The Islamic Empires

Chapter 27

Intro: Formation of the Islamic Empires• 3 empires divided up Dar al-Islam• All began as warrior principalities in frontier areas,

expanded, developed administrative and military techniques

The Ottoman Empire• Founded by Osman Bey in 1289 (dynasty lasted

until 1923) on Byzantine borders• 1300s: expanded, with capital at Bursa• Military organization: light cavalry and volunteer

infantry (and later, heavy cavalry)– Janissaries (Christian boys from conquered Balkans) – specially trained, known as excellent warriors– Effective use of gunpowder weapons

The Ottoman Empire (cont.)• 1453: Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1451-1481)

conquered Constantinople (became capital, Istanbul)– Laid foundations for highly centralized absolute

monarchy– Expansion: Serbia, S. Greece, Albania, (later into Syria and Egypt)

The Ottoman Empire (cont.)• Suleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566): height

of Ottoman imperialism– Kanun (laws): “the lawgiver”– Lots of expansion efforts: Baghdad, Siege of Vienna,

Yemen, Rhodes, etc.– Became naval power -> could challenge Christian vessels

The Safavid Empire• Founded by Shah Ismail (r. 1501-1524) in Persian

heartland• Used propaganda: Sufi ancestry, changed religion – Twelver Shiism: 12 infallible imams, red hats (= red

heads), Ismail as 12th imam• Mandated conversion to Shiism -> enemies, esp. Ottomans (feared spread of propaganda)

The Safavid Empire (cont.)• 1514: Battle of Chaldiran – Ottomans vs. Safavids– Ottomans used gunpowder weapons, Safavids didn’t

(believed in protection of the Shah)– Ottomans won, but didn’t occupy -> constant conflict

for next 200 years• Safavids recovered: Persian bureaucracy and

admin. Techniques, abandoned extreme ideology (maintained twelver shiism), land grants to red heads = support

The Safavid Empire (cont.)• Shah Abbas the Great (r. 1588-1629): revitalized

empire– Moved capital to Isfahan (more central), encouraged

trade, reformed admin and mil institutions (slaves in army, gunpowder weapons, alliances with Europeans)

– Military victories: Uzbeks, Hormuz

The Mughal Empire• 1523, founded by Babur in Northern India using

gunpowder weapons to invade– Goal was to use Indian wealth to expand into central Asia

(never happened)• Grandson, Akbar (r. 1556-1605): brilliant, charismatic– Centralized admin with bureaucracy to govern provinces– Military campaigns to consolidate power in north and expand

in south– Interest in religions and philosophy: religious tolerance, syncretic religion (divine faith)

The Mughal Empire (cont.)• Aurangzeb (r. 1659-1707): ruled when empires

was at greatest extent– Expansion efforts in south – Problem: rebellions due to religious tension (religious intolerance, destroyed Hindu temples, jizya tax)

Intro: Imperial Islamic Society• Lots of similarities between the three empires: – Turk/Mongol/Islamic steppe-based bureaucracy, – economic policies, – policies for dealing with multi-ethnic/religious

populations, – legitimacy through providing welfare, – association with literacy and the arts

The Dynastic State• Absolute power over government and military,

plus ownership of all land• Importance of religious piety (Sufi association,

devotion to Islam) and military prowess as source of power and prestige

• Steppe tradition of relatives managing parts of empire -> problems with succession– Solution: locked sons away (S), killed brothers or

confined to palace (O)

The Dynastic State (cont.)• Women in Politics: not supposed to have any, but

there were many exceptions, especially for ruler’s mother and favorite/chief wife

Agriculture and Trade• Agriculture (wheat and rice) = foundation of

empires– Surplus supported bureaucracy and army

• American food crops were introduced, but didn’t have huge impact on population

• Tobacco: spread quickly, along with coffee -> coffeehouses (became

important social institutions in O. empire)

Agriculture and Trade (cont.)• Population growth: M – due to intensive agri.

Techniques, S – less rapid, O – changed with empire’s boundaries

• Trade: all were part of global trade network– O: British and French merchants, important in spice and silk

trade– S: Isfahan as commercial center, foreign merchants, provided

silk, carpets, ceramics, traded with English/French/Dutch East India Companies, developed good rel. with English

– M: regional trade more important, allowed European trading posts, some Indians formed their own companies

Religious Affairs in the Islamic Empires • All 3 had diverse populations• O: Christians, Jews• S: Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians• M: Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians, Christians, Sikhs

– Portuguese Jesuit mission at Goa: Jesuits tried to convert Akbar (just wanted to talk)– Akbar wanted religious synthesis to unify empire– -> divine faith: heavily based on Islam (monotheistic, Shiite and

Sufi influence), loyalty to empire, elements from Zoroastrianism

Religious Affairs (cont.)• Religious minorities: • Jizya and loyalty -> personal freedom, property,

religion, legal affairs• Difficulty in Mughal Empire: Muslims were rulers (with

a few Hindu bureaucrats), population was Hindu – Akbar: abolished jizya, religious tolerance, discussions

among leaders of different religions– Many Muslims feared this -> Aurangzeb reinstated jizya,

religious intolerance, promoted Islam -> Hindu bitterness and tension

Cultural Patronage of the Islamic Emperors

• Emperors tried to enhance prestige and power through public works projects and patronage of scholars– Tried to attract religious scholars, poets, artists,

architects– Spent a lot on mosques, palaces, gov’t buildings,

bridges, fountains, schools, hospitals, soup kitchens

Cultural Patronage of the Islamic Empires (cont.)

• Istanbul: revived and prospered after conquest– Topkapi palace, Suleymaniye Mosque (by Sinan Pasha)

– combines Islamic (minarets) and Byzantine (dome) elements, Hagia Sofia mosque

Cultural Patronage of the Islamic Empires (cont.)

• Isfahan: Shah Abbas focused on building up the capital– Markets, palace, mosques, polo field, shaded

avenues, bridges, courtyards, palace with balconies and verandas (visibility of king)

Cultural Patronage of the Islamic Empires (cont.)

• Fatehpur Sikri: Akbar’s capital (1569-1585)– Mint, treasury, royal residence, mosque and

mausoleum for Sufi guru– Combined C. Asian traditions with Hindu architectural

elements (verandas, stone elephants)

Cultural Patronage of the Islamic Empires (cont.)

• The Taj Mahal: built by Shah Jahan as mosque and mausoleum for his wife

Intro: The Empires in Transition• Big changes in all 3 between 1500-1700– 1722: Safavid collapse with invasion of Afghans– 1707: Mughal weakening – rebellions, foreign

invasion, British rule (1750s)– 1700s-1800s: Ottomans lost land, plus pol, econ, and

mil pressure from Europe and Russia

Deterioration of Imperial Leadership• All 3 had strong rulers initially; but, eventually,

incompetent rulers who spent too much on themselves and ignored the state

• Plus, factions formed in courts of all 3– O: by locking away princes, they didn’t learn how to

rule -> increasingly weak rule -> army mutinies, revolts, corruption, economic oppression, insecurity

Religious Tensions• Also led to problems for rulers with conservative

Muslim clerics (strong influence due to education, legal affairs)– Disapproved of Sufism, women and non-Muslims in

gov’t roles, contradictions to sharia law

Economic and Military Decline• increasing dependence on foreign items and

control by Europeans due to cost of mil and admin• Expansion brings $ in, once it stops, resources

become limited– Ottomans: empty treasury -> debased money -> revolts

-> raised taxes, sold public offices, etc. • Also, relied on foreign trade for income, but didn’t

go abroad– O: privileges to foreign merchants– M: encouraged Dutch and English trading posts

Military Decline and Cultural Conservatism• Did not try to improve technology, instead, relied

on out of date European weapons– By late 1700s, Ottoman navy stopped building it’s own

ships• Also, made little effort to learn about the outside

world – When they tried to introduce new elements, conservative Muslims shut it down (e.g., telescope, printing press) -> fear of change