the logic of turkish -...

The Logic of Turkish

David Pierce

September

March

May

Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University

Istanbul Turkey

matmsgsuedutr~dpierce

polytropycom

Preface

It is a mystery how a young child can learn a language seem-ingly without effort and without any sense of the analysis thatadult scholars will use to understand the language

These notes are an analysis of the majority language ofTurkey made by a native speaker of English To me Turkishis remarkable in a number of ways

It is an inflected language like Greek or Latin (or Frenchas far as verbs are concerned) Turkish nouns are de-clined and verbs are conjugated a noun or verb fromthe dictionary takes on various forms when actually inuse

However while Greek is taught as having three declen-sions []lowast and Latin as having five [] Turkish hasonly one (see Ch p )

Likewise while Greek has two conjugations and Latinhas four and French has three [] Turkish has only one(Ch p )

In Turkish there are no such irregularities as in Englishwhere am are is and were are understood as forms ofbe while went is a form of go

A Latin noun is feminine or masculine and a Greeknoun may also be neuter Thus Latin and Greek nounshave gender but Turkish nouns have none English re-tains three genders in the third-person pronouns she he

lowastBracketed numerals refer to the Bibliography at the end

and it but Turkish has only one third-person pronoun(p )

Beyond inflexion Turkish has manifold regular ways ofbuilding up complex words from simple roots (p )

Thus although much Turkish grammar and vocabularycan be explained through morphology the explanationneed not be cluttered up with many paradigms illustrat-ing the various means to the same end

There is no Turkish verb like have possession is indi-cated by personal suffixes (pp amp )

Turkish has eight written vowels like Finnish [] andtheir use (in both languages) shows regular variationsthat correspond to vowel harmony in speech (pp amp)

Turkish has many regular formulas for use in social in-teractions (Ch p )

The present document may be of practical value to the vis-itor to Turkey It may help the reader puzzle out what a signor a package label might mean I assume the reader will beinterested in the variety of ways that humans have developedto express themselves in words

I first visited Turkey in and I moved here in joining the mathematics department of Middle East TechnicalUniversity in Ankara But the language of instruction thereis English I have used Turkish for communicating with mystudents only since when I moved to Istanbul and joinedthe mathematics department of Mimar Sinan Fine Arts Uni-versity

I first learned Turkish from Bengisu Ronarsquos Turkish in ThreeMonths [] and then from Geoffrey Lewisrsquos Turkish Grammar[] Lewis can be read for literary pleasure He succeeds insharing the excitement of the discoveries that he has made

about the uses of Turkish Although I have benefited fromother works too (which are found in the Bibliography) Lewisis the main source for the grammatical analysis that I presentI have however made some adjustments and simplifications tosuit my purposes and understanding

I dedicate this work to the memory of Chaninah Maschler(October mdashAugust ) my language tutor dur-ing my first year at St Johnrsquos College (Annapolis amp SantaFe) From her I learned Ancient Greek and I learned aboutlanguage itself and the life of inquiry

Contents

Preliminaries Origins Alphabet Pronunciation

Everyday expressions Interactions Signs Pleasantries Numbers Comparisons Verbs Colors Interrogatives and demonstratives

Grammar Relatives Gender Polysyllabism and euphony Some common suffixes More Suffixes Word order

Ancillary parts of speech Conjunctions Interjections

Particles

Inflexion of nouns Declension Demonstratives Two kinds of person Negation Annexation

Conjugation of verbs Possession and Existence Verbal nouns Stems

Vocal endings Modal endings

Verbs from verbal nouns Verbal adjectives Verbs from verbal adjectives Pure verbs Questions Compound tenses

Subordination

Sentences Sayings Journalese

Dictionary

Bibliography

Contents

List of Figures

The vowels The vowel cube

Personal pronouns and suffixes

Parts of speech Connectives and conjunctions Postpositions

Characteristics of verbs

A newspaper sentence diagrammed

Preliminaries

Origins

Persian is an Indo-European language Arabic is a Semiticlanguage Turkish is neither Indo-European nor Semitic butTurkic However Turkish has borrowed many words from Per-sian and Arabic

English too has borrowed many words from another lan-guage namely French but for opposite or complementary rea-sons In the eleventh century of the Common Era in tobe precise the Normans invaded England thus making theirdialect of French the language of the ruling class MeanwhileSeljuklowast Turks overran Persia but rather than imposing theirlanguage on the country they themselves adopted Persianwith its Arabic borrowings as their administrative and liter-ary language [ p xx] Seljuks under Alp Arslan also invadedAnatolia defeating the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV Dio-genes in at the Battle of Manzikertdagger

Soon Anatolia was invaded from the west as well In in what is now Clermont-Ferrand Pope Urban II preached thefirst Crusade The first Crusaders reached Constantinople (Is-tanbul) in the following year [] Ultimately from the ruins

lowastThe founder of the Seljuk dynasty is Selccediluk in Turkish but theadjective derived from his name is Selccediluklu See the suffix -l on p

daggerThe Turkish name for the town is Malazgirt the order of battlethere is shown in an historical atlas [ p ] used by schoolchildren inTurkey

of the Byzantine and Seljuk Empires there arose the Osmanlıİmparatorluğu the Ottoman Empire Osman himself died ashis followers took Bursa in They went on to take Adri-anople (Edirne) in Thrace in and then Constantinopleitself in []

The last Ottoman Sultan was deposed in The TurkishRepublic was declared by Mustafa Kemal the future Atatuumlrkin the following year

Ottoman Turkish freely borrowed words from Persian andArabic [] Many of the borrowings were abolished in the Lan-guage Reform which got going around As Lewis writesin The Turkish Language Reform A Catastrophic Success [p ] this reform ldquocould more accurately be termed a revolu-tion than a reform since lsquoreformrsquo implies improvementrdquo andindeed Language Revolution (Dil Devrimi) is what the trans-formation is called in Turkish Some Arabic and Persian wordshave been retained in the language of the Turkish Republicothers have been replaced either by neologisms fashioned insupposedly Turkic style or by borrowings from European lan-guages like French

Alphabet

Ottoman Turkish was written in the Arabic or Arabo-Persianalphabetlowast Since the Harf Devrimi Letter Revolution culmi-nating in the law ldquoOn the Adoption and Application of theNew Turkish Lettersrdquo of [ pp ] Turkish hasbeen written in an alphabet derived like the English alpha-

lowastThe Greek alphabet could also be used as for example in the in-scription on a stone that I once saw in the museum in Milas (the Mylasamentioned in Herodotus) in the Muğla province of Turkey

Preliminaries

bet from the Latin alphabet To obtain the -letter Turkishalphabet from the -letter English alphabet

) throw out (Q q) (W w) and (X x)) replace the letter (I i) with the two letters (I ı) and (İ i)

and) introduce the new letters (Ccedil ccedil) (Ğ ğ) (Ouml ouml) (Ş ş)

(Uuml uuml)lowast

In alphabetical order the Turkish letters are

A B C Ccedil D E F G Ğ H I İ J K LM N O Ouml P R S Ş T U Uuml V Y Z

There are vowels namely a e ı i o ouml u and uuml and theirnames are themselves The remaining letters are conso-nants The name of a consonant x is xe with one exceptionğ is yumuşak ge soft g

Pronunciation

Turkish words are spelled as they are spoken They are usuallyspoken as they are spelled but some words taken from Persianand Arabic are pronounced in ways that are not fully reflectedin spellingdagger Except in these loanwords there is no variationbetween long and short vowelsDagger There is hardly any variationbetween stressed and unstressed syllables

lowastThe dotless ı being hard to read in handwriting Atatuumlrk wrote it ası This can be seen in samples of his writing in museums

daggerThis is by design the alphabet was intended for transcribing ldquopurerdquospoken Turkish [ pp f] However a circumflex might be used toindicate a peculiarity or a distinction such as that between the Persiankacircr profit and the Turkish kar snow Still the circumflex does not affectthe alphabetical order of a word

DaggerI shall say presently that ğ lengthens the preceding vowel but onecan think of the extra length as belonging to the consonant

Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels

According to their pronunciation the eight Turkish vowelscan be understood as labelling the vertices of a cube I proposeto think of all of the vowels as deviations from the dotlessletter ı As fits its simple written form ı is pronounced byrelaxing the mouth completely but keeping the teeth nearlyclenched the opening of the mouth can then be conceived ofas a sideways ı The Turkish (unofficial) national drink rakı isnot pronounced like rocky in the latter wordrsquos latter syllablethe tongue is too far forward Relax the tongue in the lattersyllable letting it fall back then you can properly ask for aglass of rakılowast

The letter ı is the back unround close vowel Othervowels deviate from this by being front round or open astabulated in Figure Physically the deviations correspondto movements of the tongue lips and jaw respectively in thegeometric conception of Figure the deviations correspondrespectively to movement right up and forward For laterdiscussion of vowel harmony I let stand for a generic close

lowastIn my experience Turks who work with tourists may adopt touristsrsquomispronunciation of rakı

Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose

Figure The vowel cube

vowel for a generic unround open vowellowast

The vowel a is like uh in English ouml and uuml are as in German orare like the French eu and u and Turkish u is like the Englishozwnjo of put and soot Diphthongs are obtained by addition of yso ay is like the English ı of sky and ey is the English a ofstatedagger

The consonants that need mention are c like English j ccedillike English ch ğ which lengthens the vowel that precedes it(and never begins a word) j as in French and ş like Englishsh Doubled consonants are held longer elli fifty is differentfrom eli [somebody]rsquos hand

lowastI do not know of anybody else who uses this notation Goumlksel andKerslake [ pp xxxiii ] use capital I and A respectively According toLewis [ I p ] some people write -ler2 for example to indicatethat there are two possibilies for the vowel instead I shall write -lrLikewise instead of -in4 which has four possibilities I shall write -n

daggerThe English pronunciation symbols here are as in Fowlerrsquos schemeldquoa e ı o u ozwnjo (mate mete mite mote mute moot) ldquoă e ı o u ozwnjo (rackreck rick rock ruck root)rdquo [ p iv]

Pronunciation

Everyday expressions

By learning some of the following you can impress or amuseTurkish people or at least avoid embarrassing yourself whentrying to open a door or visit the loo

Interactions

LuumltfenTeşekkuumlrler PleaseThanksBir şey değil Yoursquore welcome itrsquos nothing (literally One thingit-is-not)Evethayır Yesno Varyok There isthere isnrsquotAffedersiniz Excuse me Af aff- is from an Arabic verbal nounmeaning a pardoning and edersiniz is the second-person pluralor polite aorist form of et- make Turkish makes a lot of verbswith et- this way For example thanks is also expressed byTeşekkuumlr ederim I make a thanking Grammatically affeder-siniz is a statement You pardon and not a commandEfendim Madam or Sir A polite way to address anybody in-cluding when answering the telephone the literal meaning ismy effendi from the Greek αὐθέντης whence also English au-thenticBeyefendiHanımefendi SirMadamMerhaba HelloGuumlnaydın Good morning (literally Day [is] bright)Hoş geldinizHoş bulduk Welcomethe response to this (liter-ally You came wellWe found well)İyi guumlnlerakşamlargeceler Good dayeveningnight The suf-

fix -lr makes these expressions formally pluralGuumlle guumlle Fare well (literally [Go] smilingly) Said to the per-son who is leavingAllaha ısmarladık or Hoşccedila kalın Good bye (literally To-God we-commended or Pleasantly stay) Said to the person who isstaying behind

Signs

BayBayan MrMs or gentlemenrsquosladiesrsquo toilet clothing ampcİtinizccedilekiniz Pushpull the door Girişccedilıkış entranceexitSolsağ leftright Soğuksıcak coldhot

Pleasantries

Nasılsınızİyiyim teşekkuumlrler sizBen de iyiyimHow are youIrsquom fine thanks youIrsquom also fine The sec-ond-person forms here are plural or polite the familiar singularforms are Nasılsın senElinize sağlık Health to your hand This is a standard compli-ment to a chef who will reply Afiyet olsun May it be healthyAnybody may say Afiyet olsun to somebody who is eating isabout to eat or has finished eating The closest expression inEnglish is not English but French bon appeacutetitKolay gelsin May [your work] come easy Said to anybody atwork whether as a friendly acknowledgment or as a preludeto an interruptionGeccedilmiş olsun May [your sickness difficulty ampc] have passed(this can also be said after the trouble has passed)İnşallah If God wills if all goes according to planMaşallah May God protect from the evil eye Used to avoid

Signs

jinxing what one praises also written on vehicles as if to com-pensate for maniacal drivingAllah korusun May God protect Also written on vehiclesRica ederim I request and Estağfurullah can be used with thesense of I donrsquot deserve such praise or Donrsquot say such [deni-grating] things about yourself The former is literally I makea request on the pattern of affedersinizCcedilok yaşayınSiz de goumlruumln Live longYou too see [long life]The response to a sneeze and the sneezerrsquos acknowledgementThe familiar forms are Ccedilok yaşasen de goumlrTanrıtanrıccedila godgoddess The latter is a neologism derivedfrom the former by use of a Serbo-Croat feminine suffix onthe model of kraliccedile queen from kral king [ II p ]

Numbers

Sıfır zeroBir iki uumlccedil doumlrt beş altı yedi sekiz dokuz On yirmi otuz kırk elli altmış yetmiş seksen doksan Yuumlzbinmilyon millionYuumlz kırk dokuz milyon beş yuumlz doksan yedi bin sekiz yuumlz yet-miş one hundred forty nine million five hundred ninety seventhousand eight hundred seventy

Comparisons

Buumlyukkuumlccediluumlk largesmall Dahaen moremostAz en az lessleast Aşağıyukarı lowerupperAltuumlst bottomtop Dışiccedil outsideinside


Verbs

Verbs are given here as stems (Ch p )Al-sat-ver- take buy sell giveAlışsatışalışveriş buyingsellingshoppingGit-gel- gocomeİn- bin- gir- ccedilık-go down get off get on go into go out or up

Colors

Renk colorKahve coffee portakal orange turunccedil bitter orangeKırmızı portakalrengi turuncu sarı redorangeyellowyeşilmavimor greenbluepurplekara siyah ak beyaz kahverengi blackwhitebrown

Interrogatives and demonstratives

Obuşu that this pointed-to (thing)Nekimkaccedil what who how many (or much)Ne zaman nerede nereye nereden neden ne kadar

When where whither whence why how muchO zaman orada oraya oradan ondan o kadar

Then there thither thence from that that muchŞimdi burada buraya buradan bundan bu kadarnow here hither hence from this this much

Nasıl how (ne + asıl = what + basis)Niccedilin why (ne + iccedilin = what + for)Oumlyleboumlyleşoumlyle Thus this way this indicated wayŞoumlyle boumlyle so-so

Verbs

Grammar

Relatives

The interrogatives given abovemdashkim ne ampcmdashalso functionas rudimentary relatives at least colloquially

Ne zaman gelecekler When will they comeBilmiyorum I donrsquot knowNe zaman gelecekler bilmiyorum I dunno when theyrsquollcome

Such a sentence is an instance of what Lewis calls asyndeticsubordination [ Ch XXI p ] In precise speech onesays

Ne zaman geleceklerini bilmiyorum

wheregeleceklerini is a case (sect p ) ofgelecekleri the rd-person plural (pp and ) ofgelecek- the future participle (sect p ) ofgel- the verb listed earlier (p )

Most of the work done in English by relative clauses is thusdone in Turkish by verbal adjectives or participles the bookthat I gave you in Turkish becomes

size verdiğim kitap

you-wards given-by-me book or the book given to you by mewhere

verdiğim is the st-person singular ofverdik the past-present participle ofver- another verb listed earlier

Gender

In Turkish you can describe somebody for a long time withoutgiving any clue to the sex of the person there is no grammat-ical gender Even accomplished Turkish speakers of Englishconfuse he and she In Turkish there is a unique third-personsingular pronoun (o on-) meaning indifferently hesheit (aswell as that [person or thing]) In translations in these notesI shall use he and she alternately one should remember thatit may also be an option (I am using a LATEX package calledhe-she by Alan Munn which allows alternation of gender tobe made automatically)

Polysyllabism and euphony

Turkish builds up long words from short meaningful units thelanguage is agglutinative or synthetic For example (takenfrom [ p ]) the question

Avrupalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız

is written as two words but pronounced as one and can beanalyzed as a stem with suffixes which I number

Avrupa0lı1la2ş3tır4ama5dık6lar7ımız8dan9 mı10sınız11

The suffixes become mostly separate words in English in al-most reverse order Are10 you11 one-of 9 those7 whom6 we8

could-not 5 Europeanize that is make4 be2come3 Europe0an1

Gender

The numbered correspondence between Turkish and Englishhere is admittedly somewhat strained The interrogative par-ticle mı strictly corresponds to the inversion of you are to formare you Also one might treat -laş as an indivisible suffix

Each of the suffixes above displays vowel harmony eachof its vowels adjusts to harmonize with the preceding vowelas described below The interrogative mısınız are you is notwritten as a suffix but it still exhibits vowel harmony and soit is called enclitic If we change Europeanize to Turkify thequestion becomes

Tuumlrkleştiremediklerimizden misiniz

In Avrupalı European I understand the suffix -lı as a spe-cialization of -l The last vowel of Avrupa is one of the twoback unround vowels the other being ı as in Figure (p )so when -l is attached to Avrupa then the generic closevowel settles down to the close vowel that is back and un-round namely ı

Likewise the suffix -laş is a specialization of -lş with ageneric unround open vowel Since ı is a back vowel the in-lş becomes the back unround open vowel when the suffix isadded to Avrupalı European

When the modern Turkish alphabet was invented somethinglike the ldquogenericrdquo vowels and could have been introducedfor use in writing down the harmonizing suffixes But then theTurkish alphabet would have needed letters since the dis-tinct ldquospecializedrdquo vowels are still needed for root-words suchas the following

Grammar

an moment bal honey al- take buyen most -est bel waist el hand

bıldırcın quail ılık tepidin- go down bil- know il provinceon ten bol ample ol- becomeoumln front boumll- divide oumll- dieun flour bul- find ulaş- arriveuumln fame buumllbuumll nightingale uumlleş- share

There are also non-harmonizing suffixesAs for consonants they may change voice depending on

phonetic context In particular some consonants oscillatewithin the following pairs

td pb ccedilc kğ

Agglutination or synthesis can be seen on signs posted ev-erywhere An

indirim (in0dir1im2)

is an instance2 of causing1 to go-down0 that is a reduction asale you will see the word in shop-windows From the sameroot

inilir (in0il1ir2)

means it-is2 got1 down-from0 it is an exit the word may bewritten at the rear door of city busses warning you not toenter there (Instead of a finite verb inilir can be understoodas an aorist participle meaning a thing descended from as onp )

As the last two examples suggest not only can one wordfeature more than one suffix but many different words canbe formed from one root From the root oumll- die spring thefollowing words (The dots indicate syllable divisions and likethe hyphens on verb stems are not part of normal spelling)


oumllmiddotduumlr- killoumllmiddotduumlrmiddoten killeroumllmiddotduumlrmiddotesiye murderouslyoumllmiddotduumlrmiddotmen executioneroumllmiddotduumlrmiddotmenmiddotlik (his post)oumllmiddotduumlrmiddott- have (someone) killedoumllmiddotduumlrmiddotuumlcuuml deadly fataloumllmiddotduumlrmiddotuumll- be killedoumllmiddotduumlrmiddotuumllmiddoten murder victimoumllmiddotesiye to deathoumllmiddotet (provincial) plagueoumllmiddoteyaz- almost dieoumllmiddotguumln lifeless witheredoumllmiddotguumlnmiddotluumlk lifelessnessoumllmiddotmez immortal

oumllmiddotmezmiddotleşmiddottir- immortalizeoumllmiddotmezmiddotlik immortalityoumllmiddotmuumlş deadoumllmiddotuuml corpseoumllmiddotuumlk deathly lookingoumllmiddotuumlmiddotluumlk morgueoumllmiddotuumlm deathoumllmiddotuumlmmiddotcuumll mortaloumllmiddotuumlmmiddotluuml transitoryoumllmiddotuumlmmiddotluumlk burial moneyoumllmiddotuumlmmiddotluumlmiddotluumlk mortalityoumllmiddotuumlmmiddotsuuml deathlikeoumllmiddotuumlmmiddotsuumlz immortaloumllmiddotuumlmmiddotsuumlzmiddotluumlk immortalityoumllmiddotuumln- (see below)

Actually the words oumllduumlrmen oumllduumlrmenlik and oumllmiddotuumlluumlk aredisused neologisms for cellacirct cellacirctlık and morg The verboumlluumln- would be passive if oumll- were transitive it is instransitiveso oumllmiddotuumln- must be impersonal referring to the dying of somegeneric person see Chapter and sect

Some common suffixes

The following suffixes are used all the time Three of themhave already been seen among the words derived from oumll- inthe previous section The meanings of the root-words in theexamples below are probably obvious but they are given laterin the Dictionary (Ch p )

-c person involved with

Grammar

kebapccedilı kebab-sellerkilitccedili locksmith

balıkccedilı fishmongerdedikoducu rumor-monger

gazeteci journalist or newsagent

-c language of Tuumlrkccedile Turkish (the language of the Turks)Kuumlrtccedile Kurdish

Ermenice Armenianİbranice HebrewYunanca Greek

Hollandaca Dutch

-l-sz includingexcludingsuumltluumlsuumltsuumlz withwithout milk

şekerlişekersiz sweetenedsugar-freeetlietsiz containing meatmeatless

Hollandalı Dutch (person)koumlyluuml villagersarılı (person) dressed in yellow

Somebody who does not wish to confuse ethnicity withnationality will refer to a citizen of Turkey as Tuumlrkiyelirather than the usual Tuumlrk

-lk container of pertaining totuzluk salt cellarkimlik identity

kitaplık bookcaseguumlnluumlk daily diarygecelik nightly nightgown


-daş mate yolyoldaş roadcomradeccedilağccedilağdaş eracontemporary

meslekmeslektaş professioncolleaguekarınkardeş bellysiblingarkaarkadaş backfriend

ldquoI am one sir that comes to tell you your daughter andthe Moor are now making the beast with two backsrdquothus Iago in Shakespearersquos Othello In Turkish a friendis not necessarily a lover but is rather somebody withwhom you would stand back to back while fending off theenemy Oddly there is no vowel harmony in meslektaşor kardeş

-l (makes verbs from nouns and adjectives)başla- make a head (begin)kilitle- make locked (lock)

temizle- make clean (clean)koumlpekle- make like a dog (cringe or dog-paddle)

The last example is in [ XIV p ] with Englishmeaning cringe only

-lr more than one of This is not normally used if a definitenumber is namedbaşlar heads beş baş five headkişiler people on iki kişi twelve person

-nc -th birinci first st ikinci second nd

uumlccediluumlncuuml third rdkaccedilıncı in which place (ldquohow manyethrdquo)

sonuncu last

Two more suffixes are used with numbers like -nc thoughthey are not so common as this

Grammar

-(ş)r (of for) each Birer one eachikişer two each

kaccedilar how many (much) each

-()z from a multiple birth İkiz twin(s)uumlccediluumlz triplet(s)

More Suffixes

Turkish grammarians distinguish between constructive andinflexional suffixes (yapım ekleri and ccedilekim ekleri [ p ])Words with inflexional suffixes do not appear in the dictionarywords with constructive suffixes (usually) do Of the commonsuffixes listed in the previous section -lr is inflexional and-c may be so (see p )

There are several series of personal inflexional suffixes theyare in Figure with the personal pronouns for comparisonThe plural ending -lr (p ) combines with the third-personforms listed in the last column to make

onlar -lr -lr -lr -lr -snlr

respectively but the distinct plural forms of the third-personendings are not always used

The four series of suffixes in the last four rows of the tabledo not seem to be given names elsewhere Neither have Iseen them gathered together with the possession suffixes andthe pronouns in this way For example Lewis [] has thepronouns on his page the possession suffixes (which he callspersonal suffixes) on his page and the remaining suffixes onhis pages ndash where they are simply said to be of Types III III and IV respectively The corresponding page numbersfor Oumlzkırımlı [] are and he does use the term

More Suffixes

person st nd rd

number sing pl sing pl

pronoun ben biz sen siz o on-

possession -()m -()mz -()n -()nz -(s)

predicative -(y)m -(y)z -sn -snz -

verbal -m -k -n -nz -

subjunctive -(y)ym -(y)lm -(y)sn -(y)snz -

imperative - -(y)n(z) -sn

Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar

possession suffix (iyelik eki) but numbers the other suffixesndash

Second-person plural forms are used politely to address indi-viduals as in French In examples below I use the archaic En-glish second-person singular formsmdashthou thee ampcmdashto trans-late the corresponding Turkish singular forms

A suffix of possession attaches to a noun to show theperson of the possessor of the named entity

kitabım kitabımız kitabın kitabınız kitabımy book our book thy book your book her book

A possession suffix does not indicate that an entity is a posses-sor of something else this job would be done by the possessivecase-ending (p )

A predicative suffix can make a complete sentence itturns an expression into a predicate whose subject is the per-son indicated

kitabım kitabız kitapsın kitapsınız kitapI am abook

we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook

While the example of kitabım is ambiguous being either anoun or a sentence examples with nouns ending in vowels arenot ambiguous

ağam my lord ağayım I am lord

Su water is an exception its possessed forms being

suyum suyumuz suyun suyunuz suyu

although suyum can also mean I am waterThe ending -dr is also predicative (it derives from an an-

cient verb-form meaning she stands [ VIII p ])

More Suffixes

Abbas yolcu Abbas the traveller Yolcudur Abbas Abbas is a traveller

Here Abbas yolcu is a proverbial name for a traveller see p See sect p for the interaction of the plural ending-lr with the possession suffixes the predicative suffixes and-dr

Predicative suffixes are also used with some verb-forms Theremaining personal suffixes in Figure are used only with verb-forms See Ch p

Nouns are declined roughly as in Latin they take thecase-endings discussed in Ch p However a big differ-ence from Latin is that Turkish adjectives are not inflected toldquoagreerdquo in any way with the nouns that they modify ThusTurkish adjectives as such are indeclinable The native En-glish speaker may have a jolt upon realizing that when usedas an adjective the Turkish bu (pp and ) is translated byeither this or these depending on the number of the associatednoun

These as a noun is in Turkish bunlar In the same way otherTurkish adjectives may be used as nouns in which case theyare declinable like every noun

Comparison of adjectives is achieved with the particlesdaha en and az given above on p these precede adjec-tives

Word order

In a Turkish sentence the modifier usually comes before themodified This means

bull adjective (used attributively) precedes nounbull adverb precedes verb

Grammar

bull object of postposition precedes postpositionIn a sentence

bull subject precedes predicatebull objects precede verbbull indirect object precedes direct object

These are not absolute rules see for example the sayings num-bered and in sect (p )

Word order

Ancillary parts of speech

Besides nouns adjectives verbs and pronouns Turkish hasadverbs conjunctions particles and interjections Such atleast are the approximate English names for the Turkish partsof speech listed in Figure Atabay et al [] use the termsad sıfat belirteccedil adıl ilgeccedil bağlaccedil uumlnlem and eylem but givethe Ottoman terms zarf edat rabıt and nida in footnotesOumlzkırımlı [] gives both modern and Ottoman terms exceptrabıt and nida Redhouse [] says conjunction is not simplyrabıt but rabıt edatı ie conjoining particle

Conjunctions

Some Turkish conjunctions are given in Fig along withthe Boolean connectives used to symbolize them (My mainsource for propositional logic in Turkish is Nesin []) In thetable de and da are specializations of the enclitic d for isesee Ch p

Interjections

To Turkish interjections Goumlksel and Kerslake devote a shortparagraph [ p ] Lewis [] remarks on individualexamples at five places The enormous Cambridge Grammarof the English Language [] weighing in at pages spendsone paragraph on English interjections But Atabay et al []

Ottoman modern Englishisim ad nounsıfat oumlnad adjectivezarf belirteccedil adverbzamir adıl pronounedat ilgeccedil particlerabıt bağlaccedil conjunctionnida uumlnlem interjectionfiil eylem verb

Figure Parts of speech

devote almost ten percent of their book to Turkish interjec-tions mostly by giving literary examples of about forty ofthem Those that seem most common in my experience are asfollows with some possible translations of some instances oftheir use

E Whatrsquos this all aboutEh So-soAy OuchOf Irsquom fed upTu Thatrsquos too badAman Thatrsquos terrible

Eyvah Oh noHaydi Come on letrsquos goBravo BravoYazık What a shameYahu Look here nowYaşa All right excellent

Particles

Among the particles may be listed the postpositions whichare somewhat like prepositions in English Some common ex-amples are in Figure They follow their objects instead ofpreceding them but they still do work that might otherwise

Particles

notA A değil not A

A and B A ve B A and B

A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B

hem A hem B both A and B

A or B A veya B A or B

A ya da B

ya A ya B either A or B

notA and notB ne A ne B neither A nor B

A rarr B (eğer) A ise (o zaman) B if A (then) B

A harr B A ancak ve ancak B A if and only if B

Figure Connectives and conjunctions


case of object

gibi like possessive or bare

kadar as far as dative

doğru towards dative

dolayı because of ablative

goumlre according to dative

iccedilin for possessive or bare

ile with possessive or bare

Figure Postpositions

be done with cases such as are given in Ch p Like theobject of a Greek or Latin preposition the object of a Turkishpostposition may itself be a case of a noun

The objects of gibi iccedilin and ile are possessive when theyare pronouns bare when they are nouns Also ile can also besuffixed as -l and understood as a case-ending see p

onun gibi like himyağmur yağacak gibi goumlruumlnuumlyor it looks like it will rain

benim iccedilin for me Tuumlrkiye iccedilin for Turkeysizin ile sizinle with you

A difference from Greek and Latin (and for that matter En-glish) is that some Turkish postpositions themselves may takepersonal suffixes

gibisi yok she has no peer

This shows that the classification of words like gibi as postposi-tions is inadequate In the Concise Oxford Turkish Dictionary

Particles

Alderson and İz define gibi as The similar the like Similarlike As as soon as just as as though [ p ] In an articleall about gibi Van Schaaik interprets the definition just givenas meaning that gibi is a noun postposition or conjunction[ p ] he himself argues that gibi should be understood asa predicate


Inflexion of nouns

A Turkish noun can take inflexional endings usually in thefollowing order

) the plural ending -lr (p )

) a possession suffix (sect p )

) a case-ending (below)

) a predicative suffix (sect p )

Declension

The cases of Turkish nouns that do not have the third-personpossession suffix -(s) are as follows

Bare The dictionary-form of a noun used for subjects andindefinite direct objects

Clarifying In (y) for definite direct objects

Dative In -(y) for indirect objects

Ablative In -dn for that from which

Locative In -d for place where

Possessive In -(n)n

Relative In -c with meanings like according to or in themanner of one use was given in sect p

Instrumental In -()n this case is obsolescent but canbe seen in examples like yazmiddotın during the summer [p ] and the neologism oumlrneğmiddotin for example [ p ]The instrumental sense is achieved now with the post-position ile with which can be suffixed as -l

For example

Guumllmiddotler guumlzelmiddotdir Roses are beautifulBana bir guumll al Buy me a rose

Guumllmiddotuuml koparmayın Donrsquot pick the roseGuumllmiddoteguumllmiddotdenguumllmiddotde tofromon a rose or the rose

Guumllmiddotuumln dikenmiddoti Rosersquos thornGuumllrsquoce according to Guumll ccedilocukccedila childishly or baby-talkGuumllrsquole Ayşe Ayşe and Guumll bıccedilakmiddotla kes- cut with a knife

The third-person possession suffix -(s) is followed by -n be-fore the case-endings are added except for ile

guumlluumlnuuml guumlluumlne guumlluumlnden guumlluumlnde guumlluumlnuumln guumlluumlnce guumlluumlyle

The singular personal pronouns from Figure are declined asfollows

ben beni bana benden bende benim bence benimlesen seni sana senden sende senin sence seninleo onu ona ondan onda onun onca onunla

Concerning ben and sen note thatbull they show a vowel change in the dative

Inflexion of nouns

bull their possessive forms take the corresponding possessionsuffixes from Table (although the second-person singu-lar possession suffix is the same as the possessive suffixanyway)

bull the postposition ile is suffixed to the possessive forms asin the rule given on p

The Turkish term for case is durmiddotum state of affairs Turk-ish names for the cases are () yalın durum then () belirtme() youmlnelme () bulunma () ccedilıkma () tamlayan () benzerlikdurumu then () araccedillı durum [ p ] but some variationis possible Atabay et al [ p ] give also the Latin terms() nominativus () accusativus () dativus () locativus() ablativus () determinativus and () aequativus for thefirst seven they do not give Oumlzkırımlırsquos eighth case Grammar-ians Demir [ p ] and Lewis [ p ] do not recognizethe seventh case as such

Demonstratives

The third-person pronoun oon- is also the demonstrative ad-jective that as indicated on p other demonstratives are

bubun- thisthese

şuşun- (for the thing pointed to)

See also p

Two kinds of person

Nouns can indicate person in two senses A possession suffix shows the person of a possessor of the

named entity

Demonstratives

guumllmiddotuumlmguumllmiddotuumlmuumlzguumllmiddotuumlnguumllmiddotuumlnuumlz myourthyyour roseguumllmiddotuumlDenizrsquoin guumllmiddotuuml his roseDenizrsquos rose

A predicative suffix shows the person of the entity itself

GuumllmiddotuumlmGuumllmiddotuumlzGuumllmiddotsuumlnGuumllmiddotsuumlnuumlzI amWe areThou artYou are a rose

Recall from p that the plural suffix -lr combines with

) the third-person possession suffix -(s) to make -lr

) the third-person predicative suffix (which is empty) tomake -lr

Thus the plural ending -lr can show multiplicity of three dif-ferent things

) the entity itself

guumllmiddotler roses guumllmiddotlermiddoti her roses

) its (third-person) possessor

guumllmiddotlermiddoti their rose

) the (third-person) subject of which the entity is predi-cated

Guumllmiddotler They are roses

The plural ending will not be repeated Thus also

guumllmiddotlermiddoti their roses

Inflexion of nouns

Whether -lr denotes plurality of subject or predicate can beindicated by use of -dr

Guumllmiddotduumlrmiddotler They are rosesGuumllmiddotlermiddotdir They are the roses

The four kinds of noun suffixes are used in order in

Guumllmiddotlermiddotimmiddotdemiddotsiniz You are in my roses

Negation

A sentence made from a noun with a predicative ending isnegated with değil the predicative ending is added to this

Guumll değilmiddotim I am not a rose I am not RoseGuumllmiddotlermiddotimmiddotde değilmiddotsiniz You are not in my roses

Annexation

When two nouns are joined even though the first does notname a possessor of the second the second tends to take thethird-person suffix of possession

boumllmiddotuumlm departmentmatematik boumllmiddotuumlmmiddotuuml mathematics department

You can see this feature in many names of things

İş Bankamiddotsı Business BankTekirdağ rakımiddotsı Tekirdağ [brand] rakı

Eski İmaret Camii Old Soup-kitchen Mosque

Negation

The last is a little mosque in Istanbul off the tourist trail builtin the th century as the Church of St Savior Pantepoptes [p ] Note that cami is usually construed as here as endingin a consonant albeit a consonant not shown in spelling theglottal stop [ pp ] Thus we usually have camii ratherthan camisi

One does sometimes see camisi instead camii as for examplein Guumlnayrsquos Guide to the Works of Sinan the Architect in Istan-bul [] The English mosque shares its ultimate Arabic originwith the Turkish mescit small mosque [ ] while cami isrelated through its Arabic source to Cuma Friday Thus acami would appear to be strictly a Friday mosque a mosquewhere communal Friday prayers are made This is made ex-plicit in Iran where a grand mosque may be called Masjed-eJameh Mosque of Friday the Turkish would be Cuma MescidiThus Persian and Turkish alike join nouns by adding an end-ing to the noun being qualified but then they write the nounsin opposite order The Persian construction was nonethelessused in Ottoman Turkish and can still be seen in some namesas of the Abide-i Huumlrriyet Monument of Liberty in Şişli Istan-bul and of the road that runs south from it Abide-i HuumlrriyetCaddemiddotsi The monument commemorates the ConstitutionalRevolution of [ p ] and is normally closed to visi-tors though I was invited in by the caretaker when I walkedup to the gate It memorializes a progressive development inTurkey that predated Atatuumlrkrsquos rise but it also contains thelast remains of two of the instigators of the Armenian Geno-cide of namely Enver and Talacirct

On the principles that we are now considering the modernform of the name ofAbide-i Huumlrriyet would be huumlrriyet anmiddotıtmiddotı oreven oumlzguumlrmiddotluumlk anıtı If the second noun in each combinationwere made plural the plural ending would precede the suffix

Inflexion of nouns

of possession as before

deniz anamiddotsı deniz anamiddotlarmiddotı jellyfish literally sea mother(s)

If the two nouns are written as one word they may or maynot still be treated grammatically as two

atamiddotsoumlzmiddotuuml father saying (proverb) atamiddotsoumlzmiddotlermiddoti proverbs ayakmiddotkabmiddotı foot container (shoe) ayakmiddotkabmiddotımiddotlar shoes

The word atasoumlzleri appears in the titles of the sources [ ] for sect p

The possession suffix is not normally repeated

Tuumlrk soumlzuuml Tuumlrk atasoumlzuuml Turkish saying Turkish proverb

From doğmiddotum guumlnmiddotuuml birthday I have seen the formation Nidarsquonindoğum guumlnuumlsuuml Nidarsquos birthday as a grafitto near the Suumlley-maniye Camii in Istanbul the correct form is supposed to beNidarsquonin doğum guumlnuuml

Sometimes two bare nouns are combined without change

mercimek ccedilorbası or mercimek ccedilorba lentil soup

Annexation

Conjugation of verbs

Possession and Existence

There is no Turkish verb corresponding to the English havePossession is normally indicated by suffixes of possession (sect p ) The existence of possession or of anything else isexpressed by the predicative adjective var non-existence isexpressed by yok

Guumllmiddotuumlm var My rose exists I have got a roseGuumllmiddotuumlm yok I have not got a rose

One can also express ownership by means of the noun sahipowner or else the postposition ait belonging to which followsnouns in the dative case

Guumll bana aittir The Rose belongs to meGuumlluumln sahibi benim I am the owner of the rose

Verbal nouns

The dictionary-form of a verb is usually the infinitive endingin -mk remove this ending and you have a stem Howevernot every stem is found in this way some stems are furtheranalyzable and they might not be found as part of a dictionaryform We shall consider these in the next section Meanwhilethere are (at least) two more kinds of verbal noun that maybe in the dictionary with endings

-m resembling the -ing of the English gerund and

-(y)ş indicating manner

So we have

okumakokumaokuyuş to read reading way of reading

(See also saying on p ) The common stem in the exam-ples is oku- This is the dictionary-form in one dictionary []and I wish it were so in all dictionaries since then simple verbswould always come before those obtained from them by meansof constructive suffixes (sect p ) I give verbs as stems inthis document (See the Dictionary starting on p )

Stems

A finite Turkish verb generally consists of a simple stem fol-lowed in order by endings that I shall call

) vocal) modal) characteristic and) personal

Dictionaries seem to treat the vocal endings or voice suffixes[ p ] as constructive suffixes while the modal endingsare inflexional suffixes Neither vocal nor modal endings needbe present in a verb

A verb with only vocal or modal endings and no character-istic and personal endings is a stem Although stems withmodal endings are not found in the dictionary they can stillbe made into verbal nouns with -mk -m or -(y)ş

Stems

Vocal endings

One or more vocal endings may be found in a stem in thefollowing order

) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş

) causative -(d)r or -()t or -r depending on theverb

) passive or impersonal -l or -()n

Two or more causative endings can be used A reciprocal and acausative ending together make the repetitive ending namely-()şmiddottr

okumiddotn- be read okumiddott- make (somebody) readoumll-oumllmiddotduumlr-oumllmiddotduumlrmiddott-oumllmiddotuumln- (see sect p )

sev- love sevmiddotiş- make lovebul- find bulmiddotun- be

ara- look for aramiddotşmiddottır- do research

Modal endings

I call certain endings modal having failed to find better ter-minology Lewis groups these endings together [ p ]but does not give them a name They indicate affirmationdenial impossibility and the possibility of these Strictly lackof a modal ending indicates affirmation denial is with -mimpossibility -(y)m possibility -(y)bil


oku- read

okumiddotma- not read

okumiddotyama- cannot read

okumiddotyabil- can read

okumiddotmamiddotyabil- may not read

okumiddotyamamiddotyabil- may be unable to read

Early in the morning in Ankara once when a taxi driver foundout he would be taking me all the way to the airport he toldhis friend

Gelemeyebilirim Maybe I canrsquot come

mdashcome that is to drink the tea the friend was brewing Anexample that I made up is

At iccedilmiddottirmiddotilmiddotememiddotyebilmiddotirmiddotdirA horse can perhaps not be made to drink

The modal endings can be analyzed as follows at least ac-cording to Lewis [ pp f] The suffix -m negatesthe obsolete verb u- be able negated becomes the impoten-tial suffix -(y)m the (living) verb bil- know with a bufferbecomes the potential suffix -(y)bil But you cannot com-bine these just as you please only the six given formations areavailable However there are a few other verbs that can besuffixed as bil- is one example is yaz- in oumllmiddoteyaz- (sect p )

Goumlksel and Kerslake group the suffixable verbs together [ p ] but analyze the impotential suffix -(y)m intotwo suffixes -(y) and the negating -m which they considerseparately [ ]

Stems

Verbs from verbal nouns

Again a simple stem possibly with vocal and modal endingsadded is still a stem From this we can make verbal nounssuch as the infinitive and the gerund Both

bull the locative case (in -mk) of the infinitive and

bull the instrumental case (in -l p ) of the gerund

can take predicative endings thus becoming finite verbs

Okumiddotmakmiddottamiddotdır He is engaged in reading Okumiddotmamiddotlı She must read

Among Turkish speakers I have encountered resistence to theanalysis of the -ml of okumalı as -m plus -l Goumlksel andKerslake [] present the -ml suffix without further analysisThe older Lewis does analyze the suffix [ VIII p ]while noting that rarely the gerund with -l may be a simpleadjective in addition to he must hang asmalı can just meanvine-covered [ X p ]

Verbal adjectives

Also obtained from a stem are five verbal adjectives or par-

ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş


(positive) aorist in -()r or -r

The aorist is the geniş zaman broad tense see below Lewisrefers to the past-present and the past participles as the di-past and miş-past respectively while noting that the formermay denote present activity like done in things done today asopposed to things done yesterday [ IX p ]

Aorist participles with negative or impotential stems areanomalous so we must speak of the

negative aorist in -mz

impotential aorist in -(y)mz

A future or past-present participle can take a suffix of posses-sion indicating the person of the subject of the action indi-cated by the participle

okumiddotduğmiddotum kitap book that I did read or am readingokumiddotyacağmiddotım kitap book that I shall read

Thus a possession suffix indicates so to speak the possessorof the action named by the participle This possessor may benamed by a noun in the possessive case

Guumllrsquouumln okuduğu kitap The book read by Guumll

The present past and aorist participles do not take possessionsuffixes except with the usual sense

gelmiddoten gidmiddoten that which comes that which goesdolmiddotmuş filled minibus (because it is usually filled)

dolmiddotmuşmiddotumuz our minibusakmiddotarmiddotsu flowing water stream

saymiddotılmiddotabilmiddotir saymiddotılmiddotamaz countable uncountable []

A number of the proverbs in sect p feature present par-ticiples often with case-endings

Verbal adjectives

Verbs from verbal adjectives

The future aorist and past participles can take predicativeendings thereby becoming finite verbs Since the third-personpredicative ending is empty the participles themselves mayalso be finite verbs

Okumiddotyacak She will readOkumiddotr He reads is a readerOkumiddotmaz She does not readOkumiddotyamaz He is illiterate

Okumiddotmuş She read [in the past]

Another family of verbs can be understood under this schemeas follows The verb yuumlruuml- walk was originally yorı- [] Wecan conceive of this as being suffixable to a verb just as bil-is (p ) Then we should be able to form aorist participleslike sayılayorır on the pattern of sayılabilir Thus we wouldbe using a suffix -(y)yorır on the pattern of -(y)bilir that is-(y)bil + r

It seems that speakers of an ancestor of modern Turkishdid this [ p f] but now the suffix -(y)yorır has beenabraded to

-()yor

This ending is not used to make participles as such but withthe predicative endings it still forms finite verbs namely verbsof the present tense

okuyorum I am reading okuyoruz we are readingokuyorsun thou art reading okuyorsunuz you are readingokuyor he is reading okuyorlar they are reading

Compare with the aorist


okurum I read okuruz we readokursun thou readst okursunuz you readokur she reads okurlar they read

A difference between aorist and present-tense verbs is illus-trated in a comment on Turkish driving habits [ VIII p ]

Başka memleketlerde kazara oumllmiddotuumlrmiddotlerbiz kazara yaşımiddotyormiddotuz

In other countries they die by accidentwe are living by accident

The difference between the aorist

anlamam I am not somebody who understands

and the present-tense

anlamıyorum I donrsquot understand at the moment

is illustrated by Ali Nesin [] In he was selling copies ofMatematik Duumlnyası magazine at the Istanbul Book Fair whena man visited the stand identified himself as a mathematiciansaid he had heard of the magazine but declined to buy a copysaying Ben bunları anlamam I donrsquot understand these thingsNesin responds

I never saw a mathematician who said anlamamMany say anlamıyorum everybody says it but Inever encountered somebody who said anlamam


Pure verbs

A verb without characteristic or personal endings is a stem(p ) a verb without personal endings is a base Thus abase is a stem plus a characteristic So far then from thestem sev- for example we have the bases

sevmekte sevmeliseven sevecek sevdik sevmiş

sever sevmez sevemezseviyor

Except perhaps the last all of these are nouns or adjectivesat least in origin and all take predicative endings

There are verbs that definitely do not start out as any otherpart of speech The subjunctive and imperative endings inFigure p attach directly to stems without a charac-teristic The second- and third-person subjunctives are rarelyseen and the first-person subjunctive has the effect of an im-perative Since there are no official first-person imperativeendings it may be useful to combine the subjunctive and im-perative endings into one series of verbs that are imperative(or perhaps optative) in meaning

seveyim sevelim sevsevin sevsinlet me love let us love love thouyou let him love

Finally there are a

definite past tense with characteristic -d and a

conditional mood with characteristic -s

The personal endings used with these bases are the endingscalled verbal in Figure p


okudum I did read okuduk we did readokudun thou didst read okudunuz you did readokudu she did read okudular they did read

I use the emphatic I did read simply because of the ambiguityof the written form of read by itself is it pronounced red orred)

Okumiddotsa If only he would read

Roughly the difference between okumuş and okudu is that thelatter connotes eyewitness knowledge the former inference orhearsay Thus the past in -mş may be called the inferential

past

In practice a past-tense form need not have a past meaning

geldim literally I came may mean Irsquom coming right away

You can say good-bye to your friend on the telephone witheither of

oumlptuumlm I kissed oumlpuumlyorum I am kissing [thee]

The conditional characteristic -s appears in the logical formA ise B of Figure p Here ise is understood as attachedto A It is normally used in compounds as considered insect Let us just note here that conditional forms are used todenote sufficient conditions not necessary conditions In theimplication A rarr B

bull A is sufficient for B andbull B is necessary for A

In Turkish it is A that will feature the conditional character-istic while in French B would be conditional

All of the characteristics can now be collected as in Figure

Pure verbs

participle basenecessitative -ml

-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak

positive -()r -raorist negative -mz

impotential -(y)mz-mş

past-dk -d

conditional -simperative -

Figure Characteristics of verbs


Questions

The interrogative particle m (which appeared in sect p ) precedes the predicative endings but follows the otherpersonal endings

Okumiddotmakmiddotta mımiddotyım Am I engaged in readingOkumiddotmamiddotlı mımiddotyım Must I readOkumiddotyacak mımiddotyım Am I going to read

Okumiddotr mumiddotyum Do I readOkumiddotmaz mımiddotyım Do I not read

Okumiddotyamamiddotz mıyım Can I not readOkumiddotmuş mumiddotyum Did I supposedly readOkumiddotyor mumiddotyum Am I reading

Okumiddotdum mu Did you see me readingOkumiddotsamiddotm mı Should I read I wonder

Okumiddotyayım mı Shall I read do you want me to read

Compound tenses

Compound tenses are formed by means of the defective

verb

i- be

The stem i- takes no vocal or modal endings It forms noverbal nouns It does form the participle iken which has asuffixed form -(y)ken and may follow a verb-base

Gelmiddotirmiddotken bana oyunmiddotcak tren gemiddottirmiddotir mimiddotsinWhen you come will you bring me a toy train

This was said in a cartoon in Penguen by a calf to his fatherwho was trying to explain why he (the bull) was going withthe butcher on a long trip from which he would never return

Questions

The stem i- forms the bases imiddotmiş imiddotdi and imiddotse which canbe suffixed as -(y)mş -(y)d and -(y)s Hence two com-

pound bases in i- are formed imiddotmişmiddotse and imiddotdimiddotyse Verbs in i-are negated with a preceding değil and ldquointerrogatedrdquo (madeinto questions) with a preceding m the değil precedes them if both are used Verbs in i- may be attached to nounsverbs in i- with simple (not compound) bases may be attachedto verb-bases not in i- Missing forms in i- are supplied by ol-become

Kuşmiddotmuş It was apparently a birdHayır uccedilakmiddottı No it was a plane

Uccedilak ise niccedilin uccedilmiddotmumiddotyor If it is a plane why is it not flyingUccedilmiddotacakmiddottı It was going to fly

Uccedilmiddotarmiddotsa binmiddotecek mimiddotsiniz If it flies will you boardCcedilabuk ol Be quick

Olmiddotmak ve sahip olmiddotmak To be and to be an owner

The last example is Turkish title of the French movie Etre etavoir

The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun

was listed on p Formally it is a perfect imperative Passedmay it be let it have passed The form is useful for translatingEuclid When in Proposition I of the Elements [] Euclidsays

ἐπεζεύχθω ἡ ∆Γ

this is not quite as Heath would have it [ p ] Let ∆Γ bejoined it is more like Suppose ∆Γ has already been joinedThis reminds us that Euclid did not have erasable writing


boards like ours in his lectures (not to mention his completedmanuscripts) the diagrams had already been drawn [ p ]This may not be enough reason to bother with the periphrasticperfect imperative of English but the Turkish translation issomewhat simpler

Birleştirilmiş olsun Let it have been joined []

as opposed to

Birleştirilsin Let it be joined

In any case as noted on p Geccedilmiş olsun may be said ofbad things such as sickness that are already known to havepassed Perhaps it should be understood as a wish that thebad things should pass even from memorymdashand not just thatthey should pass but that they should already have passed

Subordination

As noted -(y)ken is used with a verb-base to subordinate theverb There are various endings used with verb-stems thatsubordinate the verb to another

bull -(y)nc (denotes action just before that of the mainverb)

bull -(y)ncy kadar until mdashing

bull -(y) (the ending used in Guumlle guumlle p Ch )

bull -(y)rk by mdashing

bull -mdn without mdashing

bull -mdn oumlnce before mdashing

Compound tenses

bull -dktn sonra after mdashing

Here are a couple of literary examples given in []

Ccediliftliğe doğru istemiddotmemiddotyerek yuumlruumlduumlShe walked towards the farm without wanting to

İlkyazlarla yeniden canlanışı doğanın kış başmiddotlamiddotyınca soumlnmesiWith spring comes naturersquos rebirth with winter its

extinction


Sentences

Sayings

Various collections of Turkish proverbs are available [ ] The sayings below are taken from these books Ideally ifa translation is not given (or even if it is) the reader shouldbe able to supply a translation on the basis of the presentdocument All needed root-words should be in Ch

Bakmakla oumlğrenilse koumlpekler kasap olurduIf learning were done by watching dogs would be butch-ers

Bal tutan parmağını yalarThe worker takes a share of the goods

Balcının var bal tası oduncunun var baltasılowast

A honey-seller has a honey-pot a woodsman has an axe

Bir deli kuyuya taş atmış kırk akıllı ccedilıkaramamış

Ccedilok yaşayan bilmez ccedilok gezen bilir

Geccedil olsun da guumlccedil olmasınLet it be late just donrsquot let it be difficult

lowastNormal word order would be Balcının bal tası var oduncunun baltası

var

Gelen gideni aratırWhat comes makes you look for what goes (The newmakes you miss the old)

Goumlnuumll ferman dinlemez

Goumlruumlnen koumly kılavuz istemezYou donrsquot need a weatherman to know which way thewind blows

Her yiğidin bir yoğurt yeyişi vardırEveryone has his own way of doing things

Hocanin dediğini yap yaptığını yapma

İsteyenin bir yuumlzuuml kara vermeyenin iki yuumlzuumlThe person who asks for something has a black face butthe person who doesnrsquot give it has two

Kedi uzanamadığı ciğere pis der (sour grapes)

Meyvası olan ağacı taşlarlar

Nasihat istersen tembele iş buyurIf you want to hear advice ask a lazy person to work

Olmaz olmaz deme olmaz olmaz

Oumllenle oumlluumlnmez One doesnrsquot die with the dead

Soumlz guumlmuumlşse suumlkucirct altındır

Uumlzuumlmuuml ye bağını sorma

Sentences

Yolcudur Abbas bağlasan durmazlowast

Abbas is a traveller tie him down he does not stop

Yuvarlanan taş yosun tutmaz

Journalese

One may in theory know all of the grammar presented so farwithout being able to make sense of sentences in a newspa-per This section represents my attempt to analyze two suchsentences First here are () one of these sentences () aword-by-word translation and () a proper English transla-tion

numaralı kararda barış guumlcuumlnuumlnbu goumlrevi yerine getirebilmesi iccedilinLuumlbnan ordusuna yardımcı olmasıistenirken soumlz konusu goumlrevininengellenmeye ccedilalışılması durumunda guumlccedilkullanabileceği belirtiliyor

numbered in-the-decision peace its-forcesrsquothis duty [do] to-its-place to-be-able-to-bring forLebanon to-its-army assistant its-beingwhile-being-desired word its-subject dutyrsquosto-be-impeded [io] its-being-worked in-its-stateforcethat-it-will-be-able-to-be-used it-is-made-clear

In the decision numbered as it is desiredthat the peace forces will help the Lebanese armyso that it can fulfill this duty it is made clear

lowastNormal word order would be Abbas yolcudur

Journalese

b

b

b

numaramiddotlıkararmiddotda b

b

b

bbarışguumlcmiddotuumlmiddotnuumln

b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne

bgemiddottirmiddotebilmiddotmemiddotsi

b

b

Luumlbnanordumiddotsumiddotnab

yardımmiddotcıb olmiddotmamiddotsı

b istemiddotnmiddotirmiddotken

b

b

b

b

soumlzkonumiddotsugoumlrevmiddotimiddotnin

b

b

engelmiddotlemiddotnmiddotmemiddotyeccedilalışmiddotılmiddotmamiddotsı

durmiddotummiddotumiddotnda b

bguumlccedil

bkulmiddotlanmiddotabilmiddoteceğmiddoti

belirtimiddotlimiddotyor

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

Figure A newspaper sentence diagrammed

that in case the duty under discussion is beinghindered force can be used

In Figure I diagram the Turkish sentence by the followingprinciples

No two verbs (or forms of verbs) are on the same line The complements of a verb are on the same line with the

verb ormdashif they involve verbs themselvesmdashare attachedto that line from above

Modifiers of nouns are raised above the nouns The diagram retains the original word-order

Another example concerns the electricity that my spouseand I experienced in Ankara before moving to Istanbul HereI merely embolden all words that are verbs or are derived fromverbslowast

Oumlzellikle işten eve geliş saatlerinde

lowastThe sentence is from Birguumln November I didnrsquot record thesource of the earlier sentence

Sentences

karşılaştıkları kesintilerin ldquobıktırdığınırdquo soumlyleyenAnkaralılar aile bireylerinin evde olduğu birarada yemek yediği saatlerin elektrik kesintileriyuumlzuumlnden karanlıkta geccedilirilmesinin modernşehirlerde eşine az rastlanılır bir durum olduğunuifade etti

Especially from-work homewards comingat-these-hoursencountered by-the-cuts ldquofed-up-withrdquo sayingAnkarans family membersrsquo at-home being onein-an-interval meal eating its-hoursrsquo electric cutsfrom-their-face in-the-dark being-passedrsquos modernin-cities to-its-equal little encountered a statebeingexpression made

Saying they are fed up with cuts experiencedespecially at the hours of coming home from workAnkarans indicated that the passing of hours whenfamily members are at home eating a mealtogether in the dark because of electricity cutswas a situation rarely meeting an equal in moderncities

Journalese

Dictionary

Nouns adjectives verbs and adverbs used elsewhere in thesenotes (except perhaps Ch ) are listed here For postpositionssee Ch Verbs are given as stems with a hyphen The bigRedhouse dictionary [] lists verbs this way but with an equalsign (=) in place of a hyphen Other dictionaries as [] or[] list verbs in their infinitive forms in -mk Forms withconstructive suffixes are generally not given below unless theyare anomalous

ağa lordağaccedil treeak- flowakıl wisdomaile familyal- take buyaltın goldan- think ofana anne motheranla- understandara intervalara- look for callarka backas- hangat horseata fatherayak foot

bağ tie bondbağ vineyardbak- lookbal honeybalık fishbalta axebanka bankbarış peacebaş headbelir- become visiblebıccedilak knifebık- get boredbil- knowbin- go up or onbirey individualbirleş- uniteboumll- divide

bul- findbuyur- commandcadde roadcami mosquecan soul lifeciğer liverCuma Fridayccedilabuk quick fastccedilağ eraccedilalış- workccediliftlik farmccedilocuk childccedilorba soupde- saydedikodu gossipdeli maddeniz seadevir- overturndiken thorndil tongue languagedinle- listen todoğ- be borndoğa naturedur- stopduumlnya worldengel obstacleeski old not neweş match equalet meatet- make doev house homeferman imperial edict

gazete newspapergece nightgeccedil lategel- comegetir- bringgit- gogoumlnuumll heartgoumlr- seegoumlrev dutyguumlccedil powerguumll roseguumll- smile laughguumlmuumlş silverguumln dayhoca (religious) teacherhuumlrriyet libertyiccedil- drink smokeifade expressionilkyaz springimaret soup-kitchen (Ottomhist)iste- desire ask foriş work businesskap containerkar snowkacircr profitkaranlık darkkarar decisionkarın bellykarşıla- go to meetkasap butcherkazara by chance

kebap kebabkedi catkes- cutkılavuz guidekış winterkilit lockkim whokişi personkitap bookkonu topickonuş- speakkop- break offkoru- protectkoumlpek dogkoumly villagekul slavekullan- usekuş birdkuyu wellmemleket native landmercimek lentilmeslek professionmeyva fruitnasihat advicenumara numberodun firewoodoku- readol- become beordu armyoyun game playoumlğren- learnoumlğret- teach

oumll- dieoumlrnek exampleoumlzel special privateoumlzguumlr free not boundparmak fingerpis dirtyrakı arakrastla- meet by chancesahip ownersarı yellowsat- sellsay- countsev- loveson endsor- ask (about)soumln- die down go outsoumlz expression wordsoumlyle- saysuumlkucirct silencesuumlt milkşehir cityşeker sugartas pottaş stonetembel lazytemiz cleantren traintut- holdtuz saltuccedil- flyuza- get longeruumlzuumlm grape

Dictionary

ver- giveyala- lickyap- make doyardım aidyaşa- liveyaz summeryaz- writeye- eatyemek foodyeni new

yer ground placeyiğit (brave) young manyoğurt yogurtyol roadyosun moss seaweedyumuşa- become softyuvarla- rollyuumlruuml- walkyuumlz yuumlz face

Bibliography

[] A D Alderson and Fahir İz editors The Concise OxfordTurkish Dictionary Oxford Reprinted

[] Neşe Atabay Sevgi Oumlzel and İbrahim Kutluk SoumlzcoumlkTuumlrleri Papatya İstanbul

[] Robert Avery et al editors New Redhouse Turkish-English Dictionary Redhouse Press İstanbul

[] Serap Bezmez Richard Blakney and C H Brown edi-tors The Larger Redhouse Portable Dictionary English-Turkish Turkish-English Redhouse Istanbul

[] Huumlseyin Dağtekin Genel Tarih Atlası [General HistoryAtlas] İnkilacircp İstanbul

[] Tufan Demir Tuumlrkccedile Dilbilgisi Kurmay Ankara

[] Euclid Euclidis Elementa volume I of Euclidis OperaOmnia Teubner Leipzig Edited with Latin inter-pretation by I L Heiberg Books IndashIV

[] Euclid Euclidrsquos Elements Green Lion Press Santa FeNM All thirteen books complete in one volumeThe Thomas L Heath translation edited by Dana Dens-more

[] Euclid Oumlğelerrsquoin Kitabından Birinci Kitap Mathe-matics Department Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University

Istanbul rd edition September The first of the books of Euclidrsquos Elements Greek text with Turkishversion by Oumlzer Oumlztuumlrk amp David Pierce

[] H W Fowler A Dictionary of Modern English UsageOxford University Press London Corrected reprintof

[] Aslı Goumlksel and Celia Kerslake Turkish A Comprehen-sive Grammar Routledge London and New York

[] Reha Guumlnay A Guide to the Works of Sinan the Architectin Istanbul YEM Istanbul July

[] T F Hoad editor The Concise Oxford Dictionary ofEnglish Etymology Oxford University Press Oxford andNew York Reissued in new covers

[] Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K Pullum The Cam-bridge Grammar of the English Language CambridgeUniversity Press Cambridge UK reprinted

[] John Patrick Douglas Balfour Baron Kinross The Ot-toman Centuries Morrow New York

[] Sinan Kuumlccediluumlk editor Atasoumlzleri ve Deyimler SoumlzluumlğuumlKaraca Ankara 6 TDKrsquonın yaptığı son değişik-liklere uygun olarak hazırlanmıştır

[] Terttu Leney Finnish Teach Yourself

[] Geoffrey Lewis The Turkish Language Reform A Catas-trophic Success Oxford Linguistics Oxford UniversityPress Oxford reprinted

Bibliography

[] Geoffrey Lewis Turkish Grammar Oxford UniversityPress second edition First edition

[] Librairie Larousse editor Larousse de poche LibrairieLarousse Paris

[] James Morwood editor The Pocket Oxford Latin Dictio-nary Oxford University Press First edition pub-lished by Routledge amp Kegan Paul

[] Ali Nesin Oumlnermeler Mantığı İstanbul Bilgi UumlniversitesiYayınları

[] Ali Nesin Matematik Duumlnyasırsquondan Matematik Duumlnyasıpage Yaz httpwwwmatematikdunyasi

orgarsivPDF05_3_01_02_GIRISpdf accessed May

[] Ali Nesin Sezgisel Kuumlmeler Kuramı volume of NesinMatematik Koumlyuuml Kitaplığı Nesin Yayıncılık İstanbul Genişletilmiş Basım

[] Reviel Netz The Shaping of Deduction in Greek Mathe-matics volume of Ideas in Context Cambridge Univer-sity Press Cambridge A study in cognitive history

[] Sevan Nişanyan Soumlzlerin Soyağacı Ccedilağdaş TuumlrkccedileninEtimolojik Soumlzluumlğuuml Adam Yayınları İstanbul rd edi-tion ldquoThe Family Tree of Words An EtymologicalDictionary of Contemporary Turkishrdquo Genişletilmiş goumlz-den geccedilirilmiş (ldquoexpanded and revisedrdquo)

[] Emin Oumlzdemir Accedilıklamalı Atasoumlzleri Soumlzluumlğuuml Remziİstanbul Annotated dictionary of [Turkish] sayings

Bibliography

[] Ali Puumlskuumllluumloğlu Arkadaş Tuumlrkccedile Soumlzluumlğu ArkadaşAnkara

[] Atilla Oumlzkırımlı Tuumlrk Dili Dil ve Anlatım [The Turk-ish Language Language and Expression] İstanbul BilgiUumlniversitesi Yayınları Yaşayan Tuumlrkccedile Uumlzerine BirDeneme [An Essay on Living Turkish]

[] Bengisu Rona Turkish in Three Months Hugorsquos Lan-guage Books

[] Steven Runciman The First Crusade University PressCambridge

[] Herbert Weir Smyth Greek Grammar Harvard Uni-versity Press Cambridge Massachusetts Revisedby Gordon M Messing Eleventh Printing Originaledition

[] Hilary Sumner-Boyd and John Freely Strolling ThroughIstanbul Tauris Parke Revised and updated fromthe edition

[] Ayhan (Ediskun) Tuumlrkhan Konuşan Deyimler SoumlzluumlğuumlAtasoumlzleri ve Soumlz Gurupları Remzi İstanbul

[] Gerjan van Schaaik The Bosphorus papers Studies inTurkish grammar ndash Boğaziccedili University PressIstanbul

[] Erik J Zuumlrcher Turkey A Modern History IB TaurisLondon reprint of the new edition of

Bibliography

Preface

It is a mystery how a young child can learn a language seem-ingly without effort and without any sense of the analysis thatadult scholars will use to understand the language

These notes are an analysis of the majority language ofTurkey made by a native speaker of English To me Turkishis remarkable in a number of ways

It is an inflected language like Greek or Latin (or Frenchas far as verbs are concerned) Turkish nouns are de-clined and verbs are conjugated a noun or verb fromthe dictionary takes on various forms when actually inuse

However while Greek is taught as having three declen-sions []lowast and Latin as having five [] Turkish hasonly one (see Ch p )

Likewise while Greek has two conjugations and Latinhas four and French has three [] Turkish has only one(Ch p )

In Turkish there are no such irregularities as in Englishwhere am are is and were are understood as forms ofbe while went is a form of go

A Latin noun is feminine or masculine and a Greeknoun may also be neuter Thus Latin and Greek nounshave gender but Turkish nouns have none English re-tains three genders in the third-person pronouns she he

lowastBracketed numerals refer to the Bibliography at the end












Contents





Particles





Subordination


Dictionary

Bibliography

Contents

List of Figures






Preliminaries

Origins









Alphabet



Preliminaries




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography












Contents





Particles





Subordination


Dictionary

Bibliography

Contents

List of Figures






Preliminaries

Origins









Alphabet



Preliminaries




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

Particles





Subordination


Dictionary

Bibliography

Contents

List of Figures






Preliminaries

Origins









Alphabet



Preliminaries




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

List of Figures






Preliminaries

Origins









Alphabet



Preliminaries




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

Preliminaries

Origins









Alphabet



Preliminaries




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography




Alphabet



Preliminaries




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography




(Uuml uuml)lowast




Pronunciation





Pronunciation

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

ı backi front

unround

u backclose

uuml frontround

a backe front

unround

o backopen

ouml frontround

Figure The vowels




Preliminaries

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

o

a e

ouml

u

ı i

uuml

unround

round

back frontclose







Pronunciation



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography



Interactions



Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography


Signs


Pleasantries


Signs


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography


Numbers


Comparisons



Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

Verbs


Colors







Verbs

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

Grammar

Relatives










Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography


Gender









Gender







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography







Grammar





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography





td pb ccedilc kğ




inilir (in0il1ir2)










Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography







Grammar






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography






Hollandaca Dutch

















sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography










sonuncu last


Grammar




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography




More Suffixes






More Suffixes

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

person st nd rd








Figure

Personal

pronounsand

suffixes

Gra

mm

ar








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography








we are abook

thou arta book

you are abook

he is abook







More Suffixes







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography







Word order



Grammar




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography




Word order



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography



Conjunctions


Interjections







Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography






Particles


Particles

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

notA A değil not A


A ile B

A B de A B too

A ama B A but B

A fakat B

A ancak B



A ya da B







case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

case of object
















Particles



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

b




b

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b


b

b



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bc

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Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography



Inflexion of nouns






Declension







Possessive In -(n)n



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



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bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

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Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography



For example









Inflexion of nouns




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



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bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography




Demonstratives


bubun- thisthese


See also p

Two kinds of person


named entity

Demonstratives








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



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bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

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Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography








) the entity itself








Inflexion of nouns





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography





Negation



Annexation






Negation




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography




Inflexion of nouns











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography











Annexation







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography







Verbal nouns




So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography



So we have



Stems





Stems

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

Vocal endings


) reflexive -()n

) reciprocal -()ş







Modal endings



oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

oku- read












Stems








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

b

b


b

b



bguumlccedil



bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography








Verbal adjectives


ticiples

present in -(y)n

future in -(y)ck

past-present in -dk

past in -mş
















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

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bc

bc

bc

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bc

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bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography















Verbal adjectives







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

b




b

b

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bc

bc

bc

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bc

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bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography







-()yor
















Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

byermiddotimiddotne


b

b




b

b

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bc

bc

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bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










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Pure verbs







Finally there are a









past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

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b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

b




b

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bc

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Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











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past









Pure verbs


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

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b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

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b

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bc

bc

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bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











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Bibliography


-mktpresent -n

-yorfuture -(y)cak



past-dk -d




Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

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b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

b




b

b

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bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc

bc










Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



Bibliography




















Bibliography











Bibliography










Bibliography

Questions







Compound tenses


verb

i- be




Questions








The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


b

b


b

biccedilin

b

b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

b




b

b

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bc

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Sentences




Journalese

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Dictionary



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Bibliography











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The sentence

Geccedilmiş olsun







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Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






Journalese

b

b

b


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b bugoumlrevmiddoti

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b

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Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








Dictionary



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as opposed to



Subordination








Compound tenses





extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














Sentences




Journalese






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b

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b

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Sentences




Journalese

Dictionary








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extinction


Sentences

Sayings










var














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