the impact of paternal absence on the … · the impact of substance dependent fathers’ absence...
TRANSCRIPT
Running head: INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION i
THE IMPACT OF SUBSTANCE DEPENDENT FATHERS’ ABSENCE ON THE
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION OF ADDICTION AMONG ADOLESCENTS
Jen Dieck
A Capstone Project submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Master of Science Degree in
Counselor Education at
Winona State University
Fall 2013
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION ii
Winona State University
College of Education
Counselor Education Department
CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
__________________________
CAPSTONE PROJECT
___________________
The Impact of Substance Dependent Fathers’ Absence on the Intergenerational
Transmission of Addiction Among Adolescents
This is to certify that the Capstone Project of
Jen Dieck
Has been approved by the faculty advisor and the CE 695 – Capstone Project
Course Instructor in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Master of Science Degree in
Counselor Education
Capstone Project Supervisor: _ ___________________ Name
Approval Date: __December 13, 2013__________________
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION iii
Abstract
Adolescent drug use is a fast-growing epidemic in the United States. As counselors strive to
identify the antecedents of adolescent drug use, considerable attention has been given to the
intergenerational transmission of drug use from parents to children, including the impact of
parental absence on adolescent substance use. However, the majority of research has focused on
the impact of maternal substance use and maternal absence, often ignoring the impact of paternal
substance use and paternal absence. By understanding the relationship between paternal drug
use, paternal absence and adolescent drug use, counselors can engage in prevention and
treatment efforts that better serve both populations. Counselors can assist substance-dependent
fathers develop insight into the impact of their substance use on their children, educate
substance-dependent fathers on how to be more effective in their parental role, help adolescents
develop insight into how their substance use may have been influenced by their fathers’ use and
absence, educate adolescents on ways in which they can cope in adaptive ways, and work toward
preventing at-risk adolescents from initiating drug use.
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION iv
Contents
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………….1
Review of Literature ………………………………………………………………………..……2
Importance of Fathers …………………………………………………………………….3
Theories of Intergenerational Transmission of Addiction ………………………..………4
Parenting Style and Parenting Absence …………………………………………………..5
Impact on Female Children ……………………………………………………………….7
Longitudinal Effects of Parental Substance Use and Absence …………………………...9
Adolescent Coping ………………………………………………………………………10
Implications for Practice ………………………………………………………………...11
Conclusion ……………..………………………………...……………………………………..17
References …………………………………………………………………………………..…..19
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 1
Introduction
According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (2013), drug use among adolescents is
a significant concern. In a 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, it was found that
82.3% of youth aged 12 or older used alcohol in their lifetime, 61.9 % used cigarettes, 42.8%
used marijuana, 14.6% used hallucinogens, 14.5% used cocaine, and 4.7% used
methamphetamine. Given the alarming prevalence of adolescent drug use, increasing attention
has been given to identifying the antecedents of adolescent drug use so as to develop appropriate
prevention programs for at-risk adolescents as well as appropriate treatment programs for
substance-using adolescents.
While a variety of theories exist that attempt to explain the initiation of drug use by
adolescents, one area that has received little attention is the impact of substance-dependent
absent fathers on their adolescents’ substance use. Substance-dependent fathers typically
experience difficulty balancing their drug addiction and fulfilling their role as a father, and as a
result, are absent from their children’s lives. As adolescents struggle to cope with their fathers’
absence, the likelihood that they will turn to drug use themselves is significant. This paper
examines the impact of substance-dependent fathers’ absence on adolescent substance use and
offers ways in which counselors can work toward bridging the gap between substance-dependent
fathers and their adolescent children in an attempt to prevent and/or treat adolescent substance
use.
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 2
Review of Literature
Parental drug use is associated with a number of harmful effects on children.
McKeganey, Barnard and McIntosh (2002) identified a variety of ways that parental drug use
negatively influences the lives of children. Not only are drug-using parents said to be overly
authoritarian and inconsistent in caring for their children, it has also been demonstrated that
drug-using parents experience significant conflict between meeting the needs of their children
and sustaining their addiction. As a result, material deprivation and neglect are two of the most
profound ways children are impacted. Drug-using parents tend to channel the majority of their
money and household resources into sustaining their drug habits rather than into providing a
nurturing environment for their children. Parental drug use also appears to undermine the
structure of the home, insomuch as household routines, such as meal times, bed times, and
transportation to and from school, suffer as parents place more focus on sustaining their drug
use. As parents’ attention is diverted away from their children, their ability to care for them and
serve as appropriate role models is compromised. Consequently, children of drug-using parents
often grow up without proper influence and are forced to take on ‘quasi-adult responsibilities.’ In
addition to caring for themselves, some children must also provide care of their younger siblings.
In addition to the inconsistent care and lack of support from their drug-using parents,
children are also impacted simply by being exposed to their parents’ drug-using behaviors.
Children of drug-using parents often witness first hand their parents’ drug use and/or drug
dealing, not to mention the aftereffects of their drug use or withdrawal. Children of drug-using
parents are also exposed to the criminal behaviors drug-using parents may engage in to support
their drug use, including shoplifting, prostitution or burglary, which may influence their attitudes
toward criminal behavior. Due to their upbringing in a drug-using environment, children’s
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 3
attitudes toward and knowledge about drug use also appear to be much more detailed and
thorough than that of their peers. Even more troubling, however, is that children of drug-using
parents are at significant risk of initiating illegal drug use themselves (McKeganey, Barnard &
McIntosh, 2002).
Importance of Fathers
Despite the substantial amount of research describing the negative impact of parental
drug use on children, the vast majority of research has focused on the impact of maternal drug
use rather than on the impact of paternal drug use on parenting (Carlson, 2006; McKeganey,
Barnard & McIntosh, 2002; Peled, Gavriel-Fried & Katz, 2012). This disparity in research
results in a gap in knowledge regarding the way in which substance-dependent men experience
and understand their roles as fathers (Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013). In western countries,
substance-dependent fathers are stigmatized as “irresponsible, unfit, and dangerous” (Peled,
Gabriel-Fried & Katz, 2012, p. 895), not to mention “helpless with no self-control” (p. 906). As
a result, many substance-dependent fathers, perhaps more so than substance-dependent mothers,
do not take an active role in their children’s lives and are often absent from the home. However,
Brook et al. (2002a) assert that despite the drug-related troubles in their lives, substance-using
fathers “may still bring important protective qualities to their relationships with their children”
(p. 106). When a father has a strong bond with his child, the child is more likely to identify with
him and imitate his attitudes or behaviors. While this concept can be dangerous when the child
mimics the father’s drug use, Brook et al. report that “there may be a whole array of more
positive attributes of the father that the child may emulate” (p. 107).
According to Hendricks et al. (2005), society’s expectation of fathers has dramatically
changed over time. In the past, the father’s role was considered less important than that of the
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 4
mother. Now, however, fathers are considered to be as important as mothers in regards to the
development and well-being of children. Throughout the last three decades, men have
experienced a cultural shift in regards to what is expected of them as fathers, which has enhanced
and diversified their role in family life. Whereas fatherhood was primarily defined by economic
contributions in the past, fathers today are more involved in childrearing (Carlson, 2006). Peled,
Gavriel-Fried and Katz (2012) agree that the role of fathers has morphed over the years, from the
father as the moral teacher, responsible for the upbringing of his children as well as their
religious values, to the father as the breadwinner and gender role model, and finally to the father
as the nurturing, or “New Father,” a father who expresses his feelings, is sensitive to the needs of
his children, shows an interest in their lives and is active in promoting their educational,
cognitive and emotional development. As a result of these shifting expectations and perceptions
of fathers over time, today’s fathers do not have a clear definition of what it means to be a father.
Fathers are experiencing a disparity between what they learned and experienced from their own
fathers and how they are expected to behave today. This disparity, coupled with their dependence
on drugs, impedes upon fathers’ ability to develop close relationships with their children and in
turn, their children are put at greater risk of initiating substance use as a way to cope with the
absence of their substance-dependent fathers.
Theories of Intergenerational Transmission of Addiction
A variety of theories exist which attempt to explain the intergenerational transmission of
addiction from parents to children. According to the genetic model of addiction, for example,
addicts are “constitutionally predisposed to develop dependence on drugs” due to the genetics
they inherited from their parents (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2012, p. 9). Mezzich et al. (2007) claims
that children whose parents meet the criteria for a substance use disorder are at a four- to seven-
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 5
fold increased risk of developing a substance use disorder themselves, even if they are raised by
adoptive parents who do not meet the criteria for a substance use disorder. Learning models, on
the other hand, posit that individuals learn of the positively reinforcing characteristics of drug
use which often results in dependence. Drug use often decreases unpleasant psychological states
such as anxiety or stress and as a result of its positively reinforcing qualities, drug use continues
until physical dependence develops. At that time, continued use occurs in an attempt to ward off
symptoms of withdrawal (Capuzzi & Stauffer, 2012). Social learning theories claim that people
initiate drug use when parents or substance-using peers model such behaviors (Walden, Iacono &
McGue, 2007), whereas family models suggest that the family plays a significant role in the
etiology of drug use, particularly in terms of parenting style. According to this model,
individuals are more likely to use drugs if they perceive their parents as neglectful (Montgomery,
Fisk & Craig, 2008).
Parenting Style and Parental Absence
Montgomery, Fisk and Craig (2008) suggest that parenting style is categorized along two
dimensions, parental warmth and parental control, which creates four styles of parenting:
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and neglectful. Perceptions of parenting style are formed
early in life, are relatively stable, and have been found to predict child well-being in terms of
social competence, academic performance, psychosocial development, problem behavior, and
substance abuse. For instance, children of parents who are perceived to exhibit low warmth and
control experience significantly increased drug and alcohol use during adolescence, compared to
children who perceive their parents to be high in warmth and high in control. Not only that, it has
been demonstrated that of all four parenting styles, individuals who perceived their parents to be
permissive or neglectful used drugs at a younger age compared to individuals who perceived
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 6
their parents to be authoritative and authoritarian. Furthermore, Mezzich et al. (2007) suggest
that ineffective discipline by parents is associated with dysregulated behavior among children as
well as early age onset of substance use disorder in children.
One aspect impacting parenting style is parental residence, whether or not the parent
resides in the home with the child, which further impacts adolescent substance use. Just as the
majority of research on the impact of parental substance use has focused on the mother’s use, the
majority of research discussing the impact of parental absence has focused on mothers’ absence
as well. However, Aquilino (2006) asserts that fathers play a significant role in child
development. Children are said to be harmed when their fathers play a lesser role and benefit
when nonresident fathers play an active role, providing their children with emotional and
material support.
Booth, Scott and King (2009) report that at some point throughout their youth,
approximately 50 percent of all children reside in a home without their biological father.
Compared to children living with both biological parents, children with nonresident fathers are at
greater risk of academic problems, delinquency, low self-esteem and substance abuse. Children
who grow up in families where both biological parents are present have fewer behavioral
problems, such as violence, depressive symptoms, substance use, and delinquency, greater self-
esteem and greater academic performance, possibly due to having close ties with their fathers.
According to Carlson (2006), although a portion of divorced or never-married, nonresident
fathers maintain close ties with their children, most nonresident fathers are not engaged with
their children and do not maintain close relationships with them once they leave the home.
Research suggests that living apart from one’s biological father is associated with adverse
outcomes for children and adolescents, regardless of race, education or mothers’ remarriage. Be
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 7
that as it may, when adolescents living in two-parent households do not have a close tie with
their fathers, adolescents do not do as well as adolescents with nonresident fathers. Booth, Scott
and King (2009) found that adolescents who have a close tie to their nonresident fathers had
higher self-esteem, less delinquency and fewer symptoms of depression compared to adolescents
who live with their fathers, yet do not have a close tie. Therefore, adolescents appear to benefit
more from a close relationship with their nonresident father than a poor relationship with a
resident father.
Although adolescents who have a close relationship with their nonresident father fare
better, adolescents who are unable to develop relationships with their nonresident father even if
they wanted to, such as adolescents whose fathers are incarcerated, face additional challenges.
According to Roettger, Swisher, Kuhl and Chavez (2010), one-eighth of adolescents in the
United States report that their biological father has spent time in jail or prison. Therefore, the
‘collateral consequences’ of paternal incarceration on children and families has received
increased attention. Roettger, Swisher, Kuhl and Chavez’s (2010) research has demonstrated that
having a father who has ever been incarcerated is often associated with increased risk for
marijuana use as well as an increased risk for other illegal drug use by both male and female
adolescents, particularly during the transition to adulthood. “In a society where drug users make
up one-fourth of incarcerated prisoners and 60% of inmates report regular drug use prior to
incarceration, the early onset and heightened risk of drug use also increases the likelihood of an
intergenerational transmission of incarceration between fathers and their children” (p. 128).
Impact on female children
Some researchers question whether father absence is more detrimental based on the
gender of the children involved. Carlson (2006) suggests that there is little difference between
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 8
adolescent boys and girls in terms of the impact of father involvement. However, East, Jackson
and O’Brien (2007) studied the experiences of nine women who experienced father absence
during their childhood and/or adolescent years and found that four themes emerged from the
women’s perspectives. In their study, participants described feelings of betrayal and being let
down by their fathers. They described feelings of abandonment, hurt, resentment, anger and
being unloved. What’s more, participants did not consider their father’s departure from the
family as an issue between their parents. Rather, they felt that their fathers left because they did
not want to be around their children or did not want to parent them any longer.
Participants also felt that growing up without their fathers affected the relationships they
had with them. As a result of their irregular contact, lack of communication and perceived
disinterest, participants viewed their fathers as strangers. In addition, participants lacked a shared
history with their fathers and reported that there were periods of time in their lives that did not
include any shared memories with their fathers. Given the lack of relationships participants had
with their fathers, they reported having difficulties creating and maintaining relationships with
men. Participants reported having distrust in men, fear of abandonment, negative feelings toward
men, and a lack of understanding in regards to relationship dynamics between men and women
(East, Jackson & O’Brien, 2007).
Even though the women in East, Jackson and O’Brien’s (2007) study each had a
significant mother/daughter bond, it was not enough to overcome the feelings associated with the
absence of their fathers. As participants described in their narratives, father absence strongly
impacted their lives so much so that “having loving, nurturing and supportive relationships with
others does not fill the void associated with the feelings of abandonment, loss, grief and
unworthiness felt by children who experience the absence of a parent” (p. 17).
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 9
Longitudinal effects of paternal substance use and absence
One may hypothesize that the relationship between fathers and children may improve if
the fathers end their substance use. However, research demonstrates that parental recovery alone
does not fully eliminate the risk of children experiencing externalizing problems and heavy
alcohol use. According to DeLucia, Belz and Chassin (2001), children of alcoholic fathers in
recovery exhibited more externalizing problems and frequent heavy drinking during adolescence
than did children of control fathers. While these authors could not provide an explanation for this
finding, they did suggest that children may be at greater risk of symptomatology if their fathers’
substance use persisted beyond a particular developmental period. For example, it has been
shown that children whose fathers’ substance use ended prior to the child turning six years of age
were comparable to children in the control group, while children whose fathers’ substance use
disorder continued beyond the child turning six years of age exhibited more emotional and
behavioral problems around ages 10-12 than did children in the control group. Nevertheless,
these findings highlight the possibility that children of recovered alcoholic fathers may be at
more risk than children of nonalcoholic fathers. Likewise, Aquilino (2006) suggests that
childhood experiences have long-term consequences for the relationship between adult children
and noncustodial fathers. When noncustodial fathers devote time and energy to their
relationships with their children during childhood and adolescence, they experienced closer
relationships with them during early adulthood. On the other hand, fathers who did not have
close relationships with their children during their childhood years did not have close
relationships with them during adulthood.
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 10
Adolescent Coping
Brook et al. (2002b) report that the complications associated with paternal drug addiction
and fathers’ time away from home expose adolescents to significant and often times prolonged
stress. They also suggest that adolescent development is influenced by the way in which
adolescents cope with the stressful events they encounter, not to mention by their emotional
reactions to such events. Coping strategies that are adaptive, those that are problem-focused,
have been related to positive outcomes among adolescents, such as a decreased risk of substance
abuse problems. On the other hand, maladaptive coping strategies may inhibit an adolescent’s
development and interfere with interpersonal functioning and academic performance. One aspect
impacting adolescents’ ability to cope is the quality of their relationship with their fathers. Low
levels of paternal commitment, support and expressiveness, combined with high levels of
conflict are associated with maladaptive coping strategies among adolescents.
In their study of adolescent children of HIV-positive and HIV-negative substance-
abusing fathers, Brook et al. (2002b) found that adolescents who had supportive fathers showed
an almost eightfold increase in adaptive coping, compared to those adolescents who did not have
a supportive father. Their findings suggest that a close relationship between a father and a child,
wherein the father is supportive and available is associated with adaptive coping in the
adolescent. Brook et al. (2002a) found that an affectionate father-child relationship was related to
a decreased likelihood of adolescent marijuana use. This finding demonstrates that a close father-
child relationship reduces the likelihood that a child will turn to drug use, even if the father is a
current illicit drug user.
In addition to the father-child relationship, another factor influencing adolescent coping is
whether or not fathers utilize effective coping strategies themselves. Adolescents whose fathers
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 11
sought support from others in dealing with his HIV status demonstrated a nearly fourfold
increase in adaptive coping ability (Brook et al., 2002b). For instance, Brook, et al. (2002a)
demonstrated that adolescents whose fathers sought support from others in dealing with his HIV
status were less likely to use marijuana. A possible explanation for this finding may be that
fathers who seek support from others model active coping strategies which in turn, convey to
their children that drug use is a maladaptive way of coping with problems.
Implications for practice
Given the likelihood that fathers who are substance dependent struggle not only with
their substance use but also with their abilities as fathers, one way to address both issues
simultaneously is to incorporate parenting education into substance abuse treatment services.
“Addressing their parenting issues whilst treating their drug addiction problems could potentially
facilitate better, more responsible, involved, and perhaps more importantly drug-free fathering”
(Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013, p. 32).
However, Lee, Bellamy and Guterman (2009) suggest that little is known about how to
engage fathers in parenting and prevention efforts due in part to a significant gap in our
understanding of the subjective barriers substance-dependent fathers face. As a result, few
parenting programs exist that are designed for fathers. Clearly, innovations within the substance
abuse treatment system are necessary so that men who are interested in becoming more effective
fathers are supported in doing so and that men who may not be interested initially can be
encouraged to consider how their substance use and absence has negatively impacted their
children. Often times, substance-dependent fathers in treatment report feelings of uncertainty
regarding their importance to their children. Some believe their children are better off without
them in their lives while others feel like a burden to their children. These beliefs may be
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 12
modified with the help of supportive staff members who focus their attention not only on men’s
substance use, but their role as a father as well (Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013).
Through their interviews with substance-dependent fathers, Peled, Gavriel-Fried and
Katz (2012) found four themes in the way substance-dependent fathers perceive their paternal
identity. In their narratives, it became evident that substance-dependent fathers went through a
process of parental identity formation that was composed of four distinct stages, including
absence, awakening, taking responsibility, and resolution to re-form oneself as a father. In the
first stage, absentee fathering, fathers described a period wherein they were “missing in action”
(p. 898). Some fathers reported they were physically and emotionally absent from the family,
whereas others reported that they were physically present, but emotionally absent. Fathers
reported that this stage was marked by feeling like a stranger, alienation, hostility, and fatigue.
Fathers attributed their absence to their substance dependence and to their own experiences with
an absent father, which they were imitating.
In the second stage, awakening, fathers reported experiencing a new understanding of
what it meant to be a father, in addition to an understanding of the negative impact being
“missing in action” had on their children. This stage also represented a turning point wherein
fathers set out to recreate their paternal identity. Fathers in this stage came to the realization that
their drug use impaired their ability to be physically and emotional present for their children and
that because of their drug use, they harmed their children. As fathers viewed their past in a new
light, they appeared better equipped to make changes in their lives and reform their identity as a
father. This awareness of their absence and failure as fathers led fathers into the final stages of
accepting responsibility and resolving to change. Some fathers reported having a desire to be
forgiven by those impacted by their absence, not to mention by society as a whole, whereas most
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 13
fathers suggested the importance of society taking responsibility for providing substance-
dependent fathers with appropriate treatment opportunities and for recognizing them not only as
addicts, but also fathers (Peled, Gavriel-Fried & Katz, 2012). Given society’s view of substance-
dependent men and their perceived inability to fulfill a father’s role, substance-dependent men
may fall victim to the self-fulfilling prophecy and become passive or absent fathers. By assisting
substance-dependent men in identifying their current position in the process of paternal identity
development proposed by Peled et al. (2012), therapists may be better able to tailor their
treatment to the needs of their clients and assist them in modifying their beliefs about their
abilities as fathers.
McKeganey, Barnard and McIntosh (2002) agree that substance abuse treatment
providers should assist substance-dependent fathers in exploring the impact of their drug use on
their children. As substance-dependent fathers gain awareness of how their drug use has
negatively influenced their children, they may be more motivated to work toward and maintain
abstinence. This may be achieved by incorporating more family-oriented programs into drug
treatment services. Actively discussing with clients the impact of their drug use on children, not
to mention conducting family therapy sessions with the children present, may help clients gain
insight into their current functioning and in turn, serve as catalysts for clients’ sobriety.
Seeing as many men have few, if any, experiences with positive fathering, it is possible
that the traditional therapeutic “talking cure,” combined with “learning by doing” in a safe
environment would facilitate men’s competency as fathers (Soderstrom & Skarderud, 2013, p.
44). Even if fathers want to be more attentive, supportive and closer to their children, insight and
motivation may not be enough to change their actual parenting practices. Therefore, fathers may
benefit from treatment approaches that provide resources and education on how to be a positive
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 14
father, and are then allowed to practice their newfound skills with their children in a safe
environment under the guidance of a trained professional.
One area of focus that may be helpful in family treatment programs is family structure.
McCrady, Epstein & Sell (2003) suggest that families are governed by the law of homeostasis
and as a result, operate to maintain balance, stability and equilibrium. Thus, if a substance-
dependent family has learned to function with a substance-dependent member, homeostasis
would be threatened by introducing sobriety into the system. Therefore, therapists working with
substance-dependent fathers and their children should focus their attention on the ways that the
family’s structure and functioning has maintained homeostasis and assist the family members
identify the roles they play within the family that guide their actions. Therapists should also
assist families in identifying the explicit and implicit family rules that govern the family’s
functioning, not to mention the boundaries present between family members that define the
relationships within the family.
At the same time, Aquilino (2006) suggests that fathers may also need help in developing
a cooperative co-parenting relationship with the mother of their children. In order for nonresident
fathers to be involved in making important decisions about their children, they must be able to
work well with the children’s mother. Over time, the co-parenting relationship has a tendency to
become distant. Parents communicate less about their children, just as they cooperate less in
raising their children. By assisting fathers overcome this trend, nonresident fathers may be better
equipped to forge closer relationships with their children that will persist into adulthood.
Due to the negative impact of parental substance use on children and adolescents, some
critics believe that the only way to mediate the situation is to remove the children/adolescents
from the home. While this stance does have its merits, Soderstrom and Skarderud (2013) assert
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 15
that removing the children and adolescents from the home is the “wrong thing to do” (p. 242).
They believe that even though parental drug use may have a significant negative impact on
children and adolescents, it cannot be assumed that all drug-using parents are incapable of
parenting their children. What’s more, Soderstrom and Skarderud suggest that the institutional
settings that children may be sent to upon being removed from their home, whether on a
temporary or longer-term basis, may also be environments wherein illegal drug use is
flourishing. As a result, these authors support the Adoption and Safe Families Act, a law which
obligates drug-using parents to become drug free within 12 months of foster care arrangements
being made for their children. If drug-using parents fail to become drug-free, their child or
children may be permanently removed from the home. Unfortunately, one of the limitations
associated with a policy that attempts to keep drug-using families intact is the lack of readily
accessible family-oriented treatment services. Nevertheless, Soderstrom and Skarderud (2013)
assert that something must be done. “If we fail to meet the needs of the children of drug-using
parents, we shall have lost an opportunity to break the cycle of familial adversity that will see
many of them becoming the drug users of tomorrow” (p. 244). Counselors can work to meet the
needs of children of drug-using parents by contacting their local policymakers and advocating on
behalf of substance-dependent fathers who are stigmatized by society at large, inform them about
the need for more appropriate family treatment programs, and be the voice for children suffering
the consequences of growing up with substance-dependent, and often absent, fathers.
While it is hopeful that substance-dependent fathers can improve their relationships with
their children, Carlson (2006) warns that it cannot be assumed that adolescent behavioral
problems will decrease if uninvolved fathers become more involved with their children. It may
be possible that other key variables, such as the father’s mental health, impact family structure
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 16
and father involvement. Nevertheless, Carlson’s study “provides reason for optimism that
nonresident fathers’ maintaining a high-quality relationship with their children could potentially
attenuate some of the negative consequences of father absence” (p. 152). Brook et al. (2002a)
suggests that knowing and understanding the antecedents of adolescent drug use is useful for
identifying at-risk adolescents and for creating intervention programs that meet their needs. By
educating fellow counselors on the negative impact of paternal drug use and absence on
adolescent substance use, particularly on adolescent females, adolescents whose fathers are
incarcerated, or adolescents whose fathers are HIV-positive, just to name a few, informed
counselors can set the stage for consistent treatment services for substance-dependent fathers and
adolescents alike, thereby breaking the cycle of intergenerational transmission of addiction.
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 17
Conclusion
Adolescent substance use is a growing concern in the United States. As researchers and
clinicians set out to identify the antecedents of adolescent substance use, the focus has remained
largely on the impact of maternal substance use and maternal absence. However, a growing body
of research has demonstrated the influence of the father-child relationship and father absence on
the intergenerational transmission of addiction among adolescents. Adolescents who lack a close
relationship with their substance-dependent fathers are at increased risk of initiating substance
use themselves. As a result, it is argued that this risk is decreased if substance-dependent fathers
receive parenting education and support in addition to treatment for their substance dependence
concerns. Despite the merits of these research studies, several limitations should be considered
when evaluating their findings.
The majority of substance-dependent fathers included in research studies may actually
have been in treatment at the time of the study and therefore “might represent a limited group of
addicted men willing to give up drugs and invest in child, partner, and family life” (Soderstrom
& Skarderud, 2013, p. 47). Unfortunately, the findings derived from these substance-dependent
fathers may not generalize to all substance-dependent fathers in the general population. It is
reasonable to predict, in theory, that fathers who receive education and support may be more
equipped to fulfill their roles as fathers. However, in reality, it remains questionable just how
many substance-dependent fathers are aptly motivated to participate in treatment and family
education services. In addition, it could be argued that the link between adolescent substance use
and the father-child relationship operates in the opposite direction (Carlson, 2006). Instead of the
poor father-child relationship influencing adolescent substance use, it is possible that adolescents
with problem behaviors may “push fathers away or children with good behavior may draw
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 18
fathers in” (p. 151). Another limitation lies in generalizing these findings to adolescents in
situations wherein the father-child relationship is not possible, due to circumstances such as
abuse or domestic violence (East, Jackson & O’Brien, 2007) or even in situations wherein the
father is deceased.
Further studies are needed to expand upon existing research and examine other factors
that may influence paternal absence and adolescent substance use. It would be interesting to
study how ethnicity and culture play a role in the intergenerational transmission of addiction
among adolescents. Perhaps adolescents from one culture are more at risk of substance use
initiation due to paternal absence than adolescents from a different culture. At the same time,
future research should also study whether adolescents who are only-children are at greater risk
than adolescents who have varying numbers of siblings. Perhaps the number of siblings one has
serves as a protective factor when assessing the risk of substance use initiation in father-absent
homes. Nevertheless, it remains imperative that researchers and clinicians continue their work in
identifying at-risk adolescents and in turn, creating prevention strategies in hopes of ending the
cycle of intergenerational transmission of addiction.
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 19
References
Aquilino, W. S. (2006). The noncustodial father-child relationship from adolescence into young
adulthood. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 929-946.
Booth, A., Scott, M. E., & King, V. (2009). Father residence and adolescent problem behavior:
Are youth always better off in two-parent families? Journal of Family Issues, 31(5), 585-
605.
Brook, D. W., Brook, J. S., Richter, L., Whiteman, M., Arencibia-Mireles, O., & Masci, J. R.
(2002a). Marijuana use among the adolescent children of high-risk drug-abusing fathers.
The American Journal on Addictions, 11, 95-110.
Brook, D. W., Brook, J. S., Whiteman M. Arencibia-Mireles, O., Pressman, M. A., &
Rubenstone, E. (2002b). Coping in adolescent children of HIV-positive and HIV-
negative substance-abusing fathers. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(1), 5-23.
Capuzzi, D. & Stauffer, M. D. (2012). Foundations of Addictions Counseling (2nd ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
Carlson, M. J. (2006). Family structure, father involvement, and adolescent behavioral outcomes.
Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 137-154.
DeLucia, C., Belz, A., & Chassin, L. (2001). Do adolescent symptomatology and family
environment vary over time with fluctuations in parental alcohol impairment?
Developmental Psychology, 37(2), 207-216.
East, L., Jackson, D., & O’Brien, L. (2007). ‘I don’t want to have him forever’: Understanding
daughter’s experiences of father absence. Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 24(4),
14-18.
Hendricks, C. S., Cesario, S. K., Murdaugh, C., Gibbons, M. E., Servonsky, E. J., Bobadilla, R.
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 20
V., Hendricks, D. L., Spencer-Morgan, B., & Tavakoli, A. (2005). The influence of father
absence on the self-esteem and self-reported sexual activity of rural southern adolescents.
ABNF Journal, 16(6), 124-181.
Lee, S. J., Bellamy, J. L., & Guterman, N. B. (2009). Fathers, physical child abuse, and neglect:
Advancing the knowledge base. Child Maltreatment, 14, 227-231.
McCrady, B. S., Epstein, E. E., & Sell, R. D. (2003). Theoretical bases of family approaches to
substance abuse treatment. In F. Rotgers, J. Morgenstern, & S. Walters (Eds.), Treating
Substance Abuse (2nd ed.) (pp. 112-165). New York: The Guilford Press.
McKeganey, N., Barnard, M., & McIntosh, J. (2002). Paying the price for their parents’
addiction: Meeting the needs of the children of drug-using parents. Drugs: education,
prevention and policy, 9(3), 233-246.
Mezzich, A. C., Tarter, R. E., Kirisci, L., Feske, U., Day, B-S., & Gao, Z. (2007). Reciprocal
influence of parent discipline and child’s behavior on risk for substance use disorder: A
nine-year prospective study. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 33, 851-
867.
Montgomery, C., Fisk, J. E., & Craig, L. (2008). The effects of perceived parenting style on the
propensity for illicit drug use: The importance of parental warmth and control. Drug and
Alcohol Review, 27, 640-649.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (2013). National survey of drug use and health. Retrieved
November 13, 2013, from http://www.drugabuse.gov/national-survey-drug-use-health
Peled, E., & Gavriel-Fried, B. (2012). “I’ve fixed things up”: Paternal identity of substance-
dependent fathers. Family Relations, 61, 893-908.
Roettger, M. E., Swisher, R. R., Kuhl, D. C., & Chavez, J. (2010). Paternal incarceration and
INTERGENERATIONAL TRANSMISSION 21
trajectories of marijuana and other illegal drug use from adolescence into young
adulthood: Evidence from longitudinal panels of males and females in the United States.
Addiction, 106, 121-132.
Soderstrom, K., & Skarderud, F. (2013). The good, the bad, and the invisible father; A
phenomenological study of fatherhood in men with substance use disorder. Fathering,
11(1), 31-51.
Walden, B., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2007). Trajectories of change in adolescent substance
use and symptomatology: Impact of paternal and maternal substance use disorders.
Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 21(1), 35-43.