins, in her book Bullspotting (2012). Unlike the more broad types, Anti-Institutional

or Anti-Insurgent, the event, systemic, and super conspiracies outlined by Barkun have a 3rd

categorization to encompass conspiracy about conspiracy. Lee Basham in, Journal of Social

Philosophy Vol. 34, defines a conspiracy theory as, “an explanation of important events that

appeals to the intentional deception and manipulation of those involved, affected by, or

witnessing these events.” He says these deceptions involve many cooperative players. This

would be in line with my notion that there is a force or forces, or particular facilitator-operator

relationship within any conspiracy that creates the deception. These events being conspired,


whether perceived as deceptive or not, do have these particular elements to them; the Levers,

Pulleys and Strings as Bull mentioned. These elements are synonymous with the triggering

devices, key ingredients and/or maintenance functions of sustaining the conspiracy, and the

facilitators or designers. I consider these elements to help create the components of a conspiracy

theory in analogous terms. It is the purpose we must speculate about particular theories, and

some are much more transparent. By application of concepts and theory from seminar in

deception and other courses taught by Dr. Bill Wallace Ph.D. et al. and other academic research,

I will attempt to examine the nature and function of conspiracy theory via synthesis of current

and past academic research, analyzing conspiratorial propaganda/websites in order to conclude

they are deceptive and identifying the elements of deception in them in addition to examining the

nature and function of a conspiracy.

The most highly circulated conspiracies are a combination of two major components that

serve to create their compelling nature. There are portions of irrefutable fact and dramatically

entertaining fictions combined that make conspiracies attractive to their followers (Lazar, 2011).

In order to understand the nature of a conspiracy theory, I think we need to examine its key

components; the types of conspiracy theories, what makes one function, how do they get

disseminated, and are they deception. In gaining a perspective on these questions, builds the

definition of conspiracy, a definition I have found from reading research to be in the perspective

of the analyzer. It is the belief in the conspiracy that defines the conspiracy in terms of Basham

and Barkun’s view. That conspiracy theory is the belief that an organization made up of

individuals or groups was or is acting covertly to achieve some malevolent end. A belief that

gives an explanation of important events that appeals to the intentional deception and

manipulation of those involved. Michael Shermer, founding publisher for Skeptic Magazine,


researcher and columnist for The Scientific American, says humans actively seek out and see

meaningful patterns in life. Patterns that we inherently connect, per-se, and seek closure on or

explanation for. He calls this, “Patternicity”, or “the tendency to find meaningful patterns in

meaningless noise.” (Shermer, 2008). Shermer’s work in studying the belief of conspiracy

followers assumes that their belief is a false cognition. Therefore, accepting that conspiracy

theories are deceptive, determining the types of deception in conspiracy theory will be sought in

the believers of, and the forces creating and sustaining them.

We are all for the most part familiar with the television show The X-files that affirms “the

truth is out there.” It is the curious nature of us to seek at least a basic understanding of things in

the world around us; I have to insist, in concurrence with Shermer’s notion. Can we not agree

that we make attributions about others and the things they are doing (Griffin, pp.126-117)? I am

certain each time I view an unknown behavior that my mind starts shuffling files looking for

explanations within my long term memory. Even if it is none of our concern, the unfamiliar

seems to activate in us a need for a sense of closure on things. Charles Berger’s Uncertainty

Reduction Theory (Griffin, p.125), says we try to reduce our uncertainty about another person in

order to predict or explain behaviors. So, why would we not want to be more certain on the

happenings or behaviors of events in the world around us as well? The conspiracy theory in line

with previous, “self proclaimed” researcher’s findings, gives its believers those explanations for

the perceived connections of events or concepts.

What is a conspiracy theory? The question that must be answered in order to seek

understanding of its nature and function. Harvard Law Review (1910) declares a conspiracy is a

confederation to do something unlawful either as a means or an end. Whether criminal or not,

that is not in question about conspiracy theory. Conspiracy to commit is obviously deceptive, if


there is covert planning to do something. Isn’t it the nature of criminal activity to be done in

secret, covertly, either alone or with conspiring others? Outside of criminal conspiracy,

conspiracy theory attempts to create a bridge between perceived focal points of explanative

information for its followers. I perceive that if people make these connections in things like the

research indicates, and then is it not possible to usher those prone to connecting things or events

into a certain set of those pieces of information, therefore inadvertently authoring the

conspiratorial narratives that manifest from the mass of misinformation. It is very well known

that particular media outlets weave a slightly different tale of the same news story, as a result of

some bias or another. The internet is the main ingredient in creating that categorical set of

information that is connected to lead to a certain assertion/conspiracy tale. The JBS.org or John

Birch Society, Alex Jones and Infowars.com, and online news publication

theconservativexrusader.com have a full website and amassed followers. This would contend

with my notion of a Lever or triggering device that sets in motion a certain conspiracy narrative;

a "would be" author or designer whether real or inadvertent. In this sense previously discussed,

it would seem that they can have no author and still be. Social Scientific literature on

conspiracies talks of a psychological approach, an idea that there is a conspiratorial personality, a

paranoid style of thought. (Stempel, 2007). This idea gives way to conceptualizing explanations

for particular behaviors, behaviors that label the individuals as conspiracy theorists, paranoid,

skeptical, apprehensive. All synonymous symbols and interchangeable to describe this particular

type of individual’s personality, so for my examination I will agree with it as it appears to be

within reason. That assumption of a paranoid style of thought would be just as valid as a

militaristic style of thought or an altruistic way of thought, mindset, world view, etc. If one can

have any other mindset then they can just as well have a paranoid style mindset. In turn, I think


this supports the research that this paranoid style mindset is typical of marginalized or declining

group of people. It would make sense for them to believe, then to take on an, us versus them

attitude if your numbers were thin or there was high perception of marginalization or lack of

education. It is not all too often that even the educated and informed fall prey to conspiracy

belief (Collins, 2012).

Categorically the types of conspiracy theories must be examined in order to proceed with

further examination of aspects of conspiracy theory. Anti-Insurgent conspiracy theories, firstly,

seek to punish the outside minority for harm toward society, is in line with the stereotypical

statement similar to, “All the illegal Mexican immigrants are taking all of the jobs, therefore the

economy is suffering when they send their money to Mexico.” These types of conspiracies do

not seem to make the majority of mainstream media or dissemination. Alternatively, conspiracies

of the Anti-Institutional nature do: The 9/11 basket of conspiracy plots, the Federal Reserve

secretly plotting to keep us enslaved in debt, and government entities suppressing technologies

that would produce free energies, are just these types of conspiracies. It is the high profile

figures of politics and international relations that are the most newsworthy types of conspiracy

theory narratives. For example George Bush and massively destructive weapons, Obama and

being from Kenya, and 9/11 as a false flag event. It is the Anti-Institutional conspiracy theories I

will examine in lieu of this news worthiness and amount of available information in circulation.

In addition to Hall’s types which very broadly categorize conspiracy theories, Barkun

offers a slightly different angle on Halls two types and yet a 3rd type that encompasses conspiracy

about conspiracy in a grand unifying fashion with an ultimate controller. The types are Event,

Systemic, and Super conspiracy. An event conspiracy is the most highly circulated and

recognized, which propose that an event did not occur as officially reported or popularly


believed, but are the products of conspiratorial effort (Collins, p.61). These are as Hall stated,

the 9/11 basket, assassinations, moon landing types of conspiracies. These come about as

mentioned before having high emotional connections with the public, therefore a justice or

culprit is demanded of the masses that is far more satisfying than the mere obvious to the rest of

us official explanations. Sometimes, the unfortunate truth is that there is no culprit at all,

(Collins, p.62) like natural seismic activity along an actively quaking fault near Japan that

unleashes a Tsunami, killing many. Albeit, internally the affective nature of people who make

connections to people, places and things in their lives, will not allow their conscience to go

without a commensurate justice against someone or something. Finally, event conspiracies are

almost never consistent across the entire event (Collins, 2012). Those believing are in denial of

some aspect surrounding the circumstances of a conspiracy that are easily verifiable and their

idiosyncratic skeptical nature tells slightly different, contrary adaptations of the same narrative.

Since no two individuals will perceive the same stimuli the same way, then logically, the

communicated recollection of the stimuli/event must be inconsistent.

Alternatively, who is behind a conspiracy is just as significant in categorizing it as what it

is about according to Barkun. The conspiracy of the international bankers who seek to control us

by controlling the money supply fits this category. The systemic and super conspiracy are all

encompassing, focusing on the end not the means. The agenda, which those in power have over

the population, is the focus and that conspiracies about conspiracies arise. These conspiracies

raised out of a popularly circulated one, only add to the maintenance device core component

increasing its self-sufficiency. In the end, most types in super conspiracies, tie all the agendas

and events together in a unifying fashion, alluding to a grand narrative. Non conspiratorial

personalities are more prevalent, one can argue, in the world among the conspirators and


conspiratorial mindsets. This in itself would pose inquiry as to the functions a conspiracy may

have for believers, people, society, etc.

Either type of conspiracy works in the same way, it serves to manifest perceived

explanations for the unknown in the minds of its believers. That is to say that each type of

conspiracy narrative must contain at least 3 elements/devices in order to carry out its function.

The kernels of fact and the not easily verifiable information that make up a conspiracy theory are

spread through the mainstream media outlets and internet. People also spread these narratives to

their families and friends that will listen. Organizations also have their hands in disseminating

these narratives, by establishing a following on the internet and media like the JBS or Alex Jones

and his organization. This allows them to be part of the system as the Pulleys of a facilitating

device. Often the authors are also facilitators of conspiracy narratives by their use of the media

and people which assists, like a Pulley, in the progress of spreading the message that is strung

from person to person and media outlet to media outlet. The message for the conspiracy then

fulfills an unexplained hardship or societal situation for the believer. It allows for there to be no

chance, just pure design of the evil entity. Contrary to that, I find that people like the idea of

choice in their lives, and conspiracy theory belief, ironically, does not allow for choice it would

seem. It would be that in conspiratorial thinking that there is no chance only design by those

malevolently planning. So therefore, people “choose” skeptically to believe something was done

rather than just happened. Relevant to how conspiracies get known and spread via media and

people I would argue that they must contain a triggering device, have a facilitating device, and a

maintenance device in order to carry out their function(s). Unlike scientific theories, conspiracy

theories have no hypothesis, just speculation and a skepticism driven assertions. Information is


handpicked that suits their predetermined sought explanations. So, the way a conspiracy unfolds

is quite unique.

First the triggering device or a Lever if it is more suiting. These are the devices that set

in motion the progressive narrative that a conspiracy theory tells. The author/designer of the

conspiracy can trigger it into motion, should it have one. I doubt that there are physical persons

who will step up and claim authorship to the 9/11 conspiracy of it being a demolition style

destruction. Or, no one will take title to actually writing the plan that is to keep American people

in debt, in order to control them. A bias of some type one way or other I think creates the belief

from the mixed kernels of fact and fiction that explains the unknown for the individual. The

media can create that belief by disseminating those kernels in one political bias or another, as it

is known that particular media outlets have specific biases and display them in their reports of

the news. These particular ways the information is portrayed, in itself can trigger or author

inadvertently a particular conspiracy. The internet we all know now, can deliver messages to

audiences never thought of 20 years ago. An independent publisher of pamphlets about a

particular view of a political or institutional realm can be considered triggering devices.

Publications like those mailed out from Prisonplanet.org have a physical author and are

compiling gathered, media delivered, kernels of fact and fiction into a regular publication.

Circularly, a trigger can also be a key ingredient of a conspiracy as well as part of the String that

weaves it. A plane hitting a building can as well be perceived as a triggering device of the 9/11

narratives, or the plane and it’s so called lack of existence can be a key ingredient as part of the

overall message. Websites like this also serve to fulfill the next necessary element of a

conspiracy theory and that is the facilitating device.


A facilitator, according to Dictionary.com, is one who makes easier; assists in the

progress of. A pulley does just that for the string that runs along it. It allows for the String to

move continuously along its path. Alluding to, that the “String” is the message of the

conspiratorial narrative, then the pulleys must be the people and the media outlets. Again, the

major facilitator of the conspiracy theory is the media in all aspects. The dissemination of

information in such ways that the paranoid style mindset interprets it by perceiving it to explain

the hardships of “their” the world. These believers then, as Michael Shermer insists, are self

deceived and intend on assisting in the deceptions of others, i.e. family and friends, blogs, vlogs,

etc. As the message, “String”, travels along one pulley (any person that believes) to the next

pulley (any media outlet), the conspiracy theory builds and perpetually serves to maintain itself

as it gains believers. The momentum a popular institutional/event type conspiracy builds while

traveling over these pulleys, is seemingly exponential due to these many perceived connections

the believer makes between ongoing events. “Patternicity”,(Shermer) connections that are passed

along effortlessly assisted by the many pulleys, to the next person who combines their own

perceived connections in unison before repeating in the next follower. Whether the people

demand the “real” culprit, for an emotionally traumatizing event, or accept it as it is told, the

message is facilitated by someone or something. The amount of variations in conspiracy theories

then would come from the very different facilitators of the message. It is presumed that if the

media is not covering it, then it fades away, like the O.J. trial that lasted so long. Particular

conspiracies are maintained well in circulation as a result of media coverage or their massive

internet followings.

The String component in this operational/functional analogy serves several distinct

purposes for the conspiracy’s to function. That maintenance (a function of the String) device or


previously alluded to, “String”, of our system of elements is the ever flowing message to be

interpreted that is traveling along those pulleys. The maintenance device is made up of the key

ingredients of the conspiracy theory, ingredients being the assertions parallel with the official

message. The ingredients being but not limited to, the assertions being made, video and physical

evidence whether real, perceived, or fictional that circulates, media coverage of political or

authoritative figures in particular perspectives or biases, media coverage that appears to focus on

the contrary elements of the official accounts of events. The message also contains the perceived

connections made by those seeking to amass followers of a conspiracy theory on large scale, i.e.

John Birch Society, Infowars, Alex Jones. These perceived connections among events make up

the majority of the overall message created by the assertions a conspiracy makes. The fact that

so many people do believe particular conspiracies as a result of being herded toward their

message from these levers is profound, and the fact that they do spread the message being

delivered, appears to help the conspiracies be nearly self sufficient. The viral nature of mass

media and the internet broadcasts/podcasts/blog casts a message that is kept alive by its growing

number of followers. As the popularity of a conspiracy increases and is virally communicated,

its impact on popular culture increased surrounding that conspiracy, allowing the public to have

a more easily recallable memory than those less circulated by popularity. The 9/11 conspiracies

have had more apparent media time due to the highly affective nature of the actual attack. It

would be that a simple explanation or culprit for such a horrendous atrocity is not sufficient

enough to satisfy the justice perceived necessary by the American people. So naturally this

conspiracy basket will be far more everlasting than say, Diana-gate. As the people/media or

pulleys assist in the dissemination of the String or message, the conspiracy message flows

somewhat circular. The Stringing together of the kernels of misinformation and information


serves to be a maintenance device for the conspiracy. It appears that some theories may fade and

then resurface, depending on different variables, although their popularity in the media keeps

them alive mostly. Furthermore, it would appear conspiracy theories are self maintained as the

assertions are circulated and spread based on recent study evidence. That is that those

individuals who believe in one conspiracy are highly likely to believe in other theories a high

ordered process that advocates not believing any official account as it is perceived as always

deceptive (Wood, 2011). Furthermore, if the spread of information on one theory allows another

to connect 2,3,4, or more together, the number of possible combinations of theories that can be

believed and spread at one time is not infinite, but enough to keep conspiracy going and

maintained. These elements combined, allow a conspiracy theory to function and carry out its

own functions as well, functions of deception, societal functions, or even personal functions.

Contemplation over whether a conspiracy theory is deceptive or not, what functions does

it serve for society or for the public are ever present among academics post 9/11. Inquiries of

this nature would also elicit a need for insight as to how sociological perspectives would view

conspiracy theory. It has come to light that there is deception in a conspiracy and several

elements as well. There are in turn, several functions that conspiracies server for the believer

personally, for society, and perhaps for the politically affiliated.

The first major function a conspiracy theory will have when the aforementioned

components are present, is to be deceptive in some manner. The term deception is somewhat self

explanatory, it is intentionally misleading another. The majority of deception is in the form of

lies and lies insist on being the deceiving tool of choice for most. People are generally more

interested in the portions of narrative that are the most peculiar or unique. Television and media,

generally speaking, have the practice of placing just the right information with the relevant


amount of misinformation. This leads to the viewer of the message to regard the trivial portions

of the message or news cast in higher regard than the factual portions. Children for example, not

knowing the difference between the reality in television and the fictions. These paranoid style

mindsets are firstly self- deceiving themselves by believing a story contrary to the official one.

In agreement with Shermer, those believing ignore the elements that do not fit that which they

want to hear or deny the information that would serve to allow rational decision making to occur.

When the intent of the conspiratorial message is to deceive, then it is an outright

falsehood. Information ushered out to the masses through the JBS, the Truther movements, or

those opposed to synthesis of facts by believers, would be incorporating deception by

falsification. Building propaganda that would aid the contrary narrative’s effort in sustaining

itself within the mind of its followers would surely be constructed of lies of this type. George

Bush lying about the reasons to enter Iraq, suggesting that there were Weapons of Mass

Destruction and intent on using them on the USA. Weapons that were never found and he still

equivocated with misdirecting misinformation about war to fight terror as justification for

finding no weapons and proving no intent.

Finally when deception occurs in conspiracy theories it comes in the form of information

vital to decision making not existing at all or plain misinformation altogether. A lie of omission

occurs more often than not in most politics, as many will agree. One not telling the whole story

by leaving out information is clearly intent on deceiving an individual or group. Yes, deceptions

in the matter of national security, which omit information from the public, can be a necessary

evil people will agree, but how do we know we are not being lied to? Lied to like in Watergate.

We do not know, plain and simple. At least until it is too far after the fact to effect any change in

the matter. There are studies that exist that cover the premise of what do we want to know, from


a public official or from those in charge. Independent of those studies results, it can be easily

assumed that there are a number of things we want to hear from authority figure regarding

specific things or events occurring, and then there is that which we could also, be better off not

knowing. Implying that, there is a fine line between what is conspiratorial politics and what is

conspiracy theory. The conspiracy theories that are the most prevalent are those in which

conspiratorial politics, national security matters, are perceived as some malevolent behind the

curtain scheme. Being deceived would help to assist in answering why people believe in

conspiracy theories and allude to their other functions within a personal, societal, and political

venue.

It is important to point out that any one conspiracy may serve up to an infinite amount of

functions for any one, or group of individuals. Personal, societal, political, and sub-culture

functions must be numerous and different as the persons, societies the person belongs to,

political realm, and sub-cultures change from one geographic locale to another. If people are

different everywhere, their society’s norms and values must in turn be just as different, leading to

different perspectives. These perspectives and perceptions of the same information will serve

very different functions for each believer.

In general, personal functions of a conspiracy theory allow the believer to satisfy a need

for closure on an event or behavior. It provides the explanation for the meticulously planned out

world events that are acting against them and others. Conspiracy theories serve to allow us to

deceive ourselves when we are feeling powerlessness, hopelessness, and massive anxiety about

something. The multitude of lives lost in the plane crashes of 9/11 created large amounts of

these in the general public when they happened. Personal satisfaction of knowing who did it so

justice can be given and experienced is the primary personal function. They can also prove to be


entertaining to particular individuals or groups. Fanatics draw crowds, crowds draw attention,

and that attention is usually directed to that in which the crowd is focused, entertaining it with

logical fallacies and creating misinformation for fun against a stranger. In some cases the

personal function of spreading these theories is to gain media time and exposure.

Societal functions of a conspiracy should differ from those personally assigned. Firstly,

we go under the premise that a paranoid style of thinking is necessary to believe a conspiracy

theory. Then, society can differentiate from the paranoid, skeptic, plan by design individuals

from those who are more rational in thinking and decision making. Secondly, society can be

poised to gain the upper hand in eyes of authority when hiding information from them is evident.

Here the public is making it clear they are on to them and that the public is aware of deception in

their accounts of events. This will protect the people from privacy invasions as per the Privacy

Act of 1972-4, although recent legislation permits more forceful way of invading one’s privacy,

National Defense Authorization Act. An act in which many personal protections such as

ideologies, civil liberties, phone, and home privacy can be forfeited in matters of national

security. Society is set to benefit from conspiratorial information when it is in the matter of

national security, but when national security encompasses the personal lives of American

citizens, privacy is invaded pervasively. The idea of conspiracy theories even existing keep

people on their toes, so when an actual conspired event to take from them or do harm to them is

in the workings, it will be much more likely to catch on before it has got to far and caused too

much damage. In retrospect, conspiracy theories serve society as a function to predict actual, out

of the ordinary events, that ordinarily without this style of thinking would go unnoticed far

longer than recoverable from. If conspiratorial thinking was more prevalent in the 30’s and 40’s,

one could imply that rumors or skepticism about the bankers allegedly doing something that


crashed the market. Simply by having more nosey, skeptical, paranoid people around, those in

power would be less likely to attempt actual malicious conspiring, due to the perceived

consequences of impeachment or the like. People need security; it is a basic need, some basis of

security in knowing their government’s actions are for them and not against them. That security

in being properly informed, lie or truth bias, comes from how we separate the paranoid from the

non in society. Ultimately, displaying that to those in power, the rest of the non believing

population is not overly paranoid, has their wits about them, so don’t try anything against us.

More scrutiny of government inner workings as a result of the conspiracies prevalent, create

awareness of the idea that those in power do in fact have the ability to and often do enrich

themselves at the expense of others. Bush era tax cut are a prime example of putting those in

less important status poised to pay more than those who are wealthier and more powerful.

Sociologically, conspiracy theories can be viewed from a few perspectives. The conflict

perspective, the structural functionalist perspective, and the neo-conservative approach.

Conspiracy theory viewed from the structural-functionalist perspective would shape conspiracy

theory phenomena into a social structure based on deviance, as deviance and socialization are

forms of social structures (DeRosso, p.3). This Theoretical approach to understanding that was

greatly influenced by Emile Durkheim 1858-1917, Auguste Compte 1802-1876, and Herbert

Spencer 1820-1903, has shifted the study of sociological studies into macro-level analysis

(Thompson & Hickey, p.18). Structural-Functionalist perspective sees society as a complex

system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability. Society’s individual parts

are considered social structures and are noted as interdependent and interrelated within the

overall structure (DeRosso, p.2). For our purposes, social structures are relatively stable

patterns of social behavior (DeRosso, 2012, p.3). So that would make conspiracy belief in the


perspective of the functionalist to be a drain on the overall functions of society. To be unstable

societal functions. The spread of outright falsehoods, or plain and simple lies among the

populace of a given social structure would be considered social deviance in this approach. This

deviant behavior would seem dysfunctional in the views of the structural functionalist. It would

be the distractive nature of conspiracy belief that would direct the believer’s attention away from

their functioning in their social structure within society. Some examples of social structures that

the structural functionalist approach labels as parts of society’s whole function are religion,

education, media, sports socialization and deviance to name a few (DeRosso, p.3). Social

structures have 3 components according to the Structural-functionalist approach, Manifest and

latent functions and dysfunction (Thompson & Hickey, p.19). Conspiracy theory and conspiracy

belief would fall under dysfunction component in that it would be viewed as not having a

valuable function in society as a whole. Its dysfunction would appear in this perspective to

threaten or disrupt society as a whole and be more in line with an alternate macro-level approach

to viewing society, the conflict perspective.

The conflict perspective views society as composed of diverse groups with conflicting

values and interests (Thompson & Hickey, p.19). Deviance is simply the violation of a social

norm (Hall, 2003). Therefore, deviant behavior is decided within the social context. Without

suggesting that conspiracy theories are inherently deviant, it is important to point out that

particular conspiracies do have it seems characteristics of deviating from normative behavior of

the particular context in which it occurs. Such as, a large group of people, who believe that a

government entity had advanced knowledge of a terrorist attack. For the most part, only a

relative portion of any one social structure believes in conspiracy theories. It is that portion of

populations which fit a particular mindset of conspiratorial thinking that aligns with these


perceptions of reality. Sociologically referencing conspiracy theories would more closely align

them with extreme deviance. Extreme deviance being of beliefs and behaviors that are so

unacceptable that they elicit strong negative reactions (Thompson & Hickey, p.168). The

believer’s faith in the conspiracy’s truthfulness conflicts in major ways with those who do not

share the same convictions. In line with particular conspiracy theories and their origins being

purported to be wealthy groups of power seeking individuals, the conflict perspective groups in

any society have differential access to wealth, power, and prestige (Thomson & Hickey, p.19).

This perspective lines up with conspiratorial theory on the terms of it focuses on economic

determinism and social class. In the believer’s mind the things in particular theories that separate

those having economic status and those without it are highly revered as deceptive. The birth

conspiracy of the president purports that Barack Obama is not a true American citizen and that

the people are being deceived. Regardless of the factuality of these claims, those who believe he

is not a citizen feel like they have been deceived based upon the connections they have made in

their observations. This deception, considered a lie of omission, an omission of information,

serves to create a conflictive interaction among the social context in which it belongs. The

believers disagreeing with the non-believers to the extent of negative results in interaction. This

could lead to lies emerging more regularly in conversations with the two opposing ideas.

Longtime friends for example, begin to act contrary to their beliefs for the sake of not arguing.

Particular conspiracies prevalent in circulation can be termed in lines with Marxian approach to

conflict which deals in social and economic class and others in line with the neo-conflict

approach, dealing with power and authority. The neo-conflict approach lines up with the group

dynamic of procedural conflict, a conflict over the order in which something occurs or is


supposed to happen. Internally conspiracy theories will have the element of insubordination,

especially when a named leader is involved.

The previous discussion leads to conclusions that these key components of a conspiracy

theories are evident and necessary. It has also covered the nature and functions over all of a

conspiracy theory. Remove the trigger or lever and the narrative cannot unfold. Remove the

facilitator or pulley, believers and media, and it cannot spread. Finally, omit the key ingredients

or the assertions made and strung together, and the perceived connections cannot happen to

create any overall message. In this discussion I have determined that it is the nature of a

conspiracy theory to be deceptive as a result of these core components. Whether it is self

deception, lies of omission or outright falsehoods in combination with mutually negotiated

deceptions, they are deceptive. They allow a believer an escape as I see it, an escape from that

which affectively afflicts them in relation to a proposed conspiracy narrative. Humans seem to

automatically find connections, seek connections in people, and attempt to explain the world

around us. In that curiosity, we are developing characteristics that set us apart by our

worldviews and cognitive abilities. Some of us become enveloped in this paranoid mindset, and

others end up more practical and logical. Those people places or things in which we try to

identify with, and that in which we do with our time and existence, helps to define who or what

we are. Educations, jobs, worldviews, prejudices are just some identities we gain and observe

changing throughout our lives. It would not be too uncommon with 7 billion people living on

this planet, for there not to be conspiratorial personal identities or relational identities emerge.

The types of conspiracies have been evolving since Lincoln’s assassination, which historically

written accounts say was an actual conspiracy. In general, the global unification of all

conspiracies into one is a contemporary idea and good example of this inherent need for


connecting things to get understanding. Further analysis of research data is necessary to

conclude any sociological determinations in regard to the nature and functions of conspiracy

theories past this discussion. Taking a hard sociological stance in observations of believers and

their societies, using techniques such as ethnographic studies and psychological studies on belief

will gather greater details for this topic. In the coming years after New York’s terror attacks, it

can be perceived that more and more conspiratorial thinking will unfold, due to hard economic

times, global politics, and unknown future hardships. These entities like Infowars and JBS only

serve to perpetuate a growing followership that facilitates their messages. Media is the major

vehicle, or maintainer of a conspiracy, so as long as it has its corporate and government liaisons,

then misinformation is inevitable. Inevitable in that, it will always serve to deliver politically

ideological biased interpretations of news to the viewers. Interpretations that can manipulate the

belief systems of people who are vulnerable or highly susceptible to identifying with

misinformation to the point of conspiratorial beliefs emerging. Finally, we must ultimately

acknowledge that if we cannot reveal a credible source to a particular assertion, then we must be

skeptical of it naturally. In order to know what a conspiracy looks like one has to simply observe

inconsistencies in the narrative. Therefore, personal synthesis of information being delivered by

the media or anyone, is necessary to make sound judgments about what to believe. A necessary

step one can agree is synthesis and analysis of information, that is to check and recheck sources.

Since we know that the highly educated and not just lower educated individuals can fall prey to

conspiratorial thinking just the same.


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