TheImpactofBeingWronglyAccusedofAbuseinOccupationsofTrust:Victims’VoicesCarolynHoyle,Naomi-EllenSpeechley,andRosBurnettUniversityofOxfordCentreforCriminology

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TheAuthors

ProfessorCarolynHoylehasexpertiseonvictimsincriminaljusticeandonvariousaspectsofmiscarriagesofjustice.Shehasrecentlycompletedanin-depthstudyoftheCriminalCasesReviewCommission(HoyleandSato,forthcoming).Naomi-EllenSpeechleywasaResearchAssistantforCarolynHoyle’sstudyoftheCriminalCasesReviewCommission,andLeadResearcherforthepresentproject.ShewasformerlyManageroftheInnocenceProjectattheUniversityofLeeds,andisembarkingonadoctoratefocusedonmiscarriagesofjustice(Speechley,2013;McCartneyandSpeechley,2015).DrRosBurnett,formerlyaReaderinCriminology,isnowaResearchAssociateattheCentreforCriminology,UniversityofOxford.Shehasrecentlyeditedabookonwrongfulallegationsofabuse(Burnett,inpress).SheisavoluntaryresearchconsultanttoFACT.AcknowledgementsandDeclarationTheresearchteamisgratefultotheresearchparticipantsfortheirtimeandeffortincontributingtheirvoices.Whiletheimpetustocarryoutthestudycamefromasmallbequestof£5000towardsresearchonfalseallegations,andFACT1facilitatedouraccessto‘legallyinnocent’participants,thefocus,methodology,writingandproductionofthereportandallotheraspectsoftheprojecthavebeenexecutedindependentlyfromFACTbyateamattheCentreforCriminology,UniversityofOxford,generouslyfundedbytheUniversityofOxfordJohnFellFundandtheLawFacultyResearchSupportFund.TheresearchwasapprovedbytheOxfordCentralUniversityResearchEthicsCommittee.WearegratefultoDavidRoseforhelpfulcommentsonanearlierdraftofthisreport.

1FACTisavoluntaryorganisationestablishedin1999tosupportpeoplewronglyaccusedofabuseinoccupationalcontexts.Website:http://www.factuk.org/

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1:INTRODUCTION

Accusationsofseriouscriminality,especiallyallegedsexualwrongdoing,areoftentheirownconvictionsinthehighcourtofpublicopinionbecausethestigmaissosevere,andbecausedefinitivelyprovinginnocenceinadisputedsexcaseoftenisimpossible.

—(COTWAhomepage)2Historyisfullofinnocentmenandwomenwhohavebeensenttojailforcrimestheydidnotcommit.Iamnottoonaïvetorealisethatitcouldeasilyhavehappenedtome.Beforemytrialbegan,relativelyfewpeoplecouldunderstandhowaformercareworkercouldpossiblybefacingmorethan20countsofphysicalandsexualabusefromfourseparateaccusers,andclaimhewasinnocentandthatalltheallegationswerefalse.Bythetimethetrialhadcollapsed,practicallyeveryoneknewtheexplanation.

—(Jones,2011:141)

1.1 DifficultCases,PronetoErrorsofBiasResponsestoallegedsexualoffencesorotherphysicalabusearepronetoerrorintheabsenceofwitnessesotherthanthecomplainantorcorroborativeforensicevidence.Incaseswherethereisnosuchcorroboration,policeandprosecutors’decisionsabouttheveracityofstatementsmadebytheaccuserandtheaccusedarelikelytobeinfluencedbytheprevailingculturaldiscourseandconsequentpreconceptionsaboutsexualpredatorsandtheirallegedvictims.Inrecentyears,therehasbeensomeconcernthatallegationsofsexualabuse,particularlynon-recentabuse,havenotreceivedanappropriateresponse.Amongpoliticians,3criminaljusticeagencies4andcharities5intheUK,thereisacollectivesenseofremorsethatreportsofabusewereoftennotproperlyinvestigatedandthatthosewhoreporteditwereoftennotbelieved.Fromthishasemergedanewdeterminationtocorrectpastandpreventfurtherinjusticesofthiskind.Forexample,theReportofHerMajesty’sInspectorateofConstabulary(HMIC,2013),MistakesWereMade,recommendedthateachagencywithadutytosafeguardchildrenandvulnerableadultsshouldimplementregularandsystematiccheckstoensuretheycomplywithrelevantpoliciesandthatasystemofmandatoryreportingshouldbeconsideredtoensurethatthosewhobecome

2CommunityoftheWronglyAccused(COTWA)website:http://www.cotwa.info/3See,forexample,theHomeSecretary’s‘StatementonHistoricAllegationsofChildAbuseinNorthWales’,November6,2012;https://www.gov.uk/government/speeches/historic-allegations-of-child-abuse-in-north-wales-home-secretarys-statement-to-the-house-of-commons4TheCrownProsecutionServicereviseditspolicy.Seealso,Starmer,K.(2013)‘Thecriminaljusticeresponsetochildsexualabuse:timeforanationalconsensus’CPSwebsite,March6thhttp://www.cps.gov.uk/news/articles/the_criminal_justice_response_to_child_sexual_abuse_-_time_for_a_national_consensus/index.html5See,forexample,NSPCCcurrentadvice;https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/signs-symptoms-effects/non-recent-abuse/

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awareofevidencethatachildhasbeenorisbeingabusedisunderalegalobligationtonotifytheirconcernstoothers.6

Itisarguedthatforsomeyearsthebenefitofanydoubtisnowmorelikelytobegiventotheaccuser(Webster,1998;Burnett,2013).Evenincaseswheretheevidenceonlyconsistsoftestimonyfromtheallegedvictimandisstronglyrebuttedbytheallegedperpetrator,themoralimperativenotto‘letdownanothervictim’ortoleaveapossiblesexoffenderfreetocausefurtherharmmaybecompelling(Webster,1998;2005).Whilethismust,logically,reducethechancesofguiltypersonsavoidingprosecution(‘falsenegatives’),italsorisksincreasingthelikelihoodofinnocentpeoplebeingpresumedorfoundguilty(‘falsepositives’). Thereportedprevalenceofchildabuse,rapeandothersexualoffences,bothrecentandhistorical,hasrisensteadilyinrecentyears,reachinganewhighin2015,whenrapes(34,741)andothersexualoffences(68,873)wereatthehighestlevelrecordedsincetheintroductionoftheNationalCrimeRecordingStandardintheyearendingMarch2003(OfficeforNationalStatistics,2016).AccordingtoHerMajesty’sInspectorateofConstabulary,theintensepublicityaffordedtoinquiriessuchasOperationYewtree,theinvestigationintoallegedoffencesbythelatediscjockeyJimmySavile,hasbeenresponsibleforpartoftherecordedincrease(HMIC2014).

Inresponse,policehavedevotedmoreresourcestoinvestigatingallegationsofthiskind.InSeptember2014,itwasreportedthataquarteroftheGreaterManchesterPolicemajorincidentdetectiveteamwasworkingoncasesofallegedhistoricabuse–aremarkableandindicativestatistic(Scheerhout,2014).Butthedangersremain.Inanabuse-conscioussociety,peoplemayincorrectlyrememberorinterpreteventsasabusiveorerroneouslyattributeabusetheysufferedtothewrongperson.Theymayexaggerateanon-criminalincidentsothatitisperceivedascriminal,and,insomecases,mayintentionallymakeafalseallegation.Therisknowisthatmistakenordishonestallegationsofchildabuseorrapearemorelikelytobetakenastrue,unlessthereisobjectiveevidencetoinvalidatetheclaim.7

Itisapparentthatforthosewronglyaccusedtheeffectsarelikelytobedevastating,evenwhenallegationsdonotleadtocriminalsanctions.Indeed,anunknownnumberofabuseallegationsdonotleadtopoliceinquiriesorcriminalproceedingsatall,andarenotrecordedascrimes.Nevertheless,theymayhaveasubstantialimpact.Someallegationsdonotgobeyondinformalcomplaints,buttheymaystillaffecttheirsubjects’employmentorstandinginthecommunity.Othersmaybeairedinemploymenttribunalsorfamilycourts,

6https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmic/media/review-into-allegations-and-intelligence-material-concerning-jimmy-savile.pdf7FiguresusedbyCPS(Levitt,2013)toindicatethelowprevalenceoffalseallegationofsexualoffences,refertothosewhereevidencerefutingtheallegationhadcometolight.

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andevenwhentheyarenotsubstantiated,theirconsequencesmaybesevere.Finally,therearecomplaintswhich,thoughdealtwithbythecriminalprocess,endinacquittalsordecisionsbytheCrownProsecutionServicetodiscontinueproceedingsortotake‘nofurtheraction’.Heretoo,significantdamagemaybedonetoalleged‘perpetrators’incircumstanceswheretherehasbeennofindingofguilt.

Thepresentstudysuggeststhatduringandfollowingalltheseprocesses,accusedindividualsandtheirfamiliesdoindeedsufferenormouslyfromthestigmaandrevulsionassociatedwithsexualabuse,fromthedeprivationsduringtheinvestigationandthelifelongsuspicion(thatthey‘gotawaywithit’)thatislikelytofollow.Itfindsthatevenifsuchallegationsdonotleadtocriminalproceedings,theyarelikelytohavelife-changingeffects.Formalinvestigations,whetherinacivilorcriminalcontext,areharrowingfortheaccusedperson,andmayresultinimmediatesuspensionfromworkandtemporaryrestrictionsoncontactwithchildren,andarecordofhavingbeenreportedandinvestigated,whichcancauselongertermdamagetoemploymentprospectsandrelationships.

Forcaseswhichresultinaguiltyverdict,thepunishmentwillbealengthyperiodofimprisonment.Whenadefendantcontinuestoasserttheirinnocence,therewillbeaddeddeprivationsandbarriersagainstprivilegesandparole.Thechancesofasuccessfulappealareslim:ifacrimedidnottakeplaceandwasallegedtohaveoccurredinthedistantpast,thereislittleprospectofpersuadingtheCourtofAppealtograntleavetoappeal,or,later,ofproducingthe‘freshevidenceorargument’necessarytopersuadetheCriminalCasesReviewCommission(CCRC)toreferaconvictionbacktotheCourtofAppeal.Yet,asisdemonstratedbelow,miscarriagesofjusticecananddooccurinsuchcases.Whenallegationsrelatetoeventsyearsordecadesinthepast,thereisanincreasedlikelihoodofwrongfularrestsandconvictions.

1.2 Introductiontotheprojectandreport

Setagainstthebackgroundofabroadsocialdiscoursefocusedonprosecutingchildabusersandsexoffenders,onewhichrecognisesthatvictimsofabuseneedgreatcouragetoreportcrimesagainstthem,itmayseemperversetoshineaspotlightonthewronglyaccused.Someclaimthatdwellingonthemwilldrivevictimsbackintotheshadowsforfeartheywillnotbebelieved(Bindel,2015,EVAW,2015).However,givingavoicetothefalselyaccuseddoesnotdiminishlessonsthatcanbelearntfromvictimsofabuse.

Inthisreport,weusetheterm‘falselyaccused’interchangeablywith‘wronglyaccused’.Wedonotsuggestthatallfalseclaimsaremadewithdeliberateillintent.Indeed,weconsideritlikelythatmanyuntrueallegationsareinsteadconstructedthroughtherapy,retrospectivereflectionorrumour,orthroughthesuggestibilityofsomewitnessesduringinvestigativeinterviews,andarebelievedbytheirauthorstobetrue.

BothcommonlawandtheHumanRightsActasserttherighttobeconsideredinnocentuntilprovenguilty,andthepresentstudyisfocusedonthosewhoarelegally

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innocent.Eithertheyhavenotbeencharged;orchargedbutnotprosecuted;ortheyhavebeenprosecutedbutwereacquittedbyajudgeorjury;or,inoneofourcases,theywereconvictedbutlaterhadtheirconvictionquashedbytheCourtofAppeal.Thoseacquittedbecauseofanabuseofprocessarenotincluded.Whilethereisnosuchthingasalegalfindingof‘innocence’,thequashingoftheirconvictionbasedonevidencethatintroducedreasonabledoubtaboutapriorguiltyverdictreturnsthemtothepriorstatusofpresumedinnocent(Findley,2011).8

Victims’voicesandthepowerofnarrativesRecentdecadeshaveseenanemergingbodyofresearchfocusedoncrimevictimsandtheirperspectives(Hoyle,2012;BottomsandRoberts,2010).Thesameperiodhaswitnessedaculturalshifttowardsbelievingallegationsofabuse,andthepresumptionnowisinfavourofbelievingthosewhopresentasvictims(CPS,2013;Starmer,2014).Indeed,somereportsassertthatvictims’accountsarebeingacceptedatfacevalueasevidenceoftheguiltofthepersonaccused(GrayandWatts,2013)withlittleattempttofindcorroboratingevidence.Thismayhavecreatedazero-sumgamewhereinbeingalerttotheneedsofthosewhoclaimtobevictimsofabusehashadtheeffectofoverlookingthosewhoarevictimsofwrongfulallegations.

Withincriminaljusticeprocessesthetermvictimisgenerallyreservedforthosewhoarerecognisedasvictimsofcrime.However,someofthosewhohavebeenwronglyaccusedofabuseregardthemselvesasfittingthiscategory,andintheirview,theiraccuserspervertedthecourseofjusticeorwastedpolicetimewithdeliberatelyfabricatedallegations.Formally,theywillnotberegardedasvictimsexceptinthoserarecaseswheretheaccuserischargedwith‘wastingpolicetime’or‘pervertingthecourseofjustice’(Levitt,2013a).Nevertheless,manyofthosewronglyaccusedofthesereviledoffencesdoidentifythemselvesasvictimsofarangeof‘perpetrators’.Thesemayincludetheiraccusersthemselves;therapistswho‘recovermemories’andsuggestthattheirclient’sproblemswerecausedbyrepressedchildabuse(Davis,2005);thepolice;andpersonalinjurylawyerswhoputoutcallsforclaimantswhilepromotingtheirservicesinpursuingcompensation(Webster,2005;Rose,2016inpress).Ultimately,somewillblamethestate:

‘Whethertheresultofwillful,illegalconductbystateofficials,implicitpublicpressureonandtunnelvisionbypolice,animbalanceofresourcesinfavorofthestate,orsheercarelessnessbyinvestigatorsandprosecutors,wrongfulconvictionscauseharmandproducevictims.Exonerees’victimizationcontinuesafterexonerationwhenthestatefailstoassisttheirreintegrationeffortsandrecognizeitsresponsibilityintheirwrongfulconvictions.[Theycanbeunderstoodas]victimsofstate-producedharms.’(WesterveltandCook,2010:261)

Avictimologicalperspectiveonthepredicamentofthefalselyaccusedthereforeseemsappropriate,especiallyforthosewhowereintentionally‘framed’orforthosewhowerethevictimsoferrorsbystateofficials.Insomecases,itmaybethatacrimeofabusedidindeedoccur,butwasattributedtothewrongperpetrator.Insuchcircumstances,theconceptof

8ThedesiderataforinclusionandexclusionisfurtherdiscussedinSection2undertheheadingCriteriaforInclusion.

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‘secondaryvictim’appliestothewronglyaccusedaswellastorelativesoftheprimaryvictimsofabuse(Jenkins,2013),andtoregardthemassuchdoesnottakeawayfromtheprimaryvictim’ssuffering(Davies,2011).

TheIndependentInquiryintoChildSexualAbuse(IICSA)hasinvitedvictimsandsurvivorsofchildsexualabusetosharetheirexperiencewiththeInquiryteam,andadvisesthattheinformationprovidedwillfeedintothe‘TruthProject’.9Strongargumentsaremadeforlisteningtovictimsofabuseregardlessofthetimethathaselapsedandregardlessofwhethertheaccusedpersonisaliveordead(Grayling,2015).However,IICSAalsointendstoheartestimonyfromthosewhohavebeenfalselyaccused,asitschair,Hon.DameLowellGoddardmadeclearinastatementinApril2016.Indeed,herstatementrefersto‘thebalancewhichmustbestruckbetweenencouragingthereportingofchildsexualabuseandprotectingtherightsoftheaccused.’10TheIICSAislikelytohearevidencesimilartothedatapresentedbelow.StructureoftheReportSection2introduceswrongfulallegationsofhistoricalabuseasanestablishedgenreofmiscarriagesofjustice,andprovidesbriefanalysisoftheculturalandinstitutionalcontextinwhichwrongfulallegationsandconvictionsariseandtheirimpactonvictims.Section3describesthemethodologyemployedtocollectthedataforthepresentstudy,includingitsaimsandobjectives;howparticipantswererecruited;andethicalissuesinrelationtothecriteriaforinclusionandexclusion.Section4presentstheresultsoftheanalysisinrespectofparticipantswhowereaccusedbutnotchargedwithoffences,orwhowereacquittedonthedirectionofthejudgeorfound‘notguilty’,orwhoseconvictionswereoverturnedonappeal.Section5discussesthefindingsandtheirimplications,withproposalsforhowthisresearchcaninformourunderstandingaboutthislargelyneglectedformoftrauma.

9‘Shareyourexperience’,IICSAwebsite31-07-2015.<https://www.iicsa.org.uk/news-and-updates/share-your-experience>10StatementfromtheChairoftheEnquiry,April2016;https://www.iicsa.org.uk/news/statement-chair-inquiry-april-2016

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2:LITERATUREREVIEW2.1 Anacknowledgedgenreofmiscarriagesofjustice

TheEnglishcriminaljusticesystemwasregardedasvirtuallyinfallibleuntiltheemergenceinthelate1980sofhighprofilemiscarriagesofjusticesuchasthecasesoftheBirminghamSix,theGuildfordFourandStefanKiszko.Miscarriagesofjustice–whetherbyerrorormalfeasance–havethusbecomearecognisedfeatureofthesystem,whichtheCourtofAppealandtheCriminalCasesReviewCommissionseektocorrect.Thereasonsformiscarriagesofjusticearemultifarious(WalkerandStarmer,1999;HuffandKillias,2013;Naughton,2013).Someofthefactorswhichcancontributetotheconvictionofaninnocentpersoninclude:confirmatorybiasinpoliceandprosecutioninvestigations;non-disclosureofexculpatoryevidence;falseconfessions;dishonestormistakenwitnesses;inadequatelegaldefence;improperinterventionsorsummingupbyajudge;cognitivebiasesandprejudicesofjuries;andtheinfluenceofmediareportsandpopulistopiniononthedecisionsmadebyjuries.

Inasocialclimatewhereitisbelievedthatcertaincrimesarerifeandwherethereisamoralandpoliticalagendatosecureconvictionforthem,thedangersofmiscarriagesofjusticearehigher.Itwasinsuchconditionsofdisquiet–indeed,inconditionswhichconstitute‘moralpanics’(Cohen,1972;Garland,2005;Creeetal,2015)–thataseriesofwrongfularrestsandprosecutionsoccurredinthefinaldecadesofthelastcenturyinresponsetoallegationsofpaedophileringsandorganisedchildsexualabuse.FollowingsimilarscaresinNorthAmericaandotherpartsoftheworld,itbecamecommonlybelievedthatSatanicritualabusewasoccurringinsomecommunitiesandindaycarenurseries.NotableexamplesofsupposedSatanicabuseemergedintheOrkneyIslandsandNottingham,anditwasonlyaftermanymonthsthatitbecameclearthatnosuchritualabusehadtakenplace(Thorpeetal.,1990;Clyde,1992;LaFontaine,1994)11.AnexampleofchimericalabuseatanurserywasthecaseofShieldfieldonTyneside(Rozenberg,2002).Finally,therewastheClevelandscandal,whenamisleadingdiagnostictestbasedonso-calledanaldilationledtotheunjustifiedremovalofdozensofchildrenintolocalauthoritycare(Butler-Sloss,1988).

OfparticularrelevancetothepresentstudyaretheinvestigationsintotheabuseofchildrenincareandresidentialschoolsinNorthWalesandNorthernEnglandinthelate1990s.Aftersomeformerstaffwereconvictedofnon-recentoffences,therewerewidespreadclaimspublishedinthemediathatabuseinsuchsettingshadbeensystemic,theworkof‘paedophilerings’thatsometimes‘farmedout’victimstooutsiders(Sawyer,

11Weacknowledgetherewereindividualcasesofchildsexualabusethatsparkedsomeofthesescandals.

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2012;Dobson,2012;Tozer,2013).AccordingtoWebster(2005),betweenJanuary1998andMay2001,34ofthe43policeforcesinEnglandandWalesundertookinvestigationsofnon-recentinstitutionalchildabuse.However,noorganisedpaedophileringsincarehomeswereidentified.12

February2000sawthepublicationofLostinCare,thereportofthejudicialinquiryledbySirRonaldWaterhouseintoabuseinNorthWales.OnaBBCNewsnightprogrammethatdiscussedthefindings,SirWilliamUtting,theformerHerMajesty’sChiefInspectorofSocialWork,commented:‘Itmaybethatinnocentpeoplearebeingconvicted,butweoughttobemoreworriedabouttheguiltywhomightgetaway’.Thisbalefulremarkimpliedthattheabuseofchildren,nomatterhowlongago,wassuchaseriousmatterthatitmeritedareversalofthelegalprincipleofthepresumptionofinnocenceinordertoincreasetheprospectsofsecuringconvictions.

Inthisfirstwaveofhistoricabusecases,somewereprosecutedbutacquittedandothersmountedsuccessfulappeals.Thefootballclubmanager,DavidJones,whohadearlierbeenaresidentialcareworkeronMerseyside,wasoneofthosewhoweretriedbutacquitted.Inhisautobiographyhewroteofthelastingpsychologicaldamageofbeingprosecutedforsuchanoffence,evenafterthejuryreturnedaverdictofnotguilty:

‘WhatthosewhosoughttoconvictmedidwastakeawaysomethingthatIwillnevergetback;mydignity.Thewholeexperiencefeltlikeadaggerbeingcontinuallystabbedthroughmyheart.[…]WhatIcannevercorrectistheperiodofmylifethatwaswreckedbythemosthorrificallegationsanylovingfathercouldpossiblyface.’(Jones,2011,p.221)

Inthemonthshespentawaitingtrial,hehadbeensuspendedfromhispositionatSouthamptonFC,andfearedhemightneverworkagain.Othercasesofstaffmembersandtheirfamiliesbeingtraumatisedbydawnraids,protractedperiodsonbail,orprosecutionsandconvictionswhichwerelaterquashedonappeal,werereportedbyjournalistsandresearchers.FiguresobtainedfromtheAssociationofChiefsofPoliceshowthatbyMay2001policeforcesinEnglandandWaleshadreceivedallegationsfromabout5,750formerresidentsofcarehomes.AccordingtoWebster(2005)atleast10,000formerresidentsofcarehomeshadmadecomplaintsbytheendof2004,withbetween7,000and9,000careworkershavinghadaccusationsmadeagainstthem:‘Mostofthesecareworkershavenotbeenchargedwithanyoffence,butmany…hadtheirlivesblightedbyfalseallegations.Andinthelast15years,asmanyasahundredmayhavebeenwronglyconvicted.’(Webster2005,p.550,andfn.605).

SomeofthefamiliesaffectedbythesecasescontactedtheirMPs.AnAll-PartyParliamentaryGroupforAbuseInvestigationswassetup,ledbytheMPClaireCurtis-Thomas.Meanwhile,theHouseofCommonsSelectCommitteeonHomeAffairsconductedaninquiryofitsown.Itsreport,TheConductofInvestigationsintoPastCasesofAbusein

12TherecentinquirybyLadyJusticeMacur(2016)foundnoreasontoquestionthefindingsoftheWaterhouseTribunalwithregardtoorganisedpaedophileringsincarehomes(Waterhouse,2000).However,organisedexploitationofvulnerablepeopleincareandcareleavershasbeenfoundinseveralUKcities,notablyRotherham(Jay,2014).

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Children’sHomes(HASC,2002),lookedcriticallyatthemethodspoliceusedinseekingcorroborationforvictims’claims–thatof‘trawling’forwitnesses.Itstatedthatthis,andtheconcomitantrelianceoncorroborationbynumbershadledto‘anewgenreofmiscarriageofjustice’(para.2),adding:‘Setinthecontextofagrowingcompensationcultureandashiftinthelawof“similarfact”evidence,therisksofeffectingamiscarriageofjusticeinthesecasesaresaidtobeunusuallyhigh’(para.2).

TheHASCreportdefinedthetrawlingmethodasfollows:

‘‘Trawling’isnotatechnicalterm,ratheritisaconvenientlabelusedtodescribethepolicepracticeofmakingunsolicitedapproachestoformerresidentsfrommanyoftheinstitutionsunderinvestigation.Inanyinvestigation,includingthoseintopastinstitutionalabuse,thepolicewillcontactpersonsnamedbythecomplainantinhisorherstatementofcomplaint.Trawling,asweunderstandit,referstotheprocesswhenthepolicegoonestepfurtherandcontactpotentialwitnesseswhohavenotbeennamedorevenmentioned.Inatrawl,thepolicewillcontactall,oraproportionof,thosewhowereresidentattheinstitutionunderinvestigationduringtheperiodwhentheabusewasallegedtohaveoccurred.’(HASC,2002,para.12).

Whatisineffectthesamemethodisnowusuallytermed‘dipsampling’bypoliceservices.Whateverthenomenclature,theessenceofthetechniqueistocontactformerresidentsandpupilsofinstitutionswhohavenotmadespontaneouscomplaintsinthehopeofgatheringfurthercomplaints,soenablingprosecutionsbasedon‘corroborationbyvolume’-theinclusionoftwoormoreuncorroboratedclaimsofseparateincidentswhichcountasmutuallycorroborative,accordingtotheprinciplesof‘similarfactevidence.’

Thelawinthisareahassteadilyevolved,andthoughitissupposedtoprotecttheinnocentagainsttheintroductionofprejudicialtestimony,thesesafeguardshavebeenweakened(Webster,2002).Originally,‘similarfact’testimonialevidencewaspermittedonlyiftherewere‘strikingsimilarities’betweenprovablefacts.ThiswasextendedbyaCourtofAppealrulingin1946toincludesimilarallegations.TwofurtherjudgmentsbytheHouseofLordsintheearly1990sweakenedthesafeguardsfurther.In1991,inDPPvP,thecourtrejectedtherequirementthatallegations,inordertobeadmissible,shouldbe‘strikinglysimilar’.In1994,inDPPvH,itheldthat,inrulingontheadmissibilityofaseriesofsimilarallegations,thejudgeshouldgenerallyassumethattheallegationsinquestionweretrue(Webster,2002).

Thetimingofthesejudgmentswassignificant,becausepoliceserviceswerethenjustbeginningtoinvestigateclaimsofabuseinresidentialschoolsandcarehomes.Hence,‘thenewlycreatedweaknessinthelawwasalmostimmediatelyseizedonbypoliceforcesinordertosuccessfullypushthroughanumberofprosecutionswhichcouldneverhavebeenbroughtpriortothedecisioninDPPvP’(Webster,2002,p.5).Meanwhile,therewasalsowidespreadcontactbetweenthepoliceandpersonalinjurysolicitors,gatheringclientsforlarge-scalecivilactionsagainstthoseallegedlyresponsibleforabuse.These,itisargued,createdopportunitiesfortheexchangeofdescriptivedetail,pollinationofrumoursandconfabulationofmemories(Webster,1998,2005;IPCC,2007;Rose,2012,2016,2016inpress).Somesolicitorsevenadvertisedforsupposedvictimsusingtheprisoners’newspaper,InsideTime(Rose,2012).Therisksherewereself-evident.Bydefinition,manyofthoserespondingtosuchadvertisementshadbeenconvictedofcrimesofdishonesty.Theywere

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alsolikelytocomeintocontactbehindbarswithotherswhohadbeenincareandapprovedschools,creatingafurtherdangerofcollusion.Inprison,itwasalsopossiblethatsomedisadvantagedorvulnerablepeoplewhowerenotmotivatedbymaliceorgreedwereerroneouslypersuadedthattheyhadbeenvictimsofphysicalandsexualabuse(Gunn,2013).

Fromhiswealthofexperiencedefendingsuchcases,thesolicitorMarkNewbyhasdescribedthepatternwherebyindividualtestimonycanbecomecontaminated:

‘Afterthefirstallegationthetrawlwillthencommencealmostuniformly…ThewitnesseswillfindthemselvesappointedaLiaisonofficerwhowillalsoactasaconduitforinformationtheyshouldnotreceive.Mostsignificantlytheevidenceofonecomplainantwillbeintroducedintotheevidenceofthenext,eitherinapurposefulactionbutmostprobablybyinnocentcontamination.Thinkaboutit:ifoneofficeristoldasexualoffencetookplaceinacertainwayitisalmosthumannaturewhenheorseesanotherwitnesstoenquireordirectthequestioningtoseeifthesamehappenedtothisperson.Theactofcontaminationhasbeencommittedandisthenperpetuatedastheenquirycontinues.[Later,withoutknowinghowtheyarose,itispossiblefortheProsecutionand]theJudgetomakethosesortofcommentswehaveallheardtothejury,suggestingthatitisimplausiblethatallcouldcomeupwithallegationswhichsharethesamefeatures.’(Newby,2012,p.5).

DavidJessel(2012),aformerCommissionerattheCCRC(andbeforethat,presenteroftheRoughJusticeandTrialandErrortelevisionseries)hassuggestedthat:

‘[S]excases…arebyfarthelargestcategoryofCCRCapplications,which,tomymind,representthelargestcohortofpotentialmiscarriagesofjustice,andwhichdon’toftenfeatureinthecatalogueofinnocencecampaigners.’

Understandinghowtheseinjusticesmayoccurisimportanttoappreciatingwhythesamefactorsmaycontinuetoplacemorepeopleatriskofwrongfularrestsandprosecutions(HMIC,2013;Levitt,2013b).

Thenumberofpeoplewhoarefalselyaccusedoftheseabhorrentoffencesexpandsconsiderablyoncecivilproceedingsaretakenintoaccount.WhileaproportionofthoseaccusedwhosecasesaredroppedbythepoliceorCPSas‘unfounded’or‘unsubstantiated’arelikelytobeguilty,itstandstoreasonthataproportionwereinnocentallalong,andpossiblythemajorityofthem.Nonetheless,somewillbesubjectto‘punishments’intheciviljusticesystem.Hence,inanyconsiderationoftheimpactoffalseaccusations,itisofcriticalimportancetoincludecivilcases,involvingdisciplinaryhearingsoremploymenttribunals,whichcanresultinsuspensionanddismissalfromworkandothersignificantharms,asthepresentstudyshows.

Somelessonswerelearnedfromthelatetwentiethcentury‘moralpanics’oversatanicritualabuseandoverblownclaimsofinstitutionalisedabuseinchildren’scarehomes.Theunnecessaryarrests,prosecutionsanddamagetofamiliesledtorecognitionoffalseallegationsofabuseasadistinctcategoryofmiscarriagesofjustice.Recently,however,thoselessonsseemtohavebeenunderminedbyanewmoralpanicoverallegationsof‘VIP’and‘celebrity’abuse.OfparticularnoteistheMetropolitanPoliceinquiryintoclaimsofabusebya‘ring’ofpaedophilesinParliament,OperationMidland,stokedbyaseriesofinterviewsbyamanknownas‘Nick’ontheExaroNewswebsite,widelyreportedbythe

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BBC.EvenaftertheMetropolitanPoliceServiceadmittedin2015thatthishadbeen‘wrong’,itsstatement–whichisstillavailableonitswebsite–added:‘Ourstartingpointwithallegationsofchildsexualabuseistobelievethevictimuntilweidentifyreasonablecausetobelieveotherwise.’(Peachey,2015).

2.2 Whyarefalseallegationsmadeandbelieved?RichardWebster’swritings,especiallyhiscomprehensivestudy,TheSecretofBrynEstyn(Webster,2005)providecompellinginsightsintotheculturalcontext,beliefsandmotivationsforfalseallegationsbothtobemadeandacceptedastrue.13SeveralfactorsarealsoidentifiedinFACT’sreportPresumedGuilty(JensenandJensen,2011,p.16),including:alackofunderstandingaboutthenatureandpurposeoftheresidentialinstitutionsatthetime(detentioncentresandapprovedschoolsfor‘juvenileoffenders’,latercommunityhomeswitheducation/CHEs)andthelegalrequirementsonstaffatthetimeto‘careandcontrol’;thechallengingbehaviourofthechildrenandyoungpeoplereferredtothem;andthepoorqualityoflegalrepresentationthatdefendantsreceived.

Onceapersonisputontrial,thepresentingnarrativeinthecasefortheprosecutioncarriesemotionalweight.Juriesaregivenagraphicpictureofhorrendousabuseperpetratedbysomeoneinapositionofpower.‘Intheiropeningstatementstothecourttheprosecutionoftenlistinluriddetailsacatalogueoftheallegedabusewhichitisclaimedeachdefendanthascommitted.Thiscreatesahighlycharged,prejudicialandemotionalatmospherethatcausesthejuryconsiderableconfusionandanxiety’(JensenandJensen,p.18).Indeed,asWebsterputit:‘Therealityinalltoomanycasesisthat,bythetimetheprosecutionopeninghasbeencompleted,boththejuryandthejudgemayhavebeencaughtupinacurrentofprejudicesopowerfulthattheyareswepttogethertowardaguiltyverdictwithoutbeingableproperlytoassesstheevidencewhichispresentedtothem.’(Webster,2005,p.18).

MotivesandexplanationsThefirstthoughtformanywhenanallegationisdescribedas‘false’isthattheaccuserisbeingcalledaliar.Thoughdeliberateliesordistortionsarecertainlypresentinsomecases,withsomechildrenandyoungpeoplehavingahistoryoflyinganddishonesty,manyfalseclaimsreflectwhattheaccuserbelievestohavehappenedorrefertoactualabusecommittedbysomeoneelse,orageneralsenseofhavingbeenmistreatedbyadultsduringadeprivedandchaoticupbringing,ratherthanspecificcriminalacts.Hence,whileitwouldbenaïvetoconcludethatthosewhomakefalseaccusationsareliars,itisequallynaïvetoassumethatallcomplaintsaretruthful:

13SeealsoSmith(2016inpress)andGoodyear-Smith(2016inpress)fordiscussionofculturalfactorsandindividualmotivationsleadingtofalsenaratives.

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‘ThegreatmistakewhichappearstohavebeenmadeattheoutsetoftheNorthWalesinvestigationwasthatsomepoliceofficers,schooledinanewandpowerfulethosofchildprotection,allowedthetraditional(andpredominantlynegative)stereotypeofformerresidentsofcarehomestobechallengedinthewrongway.Insteadofreplacingtheformerstereotypeof‘congenitalliar’withamoresubtleandsympatheticanalysis,theysometimesadoptedanattitudewhichledtotheacceptanceofalmostallallegations...Onsomeoccasions,atleast,investigatingofficersappeartohavebecomeblindtothesuggestibilityofwitnessesortohavedeliberatelyturnedablindeyetowardsit.Toooftentheyseemtohaveremainedunawareofthepossibilitythattheythemselves(orthepublicitygiventotheirinvestigations)mightbesowingtheseedsoftheallegationstheywereharvesting’.(Webster,2005,p.130)

Peoplewhogrewupinviolentorabusivefamiliesorneighbourhoodsmaywellhave

experiencedmistreatmentathome,andyearslatertheymaychoosetoblamethoselookingaftertheminresidentialcare.Inhischapter,LyingforLove,Websterprovidesarichandconvincinganalysisofthemotivations,processesandrewardsforformercarehomeresidentstoseethemselvesasavictimofaspecificsuspect,andthenparticipatinginaprosecution.Theirpre-carehomeexperiencesarelikelytohavebeencharacterisedbyneglect,withoutconsistentaffection.Itwouldnotbesurprisingiftheresidualhurtsandresentmentfromthatstartinlifewerelatertransferredontoaformermemberofstaffwhowasover-strictorcoldorwhohadimposedpunishmentsforrule-breaking.Questionsfrompoliceofficersandpersonalinjurysolicitors,andinformationfromotherclaimants,mayleadthemtobelievethatthesuspecthadbeenalreadyidentifiedbyothersasanabuser,sothatmakingaclaimwouldmerelybelendingweighttosecuretheprosecutionofa‘knownwrongdoer’.Webstergoesontoidentifythepsychologicalbenefitsthatmightfurthermotivateandsustainclaimsofabuse:

‘Whatisnotgenerallyunderstoodisthattheactofmakingafalseallegationofabusecanandoftendoesbringafeelingofpsychologicalsatisfaction.…Peoplewhohavepreviouslyfeltoverlookedandinsignificantmaysuddenlyfindthemselvesthecentreofattention,concernandsympathy.Atthesametimetheideathattheyarenowengagedinabattleagainstevil,inwhichmanyotherpeople,includingcounsellorsandsocialworkers,arefightingalongsidethem,canbeasourceofgreatemotionalenergy.Itmaygivepeoplebotharaisond'êtreandafeelingofstrengthandsolidaritywhichtheydidnotpreviouslyhave.’(Webster,2005,p.131-2)

Anotherstimulustocomplainmightbesuggestionsfromtherapiststhattheymayhaverepressedmemoriesofabuse,andthatsuchabusecouldbethecauseoflaterdifficultiessuchassubstanceabuseandoffending(e.g.seeMcNally,2003).Becausethelong-termtraumaticeffectsofchildhoodabusearenowgenerallyaccepted,retrievingandreconstructingmemoriesofabusehasprofoundimplicationsforhowapersonmakessenseofpersonalfailingsandtherebyrestoresself-esteem.Beingabletoexplainandjustifypersonalbehaviouraldifficultiesandmentalhealthproblemsastheoutcomesofabuseislikelytobeapowerfulmotivatorforanindividualtobelievethattheywereabused.

Suggestingthatpeoplereporthistoricabuseinordertogaincompensationishurtfultogenuinevictimsofabusewhomayonlyseekrecognitionandemotionalsupport.However,itwouldbefoolishtoignoretheaddedattractionoffinancialbenefitsin

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motivatingbothtrueandfalseallegations.Thisisparticularlythecaseforpeoplewhomaybeindebt,unemployed,orinlow-incomejobs.

Insomecases,confabulationratherthandeliberatefabricationsseemslikely.Theconceptof‘confabulation’referstothewayinwhichwemay,eitherinsolitaryreflectionorinconversationwithothers,fillgapsinourmemorieswithfabricationswhichwebelieveorcometobelievearefacts.ForWebster(2005,p.132),thefailureofpolicetorecognisethe‘facilityforconfabulationwhichispossessedbymanypotentialwitnesses’andthedangersofcontaminationposedbythosewhoconvenemeetingsofwitnessesorwhointerviewmultiplewitnesseshavebeenseriousshortcomings.

ConfirmationbiasCallstoincreasedetectionandprosecutionratesforrapeandchildsexualabuseweregivenadramaticboostfollowingtheRotherhamandOxfordshirechildsexualexploitation(CSE)scandals.14Thefrequentreportingofhighprofilesexoffendersinthemedia,andthepublicrevulsiontowardschildabuseandrapemaywellhaveledtoacultureofhypervigilance.Whilethisassistsinprotectingchildrenandothervulnerablegroups,ithasalsoencouragedexcessivesuspicionandretributiveinstinctsinthoserespondingtocomplaints.Onceitisacceptedthatsexualandchildabuseisendemicinsociety,theresultingconfirmationbiasmakesitlikelythatmostofthosereportedtobeoffenderswillbepresumedguilty.‘Confirmationbias’isthetendencytobolsterahypothesisbyseekingconsistentevidencewhiledisregardinginconsistentinformation(Nickerson,1998).‘Incriminalinvestigations,apreferenceforhypothesis-consistentinformationunderminesaccuracybyleadinginvestigatorstooverlookpotentiallyrelevantevidencethatchallengestheirtheory’(O’BrienandEllsworth,2006,p.5).Investigators,actorsinthecourtroom,andlegislatorsareallpronetosuchbias.

Wehavealreadydiscussedtheevolutionoftherulesgoverningsimilarfactevidence.Anotherdevelopmentthathasmadeiteasiertosecureconvictionsandharderforfactuallyinnocentdefendantstoavoiditwastheremovaloftheneedforjudgestowarnjuriesaboutthedangersofactingonuncorroboratedtestimonyfromtheputativevictimofanallegedsexualoffence.

ChangesintheapproachtocomplaintsaboutabusewerereflectedinthenewGuidelinesonProsecutingCasesofChildSexualAbuse,introducedin2013.Thesesteeredprosecutorsawayfromquestioningthecredibilityofthecomplainantbychallengingthe‘myths’surroundingthereportingofsexualcrimes(CrownProsecutionService,2013,para.41).TheGuidelinesalsospecifedthat‘prosecutorsshouldguardagainstlookingfor“corroboration”ofthevictim’saccountorusingthelackof“corroboration”asareasonnottoproceedwithacase.’(para.55)

Areportin2014byHerMajesty’sInspectorofConstabulary,CrimeRecording:MakingtheVictimCount,recommended:‘Thepresumptionthatthevictimshouldalwaysbe

14BBCNews,UKChildrensufferedsexabuseon‘industrialscale’,3March2015;http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-31691061

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believedshouldbeinstitutionalised’while‘Thepracticeofsomeforcesofinvestigatingfirstandrecordinglatershouldbeabandonedimmediately’(HMIC,2014,para.7.16).Followingonfromthis,theCrownProsecutionServiceandMetropolitanPoliceService(2015)ActionPlanonRapeassertsthatprosecutors‘mustfocustheircaseonthebehaviouroftheaccused,notthecomplainant’(p.2).Whilesuchpoliciesreassurevictimsthattheywillbebelievedandtreatedsympathetically,unfortunatelytheyalsopavethewayforvexatiousanderroneousclaimstobebelieved.

2.3 Briefliteraturereviewontheimpactofbeingwronglyaccusedofabuse

Therecanbelittledoubtthataccusedpersonswillsuffertosomedegreewhenaccusationsofseriousoffencesaremadethatcannotbereadilyrefuted.Theeffectswillobviouslyvarywiththeextenttowhichinvestigationsandthecriminalprocessdevelops,andalsothenatureoftheallegedoffence.Verylittleresearchhasbeendonespecificallyontheimpactoffalseallegationsofabuse,althoughsomestudiesoffalsememoriesofchildabusehavecoveredtheexperiencesofindividualsaccusedofabusing,oftentheirown,children(Pendergrast,1997;Brand,2007)andthereareseveralautobiographicalaccountsoftheexperienceofbeingfalselyaccused(e.g.Jones,2011;Greene,2011;Gambaccini,2015).Giventhelimitedresearchonthoseaccusedofabuseinoccupationsoftrust,thefollowingliteraturereviewalsoreferstobroaderresearchonindividualexperiencesofwrongfulchargesandconvictions,and,moregenerally,theeffectsofcriminallabelling,stigmaandimprisonmentwhichhavesomebearingonthepresentinquiry.

Forapersonwhoisorwasengagedinanoccupationofresponsibilitytowardschildrenorvulnerableadults,tobeaccusedofsexuallyorphysicallyabusingthemisaveryseriousmatter.Itcanbeassumedthatsuchanaccusationwouldbeshockingandtraumaticforaninnocentpersonevenifitdoesnotresultinachargeoraconviction.Ifitthenresultsinaconvictionandprisonsentence,thelife-changingeffectscannotbeunder-estimated.Astheabuseofchildrenandvulnerableadultsiswidelyconsideredtobeoneofthemostegregiousoffences,thoseconvictedwillfacepunitiveconsequences,butthosenotprosecutedwillalsoexperiencethestainofsuspicion.

ExperiencingfalseallegationsofhistoricalabuseinresidentialcarehomesPresumedGuilty-areportpublishedbyFACTin2011-providesanoverviewoftheconsequencesofthe1990schildren’scarehomesscandalwhichresultedintheWaterhouseTribunalandthearrestsandprosecutionsofstaff,someofwhomwerelaterfoundtobelegallyinnocent.Summinguptheoutcomeforformerstaff,particularlyinNorthWalesandnorthernEngland,FACT’sreportnoted:

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‘Hundredsmorehavebeencaughtupinwidespreadpoliceinvestigationsandasaresulthavelosttheirprofessionalreputationandpersonalstanding.Liveshavebeenshattered,careershavebeenlostandfamilieshavebeentornapart.’(JensenandJensen,2011,p.iii)

TheformerMP,ClaireCurtis-Thomas,spokeoutaboutthelastingimpactofthis‘epidemicoffalseallegations’onthosewhowerenevercharged,thoseacquittedandwhoseconvictionswereoverturned.Sherecalled:‘…theterrorspeoplewentthrough,facingimminentarrest,thehorribleexperienceofthatknockonthedoorandpolicesearchingthehouseandseizingproperty,thenoftenkeptinpolicecellssothattheycouldnottalktoothermembersofstaff.EvenifyourcasehasbeenthroughtheAppealCourt,yourrecordhasbeentarnishedandisneverlikelytobeuntarnished.Theirreputationshavebeenblightedandeventhoughweseethemandtheirfamiliesemergefromthecourtlookinghappy,weknowthattheblighthasnotbeenremoved,becausebeyondthatcourttherearemanyorganizationsandauthoritieswhowillholdontothatreputationofguilt,makingitimpossibleforanindividualtoreturntoalife.Thatsortofinjustice,whichisnotcoveredbylegalredressmustremainahugeconcerntoallofusthattherecanbetheseorganizationswhostilltreatyouasguiltyandwillaffecttheirlivesforever.’(Curtis-Thomas,2012)

Theemploymentprospectsofthosewhohavebeenwrongfullyaccusedaredamaged,withmanywhowantedtoreturntoteachingorsocialworkwithyoungpeoplebeingthwartedbytheextendedDBSchecks(formerlyknownasCRBchecks)orbyNCTLrulings.15Themerefactofhavingatonetimebeenaccusedandinvestigatedwouldgenerallyexcludethemfromworkwithchildrenorvulnerableadults,andiftheyhadbeenconvictedbutthenhadtheirconvictionquashedtheywouldbebarredinaccordancewiththeIndependentSafeguardingAuthority(Webster,2005;JensenandJensen,2011).

Teachersinnon-residentialschoolsaresimilarlyaffected.A2009reportfromtheHouseofCommonsChildren,SchoolsandFamiliesCommitteeonAllegationsAgainstSchoolStaff,whichlookedatallegationsofphysicalabuseorunnecessaryforceaswellasallegedsexualmisconducted,observed:‘Thosewronglyaccusedarelikelytogothroughaperiodofintensedistressandmayhavetheirlivesandcareersruined.’(Children,SchoolsandFamiliesCommittee,2009,p.3).Itfoundprocedureswhichmadeitdifficultforstaffwhomaybeinnocenttogatherevidencetomountadefence:theywerehastilysuspended,orderedoffthepremisesandpreventedfromsocialcontactwiththeircolleagues,includingthosewhowerealsofriends.TheCommitteenotedthat‘unfoundedallegationslingerinpersonnelrecordsthroughoutateachingcareerand…employersoftenrejectedapplicantsforpostsonthebasisofunprovenandpossiblyunfounded“soft”information.’(p.4).TheCommitteeobservedthatsuspensionsundertheshadowofafalseallegationresultedin‘severepersonaldistressandlong-termdamagetotheaccused’shealth’(p.27).AmemorandumsubmittedtotheCommitteebyVoice,TheUnionforEducationProfessionals,commentedthat‘Itisextremelyunsatisfactory,andunfairtoanindividual,thatattheendofhis/hercontactwiththepoliceand/orCPSthereisnowayofknowingwhetherthatcontactwillbelaterplacedonrecordasadditionalinformation.’(p.113)

15DBS–DisclosureandBarringService;CRB–CriminalRecordsBureau;NCTL–NationalCollegeforTeachingandLeadership.

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Becomingasuspect16Beingreportedasasexoffendersetsintomotionaseriesofshockingandfrighteningevents,oftenbeginningwithanearlymorningcallfromseveralpoliceofficerswhomaysearchthehouseandtakeawaycomputersanddocuments,andoftenresultinginanarrest(Craig,2014).Therehavebeencasesofpeopleaccusedofoffencesdyingduringorshortlyafterpoliceraids(PressAssociation,2015).Theperiodthatfollowstheinitialpolicevisitisoneofhighanxiety,causinginsomniaandpanicattacksasthesuspectenvisionstheterrifyingconsequencesintheworstcasescenario,includingaprisonsentenceorhavingtheirchildrentakenintocare.Onevividaccountbyasocialworkerwhocameundersuspicionafterherbabysustainedanaccidentalinjurydescribedtheperiodleadinguptothecaseconference:

‘Inavulnerableemotionalstate,IfeltundersurveillanceasIwasinterviewed,observedandjudged.Iwantedtoco-operateyetIfeltanythingIsaidordidordidnotsayordidnotdowouldbeinterpretednegativelyandlaterusedagainstme.Theweeksleadinguptotheconferencewereunimaginablystressful…Iwasclosetobreakingpoint.Iwaspermanentlysilentlytearfulwhilsttryingtoshieldourboysfromtheseriousnessofourpredicament.’(Davies2011,p.205).

ThemixedfeelingslikelytobeexperiencedbyaninnocentpersonbeinginvestigatedforsuchoffencesarewellarticulatedbyDavies(2011,p.205)-‘Istillcannotfindaconcisevocabularythatexpressesmyoddlyjuxtaposedandturbulentfeelings.IwascopingwiththeburdenofinnocenceinthatIknewIhaddonenothingwrongbutneithercouldIproveit.Thiswasconfidenceboostinganddrainingatthesametime.’

DoingtimewithouthavingcommittedthecrimeServingaprisonsentencewithouthavingcommittedacrimehasbeendescribedasoneoftheworstformsofvictimization(Sarnoff,1997).Thementalhealthdamagecausedtowronglyconvictedprisonersissimilartothatsufferedbyveteransofwarandtorturesurvivors(Weigand,2009,p.429;Grounds2004;2005;JamiesonandGrounds,2005).Weiganddescribestheangerfeltbyexonereesathavinghadyearsoftheirlivesandlostopportunitiesstolenfromthem(2009:430,433).Assertingtheirinnocenceleadstothelabel‘deniers’,anditsassociatedrestrictions(Cavendish,2014;Naughton,2005)whilstinprison.

Stresscontinuesfollowingexonerationandreleasefromprison.A2003studyconductedbytheLifeAfterExonerationProgramofsixtyexonerees,imprisonedforanaverageoftwelveyears,foundthatnearlyhalfwereburdenedbydepression,anxietydisordersorpost-traumaticstress(Scott,2010).JohnWilsonidentifiedthepsychologicaleffectsofimprisonmentfortheinnocentas:shock,disavowalandinitialbetrayal;asenseofinjustice,crueltyandimpotence;lossoffreedomandstrugglewithlife'smeaning;existentialsearchformeaning;asenseofabandonmentbyhumanityandGod;lossofself,

16Thisandlatersectionsdrawonresearchonthosewronglyconvictedofalltypesofoffences,notonlysexualabusecases.

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identityanddignity;shameandguilt(resultingfromhowtheyareperceivedbyothers);fatigueandsurrenderfollowingthejourneyofendurance;PTSDandotherpsychiatricsymptoms;andaneedforcounselling,connectionandtransitionalservices(Wilson,2002).Theycannotbenefitfromthesupportthatisgiventoparoleesanddesistingex-offendersbecausetheyareneitherofthese:theyare‘victimsofthecriminaljusticesystem’(Weigand2009,p.430).

Whilenotreceivingthesupportofferedtotherightfullyconvicteduponreleasefromprison,thewronglyconvictedarefurtherpunishedbyso-called‘protectivemeasures’.Althoughsexoffenderregistrationandrelatedrequirementsareintendedforpublicprotectionratherthanasadditionalpenalties,forthepersonsubjecttothoserequirementstheywillinevitablybeexperiencedaspunitive.Thereisautomaticlifetime’sregistrationforallsexoffenderscompletingcustodialsentencesofmorethan30months(Thomas,2009).Whilethiswouldnotapplytoanyonewhosuccessfullyappeals,convictionsmaynotbeoverturneduntilsometimeafterreleasegiventhewaitinglistofapplicationstotheCCRC,andmeanwhilethestigmaoftheconvictionisfurtheraggravatedbytheregister.Employmentprospectswillberestricted:EnhancedCriminalRecordChecksshowdetailsofallcautions,warnings,reprimands,aswellasallspentandunspentconvictionsheldonanindividual’scriminalrecord,and,onrequest,theEnhancedDBSCheckalsosearchesthechildrenand/ortheadults‘barredlists’toseeiftheapplicantisbarredfromworkingwiththosegroups.Thereisalsoanopportunityforlocalpolicetoaddanyrelevantinformationtheymayholdabouttheapplicant.17Clearlythereisconsiderablescopeforpost-prison‘punishment’.ThestigmaanddangerousconsequencesofbeinglabelledachildabuserInadditiontothetypicalconsequencesofwrongfulaccusationsandconvictions,thoseconsideredtobesexoffenders,especiallychildabusers,aresubjecttothedamagingconsequencesofstigma.Thelanguageusedaboutsexoffendersandtheextremesofpunishmentthatarecalledforaretriggerednotbyarationalassessmentofrisk,butbyadeterminationnottobecontaminatedorinanywayassociatedwith‘thelifedeemedimpure,dirtyoraccursed…whichnoonecantouchwithoutdirtyingoneself.’(Spencer2009,p.224).

Thenamesandlocationsofpeoplereportedtobesexoffendersareidentifiedbymediareportsandregisters,exposingthemtoharassmentandpursuitbyanti-paedophilevigilantegroups(Cross,2005).Somesexoffendershavecommittedsuicideasaresultofvigilantegroupstargetingtheirhomes(Bell,2002)andviolencehasbeencommittedbyvigilantegroupsagainstpeoplewhohavebeennamedassexoffendersbutwhowerenotconvicted(Kitzenger,1999).NotoriouscasesintheUKincludeGeorgeCrawford,whowasduetostandtrialforindecentassaultsandwasfoundmurderedathisbungalowlessthana

17https://www.personnelchecks.co.uk/dbs-(crb)-checks/enhanced-dbs-check/

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weekaftertheNewsoftheWorldresumeditscampaignof‘namingandshaming’paedophiles(Carter,2001).

Apersoncanbecomethetargetofhatecrimesbasedonrumoursonsocialnetworksorintheirlocalcommunities.Forexample,BijanEbrahimiwaskilledandthenhisbodysetonfirebyneighbourswhowronglybelievedthathewasapaedophile.Hispriorcallstothepolicereportingharassmentfromhisneighbourshadlargelybeenignored(Morris,2015).Civilprocessesandpre-courtinterventionsAsdiscussedabove,theeffectsofbeingwronglyaccusedextendtothosewhoarenotexposedtothecriminaljusticeprocess.Thelinebetweencivilandcriminaljusticemeasureshasbeencrossedwiththeintroductionofpreventiveinterventionsandsanctionsthatoperateoutsideofdueprocessoflawandthatare,ineffectifnotintention,punitive(Thomas,2008).Theseincludepre-crimeordersimposedonpeoplewhohavebeenreportedasshowingapossiblesexualinterestinchildren,andwhichplacerestrictionsonthatperson’sliberty,listingthemasasuspectedsexoffender.

AmendmentstoPart2oftheSexualOffencesAct2003,introducedbytheAntisocialBehaviour,Crime&PolicingAct2014havereplacedandrenamedpreviousorders,givinggreaterpowerstothepoliceinmanagingtheriskofsexualharm.OneofthereplacementordersisaSexualRiskOrder(SRO),acivilorderthatcanbesoughtbythepoliceagainstapersonwhohasnotbeenconvicted,andcanincludeaforeigntravelban.Aconditionoftheorderisthattheyhave‘doneanactofasexualnature’,including,forexample,‘beingalonewithachild’or‘contactingachildonsocialmedia’,butwhetherthoseandotheractsare‘ofasexualnature’isdecidedaccordingtoalowerstandardofproofthanwouldberequiredbythecriminalcourt.

Similarly,intheleaduptoemploymenttribunalsorfamilycourthearings,orduringperiodsofpolicebail,accusedpeoplemayberestrictedbytheconditionsofpolicebailfromhavingcontactwithothers,includingtheirownchildrenorgrandchildren.18Whilethesemeasuresareintroducedwiththebestofintentions,andnodoubtinsomecasesthesuspicionsarewellgrounded,forthosewhoareinnocenttheygoagainsttheprinciplesofnaturaljusticebymakingitappeartomanyoutsideofthecriminalprocessthattheyareindistinguishablefromconvictedoffenders.Forexample,suspectedsexoffenderlistsareaccessiblebythepublicandcaninfluencethosewithpoweroverhousingoremploymentopportunities.

18See:(1)CollegeofPolicing(2015)Furtherinvestigation<https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/child-abuse/further-investigation/>(2)CrownProsecutionServicewebsite:Bail<http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/bail/#a03>

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3:PROJECTAIMSANDMETHODS

Audipartemalteram(‘Heartheotherside’;sometimesexpressedas‘Lettheothersidebeheardaswell’)

—StAugustine,DeDuabusAnimabusContraManicheos,XlV,ii

Inasocietywhichhasmadesomuchprogressinaddressingtheneedsofvictimsandintakingaccountoftheirperspective(Hoyle,2012),thosewhohavebeensmearedbyfalseallegationsofgrievouscrimessometimesseethemselvesastheforgottenvictims(ofofficialerrorsifnotoftheiraccusers).Theyfeeldisregarded,theirpartnersandchildrenlefttosuffertheignominyalone.Thisqualitativestudyofpeople’sexperiencesofbeingfalselyaccusedofchild/adultabuseinoccupationalcontextsaimstogiveavoicetotheseothervictims,bywayofacontentanalysisoffirstpersonaccounts.Theterm‘false’isappliedbroadlytomeanaccusationsthatareuntrue;thatis,contrarytofact–includingbothmistakenanddeliberatelyfalseaccusations.

Asnotedintheshortliteraturereviewinsection1,therehasbeenminimalresearchspecificallyaddressingtheimpactofsexualorphysicalabuseinoccupationsoftrust,notleastbecausesuchastudygoesagainstthemainstream.Theofficialviewandpublicconsensusnowisthatphysicalandsexualabuse,particularlychildsexualabuse,occursonamassivescale,thefullextentofwhichisstillbeinguncoveredandrecognised.Itisalsogenerallyacceptedthattherehavebeensystematicmistakesinthepastwherebyvictimswhoreportedabusewerenotbelievedorwherechargesdidnotproceedbecausetheywereunsubstantiated.19However,inthesubsequentattemptstoredressthepowerimbalanceandbringtojusticeappallingcasesofabuse,thependulummayhaveswungtoofarintheoppositedirection.Today,itseemsthatclaimsofinnocencefollowinganallegationarelesslikelytobebelieved.Indeed,questioningtheveracityofallegationsisseenbysomeasabetrayalofthevictimor‘addinginsulttoinjury’.Therearealsolegitimateconcernsthatapolicyofinterrogatingandmistrustingaccuserswillinhibitvictimsfromreportingabuse,andundosomeoftheprogressmade.

Clearly,inanadmirableefforttoencouragevictimstocomeforward,theconditionshavebeencreatedforariseinfalseclaims(seeWhyFalseAllegationsareMadeandBelievedinSection2).Further,unlessthesuspecthasacastironalibiorthereisirrefutableforensicevidencetoshowtheclaimisfalse,thereisaninherentdifficultyinestablishinginnocence.Insofarastheremaybetensionbetweencompetingclaims,concerntoprovidejusticeforvictimsofabuseseemstotrumpconcernforavoidingwrongfulconvictions.

Wherethendoesthatleaveresearcherswithaninterestinmiscarriagesofjusticewhoareconcernedthatdrawingattentiontowrongfulaccusationsandconvictionsmightbe

19Nofurtheractionwastakenparticularlyincaseswheretherewasanunevenpowerrelationshipbetweentheaccuserandtheaccused,andwherethebenefitofanydoubthasbeenaccordedtothepersoninauthority,andagainstanaccuserwithacriminalrecordorclassedas‘delinquent’.

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interpretedasdisregardforthepainandsufferingofthosewhohavebeen,andcontinuetobe,abusedbythosewhohavepowerover,orresponsibilityforthem?How,inotherwords,shouldacademicsconductethicalresearchonthismostsensitiveofsubjects?

First,andmostpertinently,westartfromapositionoffullandunequivocalsupportfortheprogressthathasbeenmadeinrecognisingtheproblemofsexualandphysicalabuseofvulnerablepeopleatthehandsofthosewhoshouldcareforthem.Weapplaudeffortstosupportvictimsofabuse.Furthermore,weunderstandthatsomeclaimstobeingfalselyaccusedarealsofalse.Somepeoplewilltellliestodenythecrimestheyhavecommittedtoavoidboththeshameandstigmaassociatedwithpaedophiliainparticularandthepunishmentsimposedfollowingconvictionforsuchseriousoffences.Wealsofullyacknowledgethatonceconvicted,innocenceisdifficulttoestablishwithoutirrefutableevidencetoshowthatanaccusationwasfalse.Inotherwords,inthisareaitishardtoestablishwhoisguiltyandwhoisinnocentwithabsolutecertainty.Tokeepwithinourethicalframework,wehavethereforetakenastringentapproachtoselectingparticipantsforthisstudy,whichisexplainedbelow,inthesectionCriteriaforinclusion.

3.1 Aimsandpurposeoftheproject:TheneedtobeheardThemainpurposeoftheprojectwastogainunderstandingofandshareinsightintothehumancostsoffalseallegationsofabuse,bycollectingnewnarrativematerialandreviewingexistingaccounts.Whilevictimsofabuseareincreasinglygivenaplatformandencouragedtotalkaboutwhathappenedtothem,peoplewhoarewronglyaccusedarediscouragedfromspeakingout,becausetheyarenotbelievedorbecausetheyareseenasharmingvictimsofabusebydetractingfromtheircredibilityandtheirconfidencetoreportoffences.Thus,thepurposehereistostartaconversationabouttheimpactofbeingwronglyaccusedofabuse,includingthesocial,economicandpsychologicalconsequences,andtheeffectsonfamiliesoftheaccused.Itisintendedthatthedataandanalysiswillproveavaluableresourceforsupportgroupsandforthoseresponsibleforcriminaljusticepolicy,appellateprocessesandforpost-exonerationmeasures.

Criteriaforinclusion:aprojectincooperationwithFACTThisprojectwasestablishedincooperationwithFACT,whichprovidedasmalldonationtowardsthecostsoftheresearchandcirculatedrequestsforresearchparticipantsamongitsmembers.TheUniversityofOxfordCentreforCriminologydevelopedandconductedtheresearch,withfullethicalclearancefromtheCentralUniversityResearchEthicsCommittee.WhileworkingincooperationwithFACTtoheartheaccountsofitsmembers,theresearchteamremainedfullyindependentinalldecisionsabouthowtoconducttheresearch,howtoanalysethedataandwhattoproducebywayofreports.

FACTwassetuptosupportcarersandteacherscleared,ormaintaininginnocenceduringthe1990sscandalallegingwidespread‘historical’childabuseinresidentialcarehomesthatleduptotheWaterhousetribunal.Police‘trawlingmethods’,asdiscussed

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above,hadledtovastnumbersofformermembersofstaffbeingarrestedandinterviewed,withsomebeingprosecutedandconvicted.Themajoritywerenotchargedorwerelateracquittedorexoneratedonappeal,buttheprocessanditsaftermathirrevocablychangedtheirlives,andFACTprovidedacontinuingsourceofsupportandinformation.DuringitssixteenyearsofexistenceFACThasbeencommendedforitsevidence-basedandprofessionalapproachtoitsworkandhasreceivedthebackingofseveralMPswhohaveraisedparliamentarydiscussionsandinterventions(HASC,2002;Curtis-Thomas,2013).Membershipsincethenhaswidenedfromcarersandteacherstoincludeotheroccupationswherestaffandvolunteerswhoworkinpositionsoftrustwithchildrenoradultscanbevulnerabletofalseallegations.SinceOperationMidlandandPallialandthesubsequentpolice,mediaandpoliticalpreoccupationwithuncoveringpastinstitutionalchildabuse,someoftheearlymemberswhowereinvestigatedbutclearedaroundthetimeoftheWaterhouseinquiryhavebeenreinvestigated,withmanyotherslivinginfearoffurtherallegations.

Forthisresearch,weanalysedaccountsfromamongFACT’scurrentandpastmembers,aswellasamongotherswhohadneverbeenmembers,onlyiftheyhad:

• notbeenchargedwiththeallegedabuse,• werechargedbutacquitted,or• wereconvictedbuthadtheirconvictionoverturnedonappeal,aslongastheir

convictionswerenotoverturnedbecauseof‘proceduralerrorsunrelatedtoinnocence’(Findley,2011:1185).

Thusalltheparticipantsdiscussedinsection4ofthisreporthavethestatusof‘legalinnocence’basedonthepresumptionofinnocenceuntilfoundguilty,or–forthosewhoseconvictionswerequashed–restorationtothatpresumptionofinnocence(Findley,2011).

Wenotonlysetstrictparticipationcriteria,butalsorequiredeachparticipanttosignaconsentformstatingthatthey(i)arefactuallyinnocentofanyallegedoffencesofsexualorphysicalabuse,(ii)havenevercommittedanysuchoffences(includingpossessionofchildpornography),(iii)haveneverpleadedguiltyoracceptedacautionforanysuchoffence,and(iv)haveneverbeenconvictedofanysuchoffenceor(v)havesuccessfullyappealedagainstanyconviction(s)andhavebeenexonerated.Weincludedawarningthatshouldanycontraryinformationcometolight,theparticipantswouldbeexcludedfromtheresearch.

Afewreferralstothestudywereexcludedwhenitemergedthattheyhadapreviousconvictionforarelatedoffenceorhadacceptedacautionorpleabargaineventhoughtheysubsequentlymaintainedtheirinnocence.Whilethereisclearevidencethatsomeinnocentpeopledofalselyconfessunderpressure(e.g.seeDavisandLeo,inpress),weerredonthesideofcautioninnotincludingtheminthisstudy.Furthermore,weusedvariousonlineresourcestoseekoutappropriateinformationaboutarrests,courtappearances,andoutcomesinordertochecktheveracityoftheirclaims,beforeincludingparticipantsinthestudy.Weexcludedtwopeoplewhentheinformationwegatheredsuggestedthattheymightnothavebeenfullyhonestintheiraccounts.

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Itshouldalsobeacknowledgedthatitcannotbeguaranteedthateachofthesamplemembersarefactuallyinnocent,giventheinherentdifficultyofanylegaldispositionthatreliesoncompetingtestimony.Thereissimplynoclearempiricalmeansthatcansettlethematter.3.2 DatacollectionmethodsandproceduresRecruitmentofparticipantsFACT’sSecretarywrotetoallmembersnotifyingthemofthestudyandattachingaParticipantInformationsheetwithdetailsabouttheprojectaims,methods,andcriteriaforinclusioninthestudy,withcontactdetailsfortheresearchteam.DrRosBurnettinherroleasresearchconsultanttoFACTactedastheinitialliaisonpointbetweenpotentialparticipantsandNaomi-EllenSpeechley,inherroleastheleadresearcher.Followingchecksoneachprospectiveparticipant,thosesuitablewerereferredtoMsSpeechley.

Thosewhofulfilledtheselectioncriteriaweresentdetailedwritteninformationandacopyoftheconsentform.Whereparticipantswerehappytoproceed,theyweretheninterviewedorinvitedtosubmitawrittenaccountusingatemplatethatincludedthesamequestions,coveringthesamethemes.Signedconsentformswerethenexchangedandtheopportunitygiventooptoutoraskfurtherquestionsaboutthestudy.Noincentivewasofferedotherthantheabilitytocontributetheirstorytoapieceofresearchonanissuethathasaffectedthempersonally.

DatacollectionmethodsFollowingareviewoftherelevantliterature,theempiricalmethodscomprised:(1) In-depthinterviewswithvictimsoffalseaccusationsandtheirfamiliesor,ifthe

individualspreferred,guidedwrittenaccounts.Informationofferedtotheresearchersasasupplementtotheinterviewsorwrittenaccounts,suchaslegaldocuments,additionalstatementsandcorrespondence,wereincludedassubmissions.Inadditiontointerviewswith,andaccountsprovidedby,thosewrongfullyaccused,thestudyaimedtogiveavoicetothosefamilymemberswhohavesupportedthemthroughoutinordertobetterunderstandthecollateraldamageofafalseaccusation.Theobjectivewastointervieworcollectwrittenaccountsfromapproximately25falselyaccusedpeople,andalsosomeoftheirrelativesorsupportersincaseswherethiswasappropriate,thuscollatingupto30interviewsoraccountsintotal.

(2) AfocusgroupwasalsoheldatFACT’sannualconferenceon30May2015.Priortoself-selection,attendeeswereinformedoftheparticipationcriteria,whatthequestiontopicswereandtheformatofthesession.Thediscussionoperatedasagroupinterview,eachparticipantansweringinturn,withensuingcross-discussion.Thequestionswerethesameasthosefortheinterviewsandquestionnaires.Signedconsentformswerecollected,andthediscussiondigitallyrecorded.

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Topicsintheinterviews,writtenaccountsandthefocusgroupfocusedonthewide-rangingeffectsoffalseallegations,fromtheharmsdonetotheiremploymentprospects,totheirfinances,totheirphysicalandmentalhealth,totheeffectsfeltbyfamilymembers,totheirownself-conceptandreputation,beliefsandoutlooks,aswellastheirwiderrelationshipswithfriendsandtheircommunity.Theparticipantswerealsoaskedaboutthesupporttheyreceived,ifany.

InterviewingasensitiveresearchpopulationConductingethicalresearchonasensitiveandcontroversialissuerequiresthatconsiderationisgiventotheeffectsonparticipantsaswellasprospectiveaudiencesandconsumersoftheresearch.Thevictimsoffalseallegationsandtheirfamiliesmayfinditstressfultorelatetheirexperiences.Theymaybereticentintalkingtoresearchersordiscussingaspectswhichareparticularlypainfultothem,whilebeingkeentobeheard.Weigandnotesthat‘[s]peakingengagementsfortheexoneratedcanbehealingandtheycanbetriggers.’(2009:433).Theparticipantinformationsheetandleadresearchermadecleartoeachparticipantthatwewerenotinterestedinthedetailsoftheallegation,onlyintheimpactithashadontheirlives.

Participantswereaskedtofillinaformaskingforsomebasicfactsabouttheallegationsagainstthem:whentheyoccurred;whattheallegedabusewas;inwhichoccupationalcapacity;whattheirrelationshipwastotheaccuser;andhowfartheirinvolvementinthecriminaljusticesystemwent.Forthosethatwereinterviewed,thesequestionswereputtotheintervieweeandtheformfilledinbytheresearcheratthestartoftheinterview.Responsestotheensuingquestions,whichaskedhowtheallegationsaffectedtheparticipants’lifeinvariousaspects,weredigitallyrecordedorwrittenanswerscollected.Recordedinterviewswerethentranscribedinnoteform,withselectedquotesfullytranscribed.Interviewswereconductedinprivatefunctionroomsofpublicbuildings,withparticipantsinterviewedindividually,orwithapartnerorfamilymember,thoughtwowereconductedbytelephone.

Whereparticipantsdivulgedsensitivedataofnodirectrelevancetothestudy,thiswasexcludedfromtranscriptionandanalysis,butsometimestriggeredtheprovisionofdetailsaboutsupportservices.Whenparticipantsbecamedistressed,theywereremindedthattheywerefreetorefrainfromfurtherengagementinthestudyorfromansweringspecificquestions.

Giventhesensitivenatureofthisstudy,participants’identitieshavebeenkeptstrictlyconfidential,andpersonaldetailsanonymised.Pseudonymshavebeenusedfortheparticipantandanyotheridentifyingnamesorplacesreferredtointheiraccounts.AswithallresearchconductedattheOxfordCentreforCriminology,wehavefollowedthestrictrequirementsfordatastorage,usageandarchiving,asrequiredbytheUniversity’sethicscommittee.

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4:EFFECTSOFFALSEALLEGATIONS:INSIGHTSFROMTHE‘LEGALLYINNOCENT’

Qualitativeresearchrequiresaprioridecisionsaboutwhatresearchersareaimingtoachievethatdictatethewaydataarecollectedandanalysed.20Hence,ourliteraturereviewinformedthecontentandstructureofourinterviewschedule/questionnaire.Thisallowedforthematicexplorationoflifeexperiencesandthelikelyimpactofbeingaccusedofsuchseriousoffences,whiletheinclusionofsomeopen-endedquestionspreventedusfrommissingexperiencesthatwemightnothaveanticipated.Ouranalysisfollowsthesekeythemesandseekstoshowtrendsand‘outlier’responses.CharacteristicsandExperiencesofResearchParticipants(n=30)

Gender:24male;6femaleOccupations:12teachers(incl.heads,deputies,teachingassistants)8approvedschool/CHEstaff3inareligiousrole/capacity2specialistcarehomeworkers5‘other’(policeman,childpsychotherapist,volunteer,nurserynurse)Allegedabuse:2123sexualabuseallegations11physicalabuseallegations3allegationsinvolvingavulnerableadult29allegationsinvolvingchildrenOutcomeofallegations:1nopoliceinvolvement(unfairdismissalclaim)13policeintervieworarrestwithNFA(nofurtheraction)1preliminaryhearing,casedismissed14trial,notguiltyverdictor‘casedismissed’1exoneratedpost-conviction.Timebetweenallegedoffenceandallegation:0-1year:61-5years:15-10years:210-20years:420-50years:17

20Elliott,I.A.(2015,May24).Thesenseorfollyofdoing‘quali’[Weblogpost].Retrievedfromhttp://wp.me/p2RS15-9Y.21Insomecases,theparticipanthadbeenchargedwithbothphysicalandsexualabuse;inothercasestheallegationschangedduringtheinvestigation.Hencethenumbersadduptomorethanthetotalnumberof(30)participants.

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4.1 EffectsonEmploymentandFinancialsituation‘Ihadnochanceofkeepingmyjob,asapoliceofficerhadtoldmyemployerthatIwasa‘dangerouspaedophile’.Thatcommentwouldpreventmefromeverbeingemployedagainasateacher.Ittookmetenyearsandthesupportofmyteachinguniontoobtainanunreservedapologyfromthepolice’.(Jon)

Thissectiondiscussestheeffects,bothshortandlongerterm,ofthefalseallegations(andensuinginvestigation)upontwomajoraspectsoflife:thevocationandfinancesoftheaccused.Bywayofcontext,ofthe30participants,twelvewereteachersorteachingassistants,andeightworkedin‘approvedschools’or‘communityhomeswitheducation(CHEs).Afurthertwoworkedinspecialistcarehomes,threeworkedwithchildrenaspartoftheirpastoralrolewithinthechurch,andfiveothersworkedforthepolice,inanursery,inchildpsychotherapyorinavoluntarycapacitywithchildren,runningdaytripsandactivities.

Immediateeffectsofthefalseallegationuponemployment(n=30)Remainedemployed:2participantsSuspendedfromwork:9participantsStrippedofregularduties:6participantsDismissed:6participantsForcedtoresignortakeearlyretirement:3participantsRetiredatthetimeofallegation:4participants

Forthosefacingaccusationsofabuseinoccupationsofcareortrust,immediatesuspensionisanorm,andthelossofemploymentinthatfieldislikely.Predictably,almostallofourparticipantsweresuspended,experiencedredundancyorsimilarrestrictionstotheirwork.Insevenofthesecases,thesackingorsuspensionofdutieswasfoundtobeagainstregulations,aftersuccessful(butlengthyandcostly)appealsinitiatedbytheparticipants.Twooftheseparticipantswere‘paidoff’bytheirformeremployers,andfourwereeventuallyreinstatedafterpursuingappeals–whilealsofacingpoliceinvestigation.

Thereportingofanallegationbypolice–evenifitgoesnofurther–caneffectivelybartheaccusedfromemploymentintheirfield.Allegationscanberecordedinthediscretionary,furtherinformation‘softbox’ofanenhancedDBS22(formerlyCRB23)check,routinelysoughtbyemployersinoccupationsofcareandtrust.Theaccusedmayfindthattheirabilitytoworkintheirchosenvocationisremovedinstantly,withoutanyproceduralenquiry,incurringreputationaldamageandgravefinancialimplications.Marcus,whowasnevercharged,describedlosingasupplyteachingcontracttwodaysbeforeitwasduetostart,aftersuchacheck.ThreeparticipantsweredismissedoutrightafterbeingaskedtoproduceanenhancedCRBcertificate,whichcontaineddetailsofunsubstantiatedabuseallegations.Paulexplains:

22DisclosureandBarringService23CriminalRecordsBureau

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‘TheEnhancedCRB/nowDABSystem,effectivelybansmefromeverworkingwithchildren,becauseallemployersinsistondoingthem,andwillnotemployanyonewithanycommentsinthe'softbox'(FurtherInformation).Astandarddisclosureoughttobesufficientbecauseitwouldreportactualcriminalityandbarredlists,buttheEnhanced'FurtherInformation'allowspolicetodisclosealltittletattle,suspicions,innuendo,opinionsandevenimaginationsofSocialServices,andallfalseallegationsasiftheyweretrue.Becausetheyarereportedbypolice,theyareassumedtobebothtrueandaccurate,givingtheimpressionthatyouareareallybadcharacterandveryluckythepolicedidnotchargeyou.’24

Evenifsomeoneisnotformallybarredfromcertainvocationsoutright,accusatorycommentsontheenhancedDBScanprejudiceemployersagainstafalselyaccusedapplicant,thwartingpresentandfutureemploymentprospects.Whileeachofour30participantswerelegallyinnocentoftheseoffences,25half(15)havebeeneffectivelypreventedfromfurtheremploymentwithchildren. LongertermeffectsonemploymentElevenoftheparticipantssaidtheyfeltanguishatbeingunabletohaveacleanfullCRBorDBScheck,despiteneverhavingbeencharged–andthereforeneverachieving‘exoneration’orbeingformallyrecognizedasnotguilty,withcareers‘stoppingdead’oftencitedasthehardestpartoftheexperience.Georgedescribedthepainof‘beingbarredfromvoluntaryworkduetomyCRBbeingmuddied,despitebeingunfairlydismissed-andpaidoff-bymyformeremployers!’.

JacobwasunabletoobtainacleanCRBcheckuntil6yearsafterpoliceinterestinhimceased.Havingbeenarrestedandthenreleasedfrompolicebailin2004,hewasplacedunderaninternalriskassessment,anda‘riskmanagementplan’wasdrawnupwithinthechurch.Ittookhimfouryearstosuccessfullyargueagainstthis,whichdelayedhiminobtainingacleanCRBcheckuntil2010.Hisaccountisnotunique:fiveothersexperiencedconsiderabledelaysinthecorrectionoftheirCRBorDBSrecords.

ItispossibleforthoseaccusedofabusetoappearontheProtectionofChildrenAct(‘PoCA’)listaftersuspension,butbeforetheoutcomeofapoliceinvestigation,andthentoloseemploymentduetoambiguoussafeguardingreports.Negativeeffectsresultingfromthedisparitybetweenpoliceinvestigationsandemployers’internalenquirieswerefeltbytwelve(40%)oftheparticipants.Ofthese,mostwhowereacquittedincourtremainbarredfromworkingwithchildren,whichtheydescribedaseffectivelybeinglikeaguiltyverdict.AsOwen,found‘notguilty’byaunanimousjuryverdict,explains:

‘Nearlyayearlater,inMay2014,theDBSwrotetometotellmethattheyhadlookedatmycaseandintheiropiniontherewasn'tenoughevidencetoevenconsideraddingmetothechildren'sbarredlist.Theydidn'twanttoholdahearing,askforrepresentationsorevenaskmeanything.ThewomanIspoketoonthephonesimplysaidthattheevidencewas“very,verythin”.InSeptemberlastyear,theNCTLheldtheirhearingandbarredmefromteachingforlife.ThehearingwasanabsolutefarceandoneoftheirpointswasthatIcouldn'trememberwhatIwasdoinginthelastweekofOctober2004(yes,tenyearsago).Thisweek,theDBSwroteto

24Anyspellingerrorsintheoriginaldatahavebeencorrectedforthereporttoensurethatthemeaningisalwaysfullycomprehensible.25Theoneparticipantwhowasconvictedhasbeenexonerated.

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me.BecausetheNCTLhasfoundme‘guilty’,theyare‘boundbylegislation’todothesameandIamnownotonlybarredfromworkingasateacher,Iambarredfromworkingwithchildrencompletely.ThishascomeasahammerblowaftertheDBSdismissedthecasecompletelyonlyoneyearago.Iwas,upuntilthisweek,workingpart-timeasaprivatetutorandIalsovolunteeratmylittleboy'sschooloppositeourhousethreetimesayearforfetesandjumblesales.Allofthishashadtostopnow.’

Itisclearlyofsomeconcernthatsomeoneunanimouslyacquittedbyacourtoflawcanstillbebarredforlifefromworkingwithchildren,adecadeaftertheallegationwasmade.However,Owen’saccountisnotrare:Andy,whoisnowretired,wasre-arrestedonsuspicionofallegedabuseover35yearsago,despiteafindingtothecontraryatthetime,andmultipleon-goinginquiries:

‘Iwasfirstaccusedofabusesome20yearsagoaspartoftheNorthWalesInquiryintoallegedhistoricalabuseinchildren’shomes.Theseallegationswereinvestigatedatthetimebyrelevantauthoritiesi.e.police,myemployers,listingbodiesandchildprotectionagencies.Iwasneversubjecttoanarrestbutwasdismissedbymyemployer(forwhomIhadworkedinexcessof30years)althoughlaterre-instatedonappeal.Iwasalsotemporarilyplacedonastatutorylistofpeopleconsideredunsuitabletoworkwithchildren,butthiswasoverturnedwhenIchallengedthedecisionandmycasewasheldinfull.Forme,theprocessofinquiryhasbeenexhausting.Itstartedwithapoliceinquirylastingabout18months,followedbyafurtherinquirybySirRonaldWaterhouse,whichcreatedconsiderableworkformeandlastedabout2moreyears.Thiswasthenfollowedbymysuspensionfromworkandaninvestigationbymyemployerslastingnearly4years,whichwascomplicatedbyaparallel‘independent’inquirybytheNSPCC.TherewasafurtherinvestigationbyPOCAT(alistingTribunal),whichlastedabout2years.IwasrearrestedlastyearaspartofthenewinvestigationintothesemattersbytheNationalCrimeAgency.Theallegedmisconductwassaidtohaveoccurredsome15-20yearspriortothecomplaintsbeingmade-withthepassageoftimeitisnowsome35-40yearsago.’

Severalparticipantsreportedrealstrugglesintryingtoobtainreferencesfromtheirformeremployers.Arjun’sformeremployergaveanegativereferenceagainsthim,despiteatribunalsettlementrulingthattheycouldnotdoso.Similarly,Owenreportedthathisformerschoolwouldnotprovideareferenceafterofferinghimredundancy,eventhoughtheirinvestigationfoundnogroundsforanydisciplinaryaction.Fourotherparticipants–allofwhomwereacquitted–mentionedthreats,warningsandnegativecommentsbeingmadeagainstthembyauthoritieswhentryingtoobtainareferenceforemployment.

Nicoledescribeshow,eventhoughshewasnotsuspendedorsacked,shewasputinapositionthatpreventedherfromworkinginherchosenvocation:

‘ThecharityIfoundedfeltobligedtoobtainasafeguardingreport,andthatreportwasinfluencedbythefactallegationshadbeenmadewhichhadneverbeentestedincourtbut,becauseofthesimplefactthatallegationsexisted,thereportcouldnotruleoutallpossibilityofrisk.Charitieshavetoactina'norisk'environmentsoIwasaskedtostepdown,withnoopportunityofbeingabletoclearmyname.’

Manyoftheparticipantsexpressedbitterfeelingsoflossconcerningtheirinabilitytocontinuetheirworkwithchildrenorvulnerableadults,withfourparticipantsspecificallyupsetbybeingunabletohelpyoungpeopleatriskofexclusion,childrenwithlearningdifficultiesandthoseincare.Rhysfeelsthathecannotreturntowork,despitenotbeingformallybarred:

‘EvenhadIbeenmentallyfitenoughtoteachIwouldhavebeenunableto.Ihavetriedtoreturntoaschoolsettingthroughvoluntaryworkbuthavefounditincrediblystressful.Iamunabletoforeseeawaybackinto

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teachinganytimesoonbothasaresultofmyanxietyandthehurdlesthatthisallegationhasandwillpresentwhenapplyingforrolesinschools.’

He,andsevenotherteachersandcarersinthesample,mentionedongoingprojectsfordisadvantagedyoungpeoplethathadtobeabandonedbecausetheycouldnolongerdothework.

Conversely,nineoftheparticipantsexpresslystatedthattheywouldnotwanttoworkwithchildrenagain,regardlessofanyprofessionalbars.Ellaexpressedfearthatshe‘couldneverworkwithchildrenagainbecauseIcannotriskthesametypeofthinghappeningagainandrisklosingmyson.Therefore,asandwhen,andif,Ireturntowork,itwillbeinadifferentfield’.Imogen’shusband,Rhys,NathanandJenny,similarlyhadtheopportunitytoreturntovocationsinvolvingcontactwithchildren,butfeltunabletodoso,duetotheirdamagedreputations,andmistrustofchildren.Arjun,whostillworkswithchildren(albeitindirectly),describedhowuncomfortablehenowfelt.AlthoughhehadacleanCRB,he‘feltacontinualsenseofunsafety’,becomingsociallyanxiousforfearthatachildmighttripover,orsometrivialphysicalactivitycouldbemisconstrued.Itisclearthattherearesocialcoststofalseallegations,withtheexclusionofwellqualifiedanddedicatedemployeesfromtheworkplace.

Thelackofsupportfromemployersisalsonoteworthy.Halfofourparticipantsreportedthattheyhadreceivednoprofessionalorpersonalsupportfromtheiremployers,andperhapsmoreimportantly,noapology.George,whowasnotsubjecttoanypoliceactionbutstill‘paidoff’byhisemployer,was‘disgustedwiththewaymyexitwashandled.IleftfeelinglikeIletpeopledownwithabsolutelynoexplanation’.Thiseffectismoreacutelyfeltwherethefalselyaccusedpersonhadbeenengagedinvoluntaryworksuchasrunningchildren’sclubsoractivities.Insuchcasestheymustceaseactivitieswithoutexplanationofwhytheyarelettingpeopledown.Jacobandhisfamily,whowaited6yearsforacleanCRBafterbeingreleasedwithoutchargebythepolice,enduredprolongedanxietyandaquarantine-likesocialstatus.Echoingmanyoftheotherparticipants’sentiments,heexplained,‘Ihopelessonsarelearned–andremainhorrifiedthattherearestillnoadmissionsoferrororapologiesforthcoming’.

Nineoftheparticipantswerefrustratedthattheycouldnotcommunicatewithco-workersabouttheallegations.Althoughtherearelegitimatereasonsforthis–notleastthattheymightbecalledaswitnesses–itbringsdamagingconsequences:asImogenpointedout,co-workersareoftenclosefriends,andcouldhaveprovidedcrucialpsychologicaloremotionalsupportinthesesituations.Marcusexplainedthat‘manydidnotunderstandmyincreasinglyself-isolatingbehaviourbecausealotoffriendswerecolleagues,andsotheycouldn’tbetoldwhatwasgoingon’.GeorgewasinformedthathecouldnotbefriendswithothervolunteersonFacebook,andfelthelostmanyfriendsthroughbeingbarredfromworkandvolunteering.Arjundescribedindetailthebullying,harassmentanddeeplyunpleasanttreatmentfromtheothermembersofstaff,towardsanotheremployeewhopubliclysupportedhim.Hiscolleaguesweretoldnottocommunicatewithhim,andsomefearedshowinghimanysupport.Someparticipants,whoownedormanaged

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establishments,wentbankruptafteremployeesleft.Themajorityofparticipants,whenfacedwiththedilemmaofwhethertotell

colleaguesandfriendswhatwashappeningtothem,agreedthat‘theonlywaytodealwithitisjusttowithdraw’withoutexplanation,fromclosefriendsandcolleagues.Thiswithdrawalcanoccurwithouttheaccusedevenrealizingtheirself-isolationistbehaviour.Thiseffectispronouncedinfalseallegationsagainstthoseinoccupationsofcareandtrust,becausethemistrustthattheaccusedexperience,comesfromboththeiremployers,co-workerfriends,andsocietymorewidely,leavingthemfewsourcesofsupport.FinancialburdensAllbuttwooftheparticipantsboresignificantfinancialburdensdespiteawardsoflegalaidanddamages.Severalreportedestimatedlossesofaround£50,000inlegalfees,andmuchlargeramountsforthelossofearningswhileunabletowork.Inaddition,manyhadsignificantlyreducedpensions,giventhattheyneededtotakeearlyretirement.Twoparticipants’legalcostswereestimatedat£100,000,andtheyarenowfacingbarriersintryingtoclaimbacktheirexpenses.Jennyhadpaid£30,000oflegalexpensesinsecuringherexoneration,andhasyettoreceiveanycompensation,andofcoursegivenrecentrestrictionsoncompensation,itisnotcertaintobeforthcoming.

Beingunabletoanticipatewhatmayormaynothappennextimpactedonfinancialplanningandcausedfurtherdistress.Owendescribedacompletelackoffinancialpreparation,duetothefirmbeliefthattheallegationscouldnotpossiblyescalateintoanarrest,letaloneatrial.Assuch,hecomments,‘redundancypaydidnotlastlong’.Davidadds,‘insurancedoesnotcoverforthistypeofsituation’.Significantfinanciallossisclearlymorepainfulwhenthecircumstancescausingitareunfair,asJamesdescribes:

‘HavinghadNFAafterinterviewofthesecondsetofallegations,in2015IsoughtCRBclearanceforworkingwithadultasylumseekers.ThePoliceforcesentadeplorablestatementtothecollege.Ihadtoanswerformyselfandemployedalawyertodefendme.Itresultedin‘Nocasetoanswer’butthefeefortheadviceandtheresultantdocumentofargumentcostme£8,400,noneofwhichIcangetback.IamaggrievedthatIhavestillhadtopayoutsubstantialfunds.IamnotarichmananditisunjustthatIshouldhavetocontinuetopayoutbecauseofthepeevishnessandmalevolenceofthePoliceforce.’

Whilefinancialimpactisrelativetoeachindividual’scircumstances,thepsychologicalandfamilialeffectsarereasonablysimilar.Jacobdescribedhiswifebeing‘stressedtothepointwhereshestoppedwork’,andElladescribedhowherhusbandhadtotake7monthsoffworktostayathomebecauseshewasnotallowedtobealonewithherson.Furthermore,sheadded:‘Myfatherhadtopaysubstantialsolicitorsfees(7k+)priortomyparentsbeingmadepartytocourtproceedingsatwhichpointtheycouldclaimlegalaidforfuturelegalwork.Withoutthis,theymaynothavebeenabletogettheChildArrangementOrderthatstoppedmysongoingintofostercare.Thismoneyisnonrecoverable.’

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Georgereceivedanon-disclosablesumfromhisformeremployerinrecognitionoftheirwrongdoing,butexplainedthatasumforthelossofearningscannotreplaceorrepairthedamagedonetohisreputationandabilitytoworkinhisformervocation:

‘Whenmymoneyrandrywestartedtodependmoreon[mypartner’s]foroutingsandcinematrips,thatkindofthing,whichmademefeeluncomfortable.Unfortunately,Iwasunabletoaffordholidaysetc.,andIfeltIwasholdingherback.Wedriftedapart,andshemovedout.’

Fiveparticipantswereunabletokeeptheirhomes.Forsome,thiswasduetotheplaceofresidencebeingconnectedtotheirplaceofemployment(forexample,vicaragesorresidencesattachedtoaboardingschool).Thislossoffamilies’placesofsafety,securityandprivacy,reflectssignificantharmtothosewholostorhadtoselltheirhomesasaresultoftheallegationsmadeagainstthem.

4.2 EffectsonSelf-conceptandReputation‘Sucheventschangepeopleprofoundlyand…irreparably.’(Marcus)

Thosewhohavebeenwrongfullyaccusedcanfeelthatevenwhenthesystemhasrecognizeditserror,othersremainconvincedoftheirguilt(Quirk,2007).This,perhapsinevitably,leavesthemfeelingstigmatizedandafraidofwhatothersthink,andhowtheymightthereforereacttothem(WesterveltandCook,2009).Thewrongfullyconvictedcanfeelthattheyhaveexperiencedpermanentchangesintheirpersonalities,whichcausethemandtheirfamiliessignificantdistress(JamiesonandGrounds,2005:50).ManyofthoseinterviewedfortheWesterveltandCookstudyhadlosttheir‘old’self-identity(2009:268/270)onenteringprisonandwerenotabletorebuilditonrelease(p.270).

Althoughonlyoneofour30participantsdiscussedinthissectionwereconvicted(andsubsequentlyexonerated),asthetablebelowshows,theirexperienceshadsimilareffects,withallbutoneexperiencingstigmaanddamagedreputationandthemajoritybelievingtheyhavesufferedfromparanoia,anxietyandpermanentpersonalitychanges.

EffectsonSelf-ConceptandReputation(n=30) Stigmaanddamagedreputation:29participantsPermanentpersonalitychanges:19participantsParanoiaandanxiety:18participantsHyper-vigilanceorantagonism:15participantsSelf-blameforfalseaccusation:10participants

StigmaandvilificationThestigmaattachedtobeingaccusedofabusecannotbeunderestimated.Itwasaprevalentthemeineachaccount.Stigmaaroseintwoforms.First,fromtheactionsandcommentsfromothers,whoactivelyjudgedandexcludedthem,causingthemtofeel

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shameandhurt.Davidreflectedthat‘thebiggestshockishowdifferentlyyou’retreatedbythosearoundyou’,andCatherineexplained,‘peoplewhisperandtalkbehindyourbackthere'snosmokewithoutfire.IfeelIhavetofightbackandputthisrightbutthisalsofeelsverylonely…Ifeelcriminalised.’However,stigmawasalsogeneratedwithintheaccusedthemselves;thecombinationofabhorrenceatwhattheyhadbeenaccusedof,andtheirinabilitytofullycleartheirname,causedextremepainandembarrassment.AsRhysputit,‘Ifeltthatbeingdeadwasapreferablealternativetohavingtobeidentifiedfalselyasachildabuser.’Assuch,evenwhereothershadbeensupportive,andtheallegationshadnotledtoprolongedsuspicion,theaccusedstillfeltthattheycouldnotreturntobeingthetrusted,valuedpersontheywerebeforetheaccusations–aninabilitytoescapethe‘stench’oftheallegationswasexpressedbyhalfofourparticipants.Thiswasnotlimitedtotheaccusedalone–oneofthepartnersofanaccusedparticipantstated,‘Itfeltatthetimeasiftheaccusers’families’sewerswererunningthroughourhouse–notourmessasitwere,yetitwasuswhoweremadetostink.’(Val,wifeoftheaccused)

Atthebroadestlevel,lossofself-confidenceandruinedpersonalandprofessionalreputationsignificantlyaffectedtheparticipants.Scottspokeofafeelingof‘worthlessness’,andMarcusexplainedhowelevatedanxietyandself-doubtcausedhimtoquestionhisdecision-makingandprofessionalworth.Rhysclaimed:

‘Inowhavedifficultyseeingmyselfbeingremotelyemployed,sociableandrelaxedenoughtopursueanykindofrelationship.Thedeteriorationofmyphysicalappearancecausedneighboursandfamilymemberswhovisitedtoapproachmedifferently.IfeellikeIhavebecomeafailure.’

ForRick,theallegationshad‘completelyruinedmyreputation…mostofmyworkhasnowdriedup,eventhoughIwasimmediatelyacquitted.ReferencestothetrialarestillonGoogle…consequently,mynamehasbeentarnished,forever’.David,aformerpoliceofficer,whopreviouslyhadareputationforbeinghonestandfightingforequality,sufferedextensivereputationaldamagearisingfromthenegativepublicity,andfeltanacutepainatbeingunabletogive‘hissideofthestory’.ChangesinpersonalityandsocialbehaviourNineteenparticipantsdescribedexperiencinganextreme,permanentcharacterchange.Susannahstatedthat,‘youarenolongeryourself,youaresomethingthatissonasty.Youareremovedfromyourselfcompletely.’Thisisnotagentleorgradualchangeovertime;itisinvoluntary,reactiveandimposedontheaccused.AsJosefexplained:

‘IchangedcompletelywhoIwasafterthefirstknockonthedoorin2009.I’veneverforgottenit;it’sasifitonlyhappenedyesterday…Youneverthinkit’llhappentoyou…Iamnotthesamepersonphysicallyormentally.’

Yet,thisparticipantdescribeshimselfas‘oneoftheluckyones’,asafterninemonths,thepolicefoundhehad‘nocasetoanswer’.Jacob,whowasneverprosecuted,addedthatforbothhimselfandhiswife,‘thewoundsdo,nowandthen,re-openandthrobpainfully.Wewillneverbequitethesameagain.’Thisrhetoric,thatthe‘old’personhasgone,thattheparticipanthaspermanentlychanged,havingbeenreplacedbya‘new’person,wasa

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commonthemeinourparticipants’accounts.Itisrelatedtotheinabilitytoresumepreviousactivities,ortofeelthesameway,tobeasrelaxedwithotherpeople.Theexperiencewascomparedbyfiveparticipantstoabereavement–withfrequentreferencestopartofthemhavingdied.

Tobeclear,thesereferencesdonotspeaktofeelingsofrepentance,oraself-initiated‘rebirth’fromaformerpersonalitythatistaintedbyguilt.Theyrefertothelossofapreviouslyuntaintedreputation,alossthatcannotberepairedintheabsenceofclearexculpatoryevidenceofinnocence,asmightbehadinamurdercasewhereforensicevidencecanexoneratetheaccused.Forourparticipants,thestainseemedpermanent.Personalitychangesincludedanincreaseinwarinessanddistrust.Owenreflectedthat,‘Theordealhascausedirreparabledamage.Ithasledtoapermanentchangeinmycharacter…I’mamuchmoreserious,cynicalpersonnowandI’mnotastrustingofothers.I’mwaryofpeopleandtheirintentions.’Tenotherparticipantssimilarlyexplainedthattheywere‘alwaysquestioningpeopleandtheirintentionsorhonestywhendealingwith[them]’.Forsome,thisledtothedevelopmentofuncharacteristicbelligerenceandhostility.Overonethirdofourparticipantsexplicitlydescribedcircumstanceswheretheypersistentlysoughtinformation,answersandcontactfromauthorities,andwereperceivedbyothers,includingrelatives,ascombative,criticalandstubborn.Forexample,Jackstates,‘Iamstillangryandnowrefusetobe‘walkedover’bySocialServicesandothersinauthorityasIfeltIwasduringthissituation.Thishascausedsomefrictionaspeoplearenotusedtomecomplainingaboutthem.’Claudehadasimilaraccount,statingthat‘mypersistentfightforjusticehascompromisedmycredibilitywiththeseorganizations[socialservices]’.WhileMarcusfoundthat:

‘Ihavebecomemoreattunedtoinjustice,moreideologically“brutal”…Inowwon’tjustwinanargument;I’llquitecomfortablydecimateit….Manypeoplenowenlistmyhelptocheckandredraftformallywordedlettersorcontactsagainstworkplacebullies,complaints.’

Alongwithincreasingbelligerence,someparticipantsspokeoftheirrejectionofaltruism.Ninestatedthattheywouldnolongerbewillingtoworkwithchildrenordisadvantagedyoungpeopleagain.Thiswaspartiallyduetofearoffurtherallegations,butsevenparticipantsarticulatedamarkedshiftawayfromaltruism.Marcusexplainedthat,althoughhispublicreputationwaslargelyunaffected,colleaguesfoundhim‘farlessapproachable,andfarlesswillingtovolunteermyselfforextraworkorhelp’.Josefsimilarlystatedthathenowsuffers‘acompletedistrustinpeople,andgaveupsportscoaching’asaresult.

Severalparticipantsreflectedthattheirpriorpropensitytovolunteerorworkinoccupationsofcareandtrustwithchildren,disadvantagedyoungpeopleorvulnerableadults,hadexposedthemtobeingfalselyaccused.Theyfeltindignantthatthosewhospenttimewithserviceusersinunmonitoredsituations,andwhowent‘aboveandbeyond’inhelpingthem,wereparticularlyvulnerabletoallegations.Inanautobiographicalaccount,NikGreene(2011,p.2)referstothisas‘whatitisliketohave…everygoodyouputoutintotheworldturnedaroundforbad’.Josefsummeduptheperceptionoffourteenother

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participantsinstating,‘Icouldn’tbelieveithappenedtome,becauseofthekindofpersonthatIwasatthetime.I’llneverbethatpersonagain,neverfeelrightagain’.Self-blameandsuicidalthoughtsTheimpactsdescribedabovehelptoexplaintheotherwisesurprisingtrendinself-blameamongthefalselyaccused.Tenofourparticipantsexpressedthisinsomeform.Arjundescribedaphaseofquestioninghimself,analyzinghiseveryaction,tryingtofindsomethingabouthimthatmadechildrenandthoseinauthoritymistrustorwanttoharmhim.Marcussimilarlyrecallsconstantlyquestioningchoiceshemade,andalingeringsenseofhavingfailedtoprotecthimself.Heandthreeotherparticipantsspeculatedthattheyhadleftthemselvesopentoallegationsbybeinga‘tough’memberofstaff,discipliningchildrenandthusbecomingatargetofanger.ConverselyGeorge,OwenandJosef–afterprolongedself-assessment–blamethemselvesforbeingtoorelaxedandinformalwithstudents.

Itishardtoconceivehowsomeonefalselyaccusedmightconsidertakingtheirownlife,knowingthattheywerefactuallyinnocent–andindeed,anyadmissionofsuchathoughtcouldeasilybemisconstruedasanindicatorofguilt.However,eightofourparticipantsreportedsuicidalthoughts.Twiceasmany(16participants)explicitlyrevealeddepression,althoughmanymoredescribedthoughtprocessesandbehaviourthataresuggestiveofdepression.Thesestatisticswouldbeunsurprisinginapopulationofconvictedprisoners,butnoneoftheseparticipantsreachedthatstage.Josefexplainedthat,‘Iwentthroughthishorribleprocessofwantingtokillmyselfinordertoescapethetraumathathappenedtome’.Paranoia,anxietyandmistrustEighteenparticipantsdescribedfeelingsandbehavioursuggestiveofsevereanxietyandevenparanoia.Theydescribedthe‘weirdhorror’ofbeinginpublic,feelingthateveryonewaslookingatthem,andfeelingpanickedaboutwhethertheyknewabouttheallegations,whethertheywouldsaysomething,andjudgethem.Jackexplained,‘Ifeelpeoplenowlookatmeinadifferentway,eventhoughIrealisealotofthisisactuallyparanoia’.Nineoftheseparticipantsdescribedanintensepersonalresponsewhensomeonewouldlookatthem–eitherneedingtoremovethemselvescompletelyfromapublicplace,orstaringback,almostdaringthemtosaysomething,atypical‘fightorflight’responsetoperceivedthreat.Jennydescribedfeelingindignantattheintrusioninherprivacyafterseeingherselfontelevision.Shethenconvincedherselfthatstrangerswerestaringatherorwhisperingabouther.

Everysingleparticipantaccountincludeddistressathowtheywereperceivedbyothers.Twenty-oneparticipantsadmittedalossofconfidence–withknock-oneffectsofsocialwithdrawal,terminatedemployment,fracturedrelationshipsandlostfriendships.Georgedisclosedfeelingfearfulofwhatpeoplewouldsayincertainsocialsituations.Othersexpressedaninabilitytorelax,experiencingconstantdoubtandmistrust.Jamesaddedthathefeltvulnerable,nervousthatgossipwouldcirculateinthenewareahehadmovedto,to

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claimbackhisprivacy.Thoughthecaseagainstherhadnotproceededtotrial,Elladescribedconcern‘evennow,thatmyfamilymaystillbelievethethingsthatweresaidaboutme’.

Afterafalseallegation,possiblyapoliceraid,mediacoverage,lossofajobandcommunitygossip,itisoftenlikelythatthestigmaattachedtotheaccusedwillpersist.Thisraisesadilemma–whethertheaccusedshouldrelocate(andriskthisbeingperceivedasanindicationofguilt),orstayintheirlocale(thoughthisisnotalwaysanoption,giventhefinancialfalloutdiscussedabove).Stayinginthecommunitycanmeanthatthestigmaandsocialdifficultiesarecompounded,asJackexplained:

‘TheaccuserisstillatalotofeventsandplacesIvisitdailyandstillcontinuestowhisperaboutmetoothers.BecauseshehasalearningdisabilityIwouldbemadeouttobethevillainagainifIdidanythingaboutthissoapartfromaskinghercaremanagertospeaktoheraboutthisIhavebeenstrugglingtotryandriseaboveit,whichisveryhard.’

Susannahexplainedthatsheandherhusband‘didnotknowwhoelsehadheardwhat,sowechosetowritealettertoclarifyandstatethecaseoutintheopen’.Herexperiencereflectsthedifficultyfacedbythoseaccused,aswellastheirfamilies,ofnotknowingwhathasbeensaidaboutthem,andfacingthechoiceeithertomakeadeclaration(andriskfurthersocialvilificationfromthosewhobelievetheallegations),ortokeepthematterprivate(andriskgossipandrumourspreading‘underthesurface’,andfeelingfurthermistrustandsocialparanoia).

Inasimilarvein,50%oftheparticipantsdescribedbeingtrappedinahyper-vigilantstate,permanentlyfeelinganxiousoffurthervilification.Rickexplains,‘Ihavelostalotofmynaturalself-confidence.IamsuspiciousofpeopleandamalwaysworriedifIspeaktoayoungpersontheywillallegeaninappropriateremark.Iamoftenconfusedandworried’.Jon’sdescriptionoflong-termbehaviouralchangesresonatedthroughouttwelveofouraccounts:

‘Iavoidedchildren,crossingtheroadsothatIwouldnotwalkpastthemandonlygoingtothecinemawhentheywereinschoolandalwayswithafriend.Iamstillveryfearfulofbeingfalselyaccusedbyachild.’

Fearoffurtherallegationscouldbemisconstruedasanindicatorofguilt:iftheywereinnocent,whyshouldtheyfearmoreallegationscomingout?However,itisacommoneffectofthisparticularkindofmiscarriageofjustice(discussedfurtherbelow).

4.3 EffectsonPsychologicalandPhysicalHealth‘IhavenevervisitedtheGPsomanytimesinmylife.Iwentintoastateofshockforsomeweeksaftermyarrest….Isufferedfromdepression,suicidalthoughts,self-harming,fear,immenseangeragainstthepoliceandmyaccuserandangeratthelackofsupportfromanyoneinauthority.IwenttocounsellingorganizedbytheGP,butfeltawkwardandashamed.Isufferstress-relatedphysicalpainandshaking.Nightmares.Iwasveryclosetosuicideonatleastthreeoccasions.Istillhavenightmaresandangerandeventhoughitisallover

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andIwasfoundunanimouslynotguilty.Istillfeelpeoplearelookingatmeandjudgingme.Myaccuserisstillinthearea.Ifearitcouldhappenagain.’(Jack)

Astudybytheforensicpsychiatrist,DrAdrianGrounds(2004;2005)exploredthepsychologicaleffectsofwrongfulimprisonmentonmenwhohadnopriorpsychiatrichistories.Hediscoveredsubstantialpsychiatricmorbidityandbothpsychologicalandsocialadjustmentproblemsamongthispopulation.Wildemanandhercolleagues(2011)presentdatafrom55interviewswithAmericanexonerees,examiningtheshortandlong-termeffects,andWesterveltandCook(2009)researchedthesocialadjustmentproblemsof18deathrowexonerees.Whilethesamplesaredifferent,allstudiesidentifyseverepsychologicaleffects,withdepression,mooddisordersandanxietybeingthemostcommonexperiences. Ithasbeenarguedthattheseeffectseitherresulted,orwereheavilyexacerbated,bytheexperienceofbeingimprisoned(particularlyondeathrow).However,inthepresentstudy,where29ofthe30participantswerenotconvicted,thesesamepsychologicaleffectshavebeenreported:

‘Istillhavesymptomsofstressincludinghighbloodpressure,psychosomaticillness,anxiety,disturbedsleepincludingnightmares,andfeelscared/frightenedalotofthetime.Istillhavesignificantboutsofdepressionandpanicattacks.Ialsohavesomeasthmaticsymptoms(newproblem)andre-occurringmomentsoffearfulness.Ifeeltotallyburntoutandseemtohavelostalotofmymentalsharpnessandcriticalthinkingabilities.Inolongerreadthepapers.’(Andy)Effectsonpsychologicalandphysicalhealth(n=30)

Depression:23participantsAnxietyorpanicattacks:23participantsSymptomsofPTSD:17participantsDisruptedsleep:12participantsOtherphysicalsymptoms:14participants

Althoughfourparticipantsdescribedhavingoneormoreofthesehealthproblemsbeforebeingfalselyaccused,eachbelievedtheirexperiencesoffalseallegationshadsignificantlyexacerbatedexistingconditions.DepressionSixteenparticipantsvolunteeredthattheyhadsufferedfromdepression.Afurtherfiveaccountsweresuggestiveofdepression,andanothertwomentionedantidepressants,fromwhichinferencescanbedrawn.Eightdescribedstartingoutwitha‘determinedandpositivemind-set,whichthencrumbled’:

‘The[allegations]castableakshadowovereverything.Iwasinitiallydeterminednottobreakdown–IwasadamantthatI’dfightthechargesagainstme.Thispositiveapproachdidnotlastlong.AttheendofthatmonthIwasgenuinelysuicidalandevenplannedhowI’ddoit.Onlythoughtsofmychildrenstoppedmefromgoingthroughwithit.’(Owen)

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Allbutoneofourparticipantsdescribedassociatedbehaviours,suchasprolongedcrying,rapidweightgainorloss,suicidalthoughts,feelingnumb,completesocialwithdrawaland‘burnout’.Eightadmittedtocontemplatingsuicide.Jamesrecalls:

Iwasintenselyafraidandononeoccasioncontemplatedswallowingbleach.Iwasoftenintearsandinanguish.Thethoughtofsuicidecrossedmymind.Mypastwasbeingquestioned,mypresentwasprejudicedandforthefutureIcouldexpectafreakconviction,andincarcerationasapaedophile.’

Fourteenoftheparticipantsdescribebeingfalselyaccusedasaverylonelyexperience,despitehavingsupportfromclosefriendsandfamily.Itwouldseemreasonabletoexpectthatthesefeelingsofanguishwouldsubsideoncetheallegationhadbeendismissed.However,foratleastsevenofourparticipants,thiswasnotso.AsOwenexplained,‘themostseveredepressionIsufferedcameaftertheconclusionofthetrial’,eventhoughhewasacquitted.AnxietyandpanicattacksSixteenoftheparticipants’accountsexplicitlydiscussanxietyandpanic,withafurthersevenrevealingstronglyassociatedbehaviours.Theformsinwhichtheseproblemswereexperienceddifferedinthelongtermfromtheimmediateeffects.Uponfacingallegations,fifteenparticipantsdescribedfallingintoastateofshock,experiencingnauseaandnervousness,andfeeling‘stunned’and‘surreal’,asifbeingin‘abaddream’.Nathanexplainedthatintheimmediateterm,‘Ibecameveryanxious,experiencingpanicattacksandsevereanxietyforwhichIwasprescribedbeta-blockers.Iwasfrustratedandangry,confused,Iwantedtoknowwhy’.Hefurtherdescribeddespairatnotbeinginformedofthenatureoftheallegationwhensuspended,andtheresultinghelplessnessatbeingunabletoreactrationally,torespondandplanaccordingly.Elevenparticipants’accountsexpresssimilarresponses.Jackstillhas‘nightmaresandangerandeventhoughitisalloverandIwasfoundunanimouslynotguilty,Istillfeelpeoplearelookingatmeandjudgingme.’.Robdescribesthemind-setbroughtonbythissituation,‘It’sthefirstthingyouthinkaboutinthemorning,it’sthelastthingyouthinkaboutatnight,andmostofthedayinbetween.Youcanneverreallyputitfarfromyourmind,it’salwaysthere…thefearofgoingtoprison.’ Longerterm,twelveoftheseparticipantsreportedaworsenedsituation,allofwhomhadbeeninformedthattheyfacednocaseagainstthemornofurtheraction.Imogendescribedwitnessingthedeteriorationinherhusband’smentalhealthduringthesixyearsofpolicesuspicionfollowingtheallegation(duringwhichtimetherewerenocharges,justcontinualrenewalofpolicebail).Hewasthesubjectofapsychiatricreport,whichfoundthat:

‘Hefeltstunned,andbecameanxious,inapanicifheheardacaronthegravelcausingflashbackstohisarrestwhenthepoliceraidedhishome.…Hissleepdeterioratedandhewouldwakeupinthemiddleofthenight.Hewasnotabletogetbacktosleepandhewasbecomingdepressed…Attimeshewisheshewasdead.Hisdeathwouldbeareleasefromwhathefeelsisaprolongedmentaltorture.Itseemsitwillneverend.Hesufferswithlowmoodandastrongsenseofguiltinrelationtohisfamilyaswellashiscolleagues.’

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ForNathan,ittooktwoyears–frombeingsuspendedtohisarrest–tofindoutthenatureoftheallegation.Hestates:

‘AfterthisIbecameveryanxious,experiencingpanicattacks,forwhichIwasprescribedbetablockers…Ihavedevelopedaninabilitytocopewith/toleratecertainsituationse.g.largecrowds,noiseandunfamiliarrouteswhendriving.’

Thisresponsewasechoedinsevenoftheotheraccounts.Rhysrecalled,‘feelingincreasinglyparanoidwhileoutdrivingandseeingapolicecar.AfterseveralmonthsIwithdrewandavoidedleavingthehouse[dueto]panicattacksandanxiety.’PTSDandshockTenparticipants’accountsexplicitlymentionPTSDandseriousshockdirectlyresultingfromtheallegations.However,symptomsoftheseweredescribedinafurthersevenoftheaccounts.Thiscameincombinationwithalossofappetite,cognitiveandmemoryproblemsandnervousness.Arjundescribesthefeelingasbeing‘constantlyunderenormousthreat’,‘inadaze’,‘astateofshock’,anda‘hypervigilantstate’,findingit‘incrediblyhardtoconcentrate’,‘bombardedwithnoiseandlights’,‘avery,veryfrighteningperiod’.Itissignificantthatthesesymptomsdevelopsostronglyforthosewhoarenotchargedwithanoffence.Arjunattributedthesesymptomsnotonlytotheallegations,buttohissenseofvilificationandbetrayalfromtheheadteacherandHRstaffwhohadpushedforaprosecution.

Twelveofourparticipantsexperienceddisruptedsleep,insomniaandnightmares,withsomeresortingtosleepingmedication.Rickrecalled,withsomewhatalarmingprecision,‘Iwasunabletosleepformorethanacoupleofhoursatatimeduringmy672daysonbail’.Thisisattributabletoextremestress,anxietyanddepression,andcanitselfleadtofurtherhealthproblems.Josefexplainedhowheandhiswifehadextremetroublesleeping,experiencingrecurringnightmares,triggeredbythepoliceraidofhishomeduringthenight,foranoffencethatwasallegedtohaveoccurredsome35yearspreviously.EvenwhereparticipantsstatedthattheysufferednosymptomsofPTSD,traumaoranxiety-relatedillnesses,someoftheirlanguage,thedescriptionsoftheirself-conceptandtheemotionalstress,extensivewithdrawalandweightgainaregoodindicatorsthattheirmentalhealthhadsuffered.Susannah,thewidowofafalselyaccusedman,recalled:

‘Fromtheword‘go’,hewentintoakindofcocoon…youwouldthinkthat[someonewithhisknowledgeandexperienceofcriminaljustice]wouldleapintoactionandstartgatheringevidenceleftrightandcentre…notever.Ididallthat…heremovedhimselffromtheprocess,andzonedoutduringcourtproceedings….Thewholethingwasdistastefulintheextremetohim…weneverdiscussedhismentalhealth,therewasnopointtalkingaboutit.Webothknewhewouldn’tsurvive10yearsinjail.’

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Effectuponpartners’healthandwellbeingAsSusannah’saccountimplies,detrimentalhealtheffectswerenotlimitedtotheaccusedperson.Psychologicaldistresshadinatleast26ninecasesextendedtothepartneroftheaccused.Althoughtherearemanyexamplesofdetrimentaleffectsonintimaterelationshipsofbeingfalselyaccused(suchassocialisolation,discussedinthe‘relationships’sectionbelow),thefollowingexamplesdemonstratethepsychologicalstressesfeltbypartners.Kim,Jack’swifeexplains:

‘Ialsosufferedfromshockwhichturnedtodepression.IlosttwostoneinweightinaboutsixweeksasIcouldnotbringmyselftoeat.Ialsoneededcounselling.IcriedmorethanIhaveevercriedinmylife,mainlywithangerbutalsowithfeelingsohelpless,beingdumpedinasystemwhichIfeltwasjustnotworking.Iwasalwaysanactiveandverybusyperson,butnowreallystruggletoraisetheenthusiasmandmotivationIusedtohave.’

Davidstatedthathiswifehadalsobecomedepressed,sufferinghighbloodpressure,andthatonthefirstdayofmediapublicityabouthiscaseshe‘endedupinA&E’.Arjun’spartnersufferedsymptomsoftraumaandanxiety,fearingthepolicewouldseekvengeanceforherhusband’sactionsinseekingtoexposetheirmisconduct.Sixpartnersofthefalselyaccuseddescribedfeelinghelpless,isolated,andhavingtheirlivesdominatedbyprovidingsupportandfightingtoprovetheirpartners’innocence.OtherphysicalsymptomsThepsychologicalandmentalhealthproblemsoutlinedabovearetypicallycorrelatedwithphysicalsymptoms.Owendescribedbecomingseriouslyilltwomonthsbeforethetrial,havinglostweightandexperiencedaslumpinenergy.Weightlossandapathywerereportedbysixotherparticipants.Afurthersixhadexperiencedweightgain,andsevenreportedhighbloodpressure.Fivespokeofdietaryproblems,commonlylinkedtostress.Intotal,fourteenparticipantsdescribedphysicalhealthproblemsthattheybelievedhadbeenexacerbatedortriggeredbytheallegationsandassociatedstress,anxietyanddepression.

Similarly,stressortrauma-relatedchangestodiet,alcoholconsumption,smoking,canleadtophysicalhealthproblems,whichinturncancontributetopoormentalhealth.Arjunbelievedthatthestressthatresultedfromthefalseallegationspreventedhimfromhealingfromasurgicaloperation–takingtwomonthsinsteadoftheusualtwoweeks–whichbroughtaboutadditionalstress.AndImogenattributedherhusband’sheartattackanddeath,withtheprolongedtraumaoftheallegations,thehurtandstressfromthehostilityoftheinterrogation,andhisinabilitytoproveinnocence,‘hiscontinuoussenseofanxiety,depressionandtheshadowoftheallegationsendedwiththecoronarythrombosis…hehadbeeningoodhealthbefore’.Similarly,Ellaattributedtheprematurebirthofherchild,andNathanhisstroke,tothestresscausedbywrongfulaccusations.

26Limitedtocaseswherethisinformationwasvolunteered.Participantswerenotexplicitlyaskedabouttheeffectontheirpartner’shealthandwell-being.

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Thisresearchhasnotsoughttocorroboratetheseclaimswithmedicalrecords,norshouldit.Someofthehealthproblemsdescribedabovemayhaveaffectedtheparticipantsregardlessoftheallegations,particularlyincasesofgeneticorage-relatedailments.However,thedatademonstrateparticipants’clearperceptionsthatthefalseallegationshaveadverselyaffectedtheir(andtheirfamilies’)health.Inthissense,theyarepartofthebroaderimpact.Healingovertime?Eightoftheparticipantsspokeabouttheworrycausedbytheprotracteddelaybetweenfindingoutabouttheallegations(whichforseveralwasthrougha‘dawnraid’bypoliceattheirhomes),andbeinginformedthattherewouldbenofurtheraction:

‘ThelengthoftimefrombeinginformedthattherewasaninvestigationconcerningallegationsuntilIwastoldtherewasinsufficientevidencetoprovidearealisticprospectofconvictionwas12months.’(Nicole)

Nineparticipantsagreedthattheimpactofthefalseaccusationsontheirhealthhadnotyetdiminished.Andy,whowasneversubjecttoapolicecharge,explained:

‘Panicattacks,severeanxietyforwhichIrequiredcounselling,andseveredepression.IwasdiagnosedashavingPTSD.Infact,forvirtuallyatwo-yearperiodIhardlyeverleftmyhome-noteventogoshopping.EvennowIrarelyventureoutalone.ItisnotanexaggerationtosayIfeelterrorizedbytheseeventsandtheconductofoneparticularcomplainant…Itnevergoesaway.’

Formostpeopleitispossibletodrawalineunderpasttrauma,andWildemanetal’s(2011)researchsuggeststhatwhilemanyexonereessufferfromsevereanxietyanddepressionintheyearsimmediatelyfollowingtheirreleasefromprison,thepsychologicalimpactofbeingwrongfullyconvictedtendstodiminishastheyadjusttorelease.However,forthosefalselyaccusedbutnotprosecutedorconvicted,theformalexonerationdoesnotoccurandtheycanremaininfearthatsomeintheircommunitywillremainconvincedoftheirguilt.Thismakesitextremelydifficultforthemtoputthematterbehindthemandmoveonwiththeirlives.

4.4 EffectsonSignificantRelationshipsResearchsuggeststhatoneofthegreatesteffectsofwrongfulconvictionisdamagetosignificantrelationships(Grounds2005,p.34).Experiencesofestrangement(evenfromthosewhohavefullysupportedthem)andresultingfeelingsofguiltarenotuncommon(JamiesonandGrounds,2005,p.173).Insomecases,thiscanresultinthebreakdownofmaritalrelationships(Grounds,2005,p.32).Familymembersexperiencethewronglyaccusedaswithdrawn,irritable,andemotionallydisengaged(Grounds2005,p.31,Batt2004,p.319).Ourparticipantsexperiencedsimilarresponses,althoughestrangementwaslessprevalent(mostlikelybecauseallbutoneoftheparticipantsinoursampledidnotgotoprison).Socialwithdrawalwaswidespread.Acleardichotomyemergedforthe

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overwhelmingmajorityofparticipants,betweenthefriends,colleaguesandfamilymemberswhostaunchlysupportedthem,andthosewhocutties.

FracturedSocialNetworks

Effectonsocialorfamilylife(n=30)Fracturedsocialnetwork:27participantsSocialwithdrawal:26participantsSupportfromfamily:22participantsStrainonintimaterelationship:17participantsDisruptionofchildren’slives:9participantsDifficultymaintainingrelationshipswithchildrenandgrandchildren:8participants

Manyparticipantsdescribed‘findingoutwhoyourfriendstrulyare’:

‘Ireallydidfindoutwhomytruefriendswere.SomepeopleIthoughtwereclosefriendsbecamedistant,worriedabouttheeffectitwouldhaveontheirlivesandcareersifIwasfoundguilty…theyjustcouldn’ttakethechanceoftakingahittotheirreputation.OtherpeopleIthoughtofonlyasacquaintancescameoutswingingformesohardIcouldhavecried.’(Owen)

Friendshipsarenotlinear;theyoperateingroupdynamics.Thusifone(perhapsmoredominantorinfluential)personinagroupshunsthefalselyaccused,othersmayfollowsuit,evenwhentheymaynotbelievetheaccusations.Formerfriendsoftheaccusedmaybelieveintheirinnocence–oratleastwanttosupportthem–butaredrivenawaybyfearsofbeing‘guiltybyassociation’.Jennyrecalledthosewho‘remainedfriendly,butwouldnotdaregonearthehouse,forfearthatvigilantesmightthinktheywereclose’.Herhomehadbeensubjecttoa(related)arsonattackbeforeshehadevenbeenarrested.Lookingbackacrossthewholeexperience,Marcussaidthat,‘themostprofoundeffectwasonthenumberoffriendsIlost’.

Althoughsocialdifficultiesintheworkplacehavebeendiscussedabove,itisimportanttonotethatcolleaguesareoftenclosefriends,andassuch,theriftsdriveninthisnetworkbyfalseallegationscanhaveaprofoundsocialimpactupontheaccused,outsideoftheirvocationalcontext.Robdescribedthehurtwhenformerfriendsatwork‘justdidn’twanttoknow’himanymore,andDavid,whowasformerlyapoliceofficer,experienced‘acompletesocialshutdown…suddenlyallyourfriendsdisappear’.Thiseffectcouldbepronouncedduetothoseinoccupationsofcareandtrustneedingtodistancethemselvesfromtheaccusedforprofessionalreasons–participantswhowereformerlyinteachingpositionsparticularlyreportedthis.

Tenparticipantsexplicitlymentionedbeingpreventedfromdiscussingtheallegationswithcolleagues–whichcausedthemfurthersocialisolation,andadverselyaffectedtheirreputationandesteem.ForNicole,thehardestpartwas‘beingforbiddentohavecontactwithpeopleIhavesupported,manyofwhomhavebecomefriends,andthoseIhaveworkedwithforover30years,mostofwhomweregivennoexplanationforit’.Marcuslostalotofsocialsupportsimplybecausehewasunabletotalkaboutthe

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allegationstothoseatwork–thus‘no-oneknewwhathadhappened’.Hewasalsocutofffromallthosehekeptintouchwiththroughemail,whenhislaptopwasseized.Despitenopoliceinvolvement,Georgelostmanyofhisfriendsthroughbeingbarredfromteachingandvolunteering,creatingsuspicionandadamagedreputationintheeyesofhisfriends.Heexplainedthathecouldunderstandwhysomemighthavefeltabitunsureduetothis‘vanishingact’andthelackofanycommunication.However,thefactthathecouldnotdiscusswhatwashappening,evenafterreceivingcompensationfromhisworkplaceinrelationtotheiraccusations,wasparticularlyhurtful.

Ofcoursesomehadformednewfriendshipssinceandsawsociallossesasamixedblessing.Arjunreflected,‘Ilookeduponitasafilteringprocess’.Similarly,fourteenoftheparticipantswereabletomentionacquaintances,somecolleaguesandpeopletheyhadnotformerlybeencloseto,whoprovidedahugeamountofunexpectedsupport,andstrengthenedorcementedfriendships.SocialwithdrawalandisolationFalseallegationscancausepeopletoactivelywithdrawfromtheirsocialcircles.Sixteenparticipantsdescribedgoingintoa‘shutdownmode’,instinctivelyputtingupbarriers.Catherinehadbecome‘immediatelyemotionallyunavailable’,spendinglotsoftimealoneandscared.Eightotherparticipantshadsimilarresponses,linkedtodepression,anxietyandasheerinabilitytobearoundanyonethattheybelieveddidnottrustthem.

Insomecases,friendshipswerelostasaresultoftheaccusedhavingstrategicallydistancedthemselvesfromothers.Thiscouldbemotivatedbywishingtokeepaccusationsprivatesoastolimittheirnegativeconsequences,oritmaybebecausetheyareunabletodiscusstheallegationsandcasedetails.Marcusexplains:

‘Manydidnotunderstandmyincreasinglyself-isolatingbehaviourbecausealotoffriendswerecolleagues,andsotheycouldn’tbetoldwhatwasgoingon…partofmebeganburningbridgesintentionallysinceitwasalljustawaitinggame…IcouldbefacingtrialfortheallegationsandIdidn’twantpeopletoknow,...Iknewthatmudsticks.’

Davidcommentedthat,‘becauseofthenegativemediapublicity,Ididnotwanttosocializewithmyfamilyorfriends,Itendedtostayindoors’.Fouroftheparticipantsspokeaboutfeelingforcedtocuttieswiththeirpartnerand/orcertainfriendswhenunderinvestigation,forfearthatanyconnectiontothemwouldprejudicetheinvestigation.Itisnoteworthythatthreeoftheparticipantsdescribedaquitedifferenteffect:astheyresidedinsmallcommunities,theyfeltpowerlesstokeeptheallegationsprivate.Nathanexplains:

‘ImadesurethateveryoneIknew,includingfriends,familyandcolleagues,wereawareofmysituation[ofbeingwrongfullyarrested].AssoonasIwasaccusedItoldeverybodywhathadhappened,becauseIliveinasmallvillageandpeoplewouldhaveseenmeathomeandwonderedwhyIwasn'tgoingtowork.’

Twenty-twoparticipantsreferredtotheirfamiliesasasourceofsupport.Althoughthiscanbecrucialwhenfacedwithashiftinganddecreasingsocialcircle,thewithdrawaleffectcanextendtosomefamilymembers,creatingan‘innercircle’.

Josefdescribedhowheandhiswife‘withdrewfromtheoutercircletoprotect

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ourselves.Itrybyself-isolationandotherdevicestoavoidbeingremindedofanythingwhichcancausemeflash-backs,fearandanyreminderofthedreadfulmemoriesoftheinterrogation.’Similarly,Imogensaidthat,‘despitethesupportofclosefriends,wehadtostarttellinglittlewhiteliestothenextcircle–aboutwhy[herhusband]wasnotworkingandsoon’.Jackreflectedthathiswifeandhedevelopedan‘UsAgainstTheWorld’mind-set,andthattheirmarriagebecamestrongerforit.CollateraldamagetofamilyandfriendshipcirclesClosingranksandwithdrawingasasmallfamilyunitfromawiderfamilialandsocialnetworkisdue,inpart,totherisksofcollateraldamagetofamilymembers.Davidstatedthat,‘myfamilyhadtokeepalowprofileaspeoplewerenowcallingmeapaedophile’.Arjun’sdaughterwasbulliedatschool,despitetherebeingnoarrestinhiscase,andbothRhysandJennydescribedthedetrimentaleffectsontheirmothers’mentalhealth.Rickputsitquitesimply,‘Myfamilywere,naturally,devastated.Theywereputthroughtheemotionalwringeraswell.’Jackdescribedthat,inadditiontomentalhealthproblemsexperiencedbyhismotherandparents-in-lawasadirectresultofhisarrest:

‘Onesonhasbeensufferingfromstressanddepressionduringandsincethearrestandeventualtrial.Allthreesonswereverydistressedbythewholeprocess.TheyarestillveryangrythattheirDadhadtogothroughthis.’

Heisjustoneofseventeenparticipantswhospecificallydiscussanger,bitternessanddepressionamongfamilymembersasaresultoftheallegations.Twenty-oneoftheparticipants–alargemajority–describedsomeadverseeffectfeltbytheirfamilyofthefalseallegations,mostlyresultingfromlocalgossip;theshameandordealofhavingthefamilynameandaddressprintedinpaperswhenarrested(yetalackofmediacoveragewhenacquitted);intenseanger,anxietyandshockfeltbythefamilywhenhomeswereraided,documentsandcomputerstaken,andfamilymemberswerequestionedbypolice.

Othersfelt‘forcedout’oftheirfriendshipseitherbybeingtreateddifferently,orforfearofbeingseenasneedyandburdensome,giventheiroverwhelmingpersonalproblems.Jacobexplainedthatheandhiswife‘havelostthejoyofbeinghonestwiththosedearesttouswhentheyask,“howareyou?”becausewecanneverexplain’.Thiswasechoedbyfourotherparticipants.Andyreflectedthat:

‘Socialevents,celebrationsandroutinefamilylifearespoiltbyitbeingatthebackofmymind,andthereforebecometainted.Withdrawaldoesn'thelpeither-itonlycompoundstheproblem.Younolongerreallyenjoyyourself.Youhavetoshowcourageandkeeptrying.Familyorfriendsworkinginsimilarprofessionswouldbesupportive-butIdon’twanttoburdenthemwithmyproblems,partlybecausetheirownsuccessfulcareerhistoriesareconstantreminderofmylossandpartlybecauseitispainfultodoso.Mychildrenhavecarriedtheburdenofsupportingme.’

Healsodescribedwidersocialconsiderations:

‘Idecidedwhenwemovednottobecometooinvolved(orworship)inthefamily’snewchurch.Ijustdonotwanttoriskthatmyallegationhistorymightbecomeknowntothewidercongregation.’

Thisfearofbeing‘foundout’demonstratesthattheeffectsoffalseallegationsarenottime-

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limitedbutcanfrustratethedevelopmentoffuturerelationshipstoo.Thewronglyaccusedareburdenedwiththechoiceofwhethertoinformanewfriendorcolleaguethattheyhavebeensubjecttofalseallegationsandriska‘nosmokewithoutfire’response,orwhethertokeepsilentandriskbeing‘foundout’eitherthroughgossiporbymoreformalmechanismsfromsocialservicesorthepolice.

Socialwithdrawalandisolationcan,ofcourse,becomeaviciouscircle.Thelossoffriendships,maritalbreakdownandestrangementfromotherscanleadtothefalselyaccused(particularlyoldermales)livingalone,findingitincreasinglydifficulttomakefriends,meetpotentialpartnersandenjoyvoluntaryworkorrecreationalactivities.Thispositionthenexposesthemtocertainprejudicesandsuspicion.ImpactonpartnersSeventeenparticipantsspokeaboutfalseallegationsplacingastrainontheirpartners,whotoohadbecomeincreasinglystressed,anxious,depressedandsociallywithdrawn.Kimexplainedtheeffectthatherhusband’sfalseaccusationshaduponherownwellbeing:

‘Isufferedfromshockwhichturnedtodepression.Ilosttwostoneinweightinabout6weeksasIcouldnotbringmyselftoeat.Ialsoneededcounselling.Itwasthecounsellorwhorecommendedanti-depressants,whichIatfirstrefusedasIhavenevertakenregularmedication,butamthankfulItookheradviceintheend.Iamstillonthem.IcriedmorethanIhaveevercriedinmylife,mainlywithangerbutalsowithfeelingsohelpless,beingdumpedinasystemwhichIfeltwasjustnotworking.’

Susannah,thewifeofthefalselyaccused,describedtheeffectsuponheras‘notoneofworry,butofhorror’.Herrecollectionofthenightbeforeherhusband’strialgivessomecontexttothis:

‘[Wewere]goingtobedthenightbefore,possiblyforthelasttime.Webothknewwhateverweweredoinghadafinitepointwherehewouldgoforgood.Youdon’thaveanyillusionsabouttheprisonsystem,hehadabadback,hewouldn’thavelastedlong.Heonlyhadtogodownononeofthoseelevencounts.’

Shefurtherdescribeshowherhusbandwentinto‘akindofcocoon’whenfacedwiththecourtcase,leavinghertoreadallthepaperworkandhelpformthedefence.Shedescribedthecollateraldamageas‘aweightthatyou’reneverfreeof’,thoughherhusbandwasnotconvicted.Thiseffectwasbynomeansunique;manyofourparticipantsspokeeloquentlyaboutthelong-termdamagetotheirownemotionalhealthand,inevitably,tosomeintimaterelationships.

Arjun’spartnerstillfeelspanicandfearaboutwhethertheremaybefurtherallegations.Owenreflectedthat,‘thestrainontherelationship’puthiswife‘tobreakingpoint,andtothisdayIthinkitisamiraclethatwe’restilltogether…shenolongerseesmeasthemanshemarried’.Fiveotherparticipantsspokeoffalseallegationscreatingtensionbetweencouplesintheshortandlonger-term.Severaldescribedfeelingsofguiltandself-blameforburdeningtheirpartners,andthepermanentdamage:

‘Thegreateststrainwasonmyrelationshipwithmywifebecausewehandledthedifficultiesinsuchdifferentways.Shewasentirelysupportiveofmeanddidnotdoubtmyinnocence.But…shecopedbywantingtotalkaboutthematterallthetime(whileIwantedtosaylittleaboutit)….Shewasangry,occasionallywithme,but

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mainlywiththosehadmadetheallegations.Iwaspuzzledandhurtbytheallegations,ratherthanangry.Wefoundeachotherverydifficult.’(Stefan)

Others’relationshipswereruined.ThestressthatcausedthebreakdownofScott’smarriagehaslefthimfeelingunabletopursueanotherrelationship.Georgeexplains:

‘Initiallyourrelationshipdidn'tchange,IbelievesheknewIwasinnocentthroughout,butovertimeIbecamemoreunstableandlessconfident.…IfeltIwasholdingherback.Wedriftedapart,andshemovedout.

Thatsaid,eightofourparticipantsfeltthattheirordealhadcementedtheirrelationships,apoignantsilver-lining.TheimpactonrelationshipswithchildrenandgrandchildrenStressandpressureontheaccusedandtheirpartnersiscompoundedwherechildrenareinvolved.Nineoftheparticipantsdescribedadverseeffectsoftheallegationontheirchildren,includingmistrustofthecriminaljusticesystemandsocialservices;fearatwhatmighthappentotheirparent;anddepression,anxietyandseriousself-harm,buttheeffectsarebroader:

‘Forfifteenmonthswewereunderasocialservices’supervisionorderandIcouldnotbeleftalonewithmytwoboys–meaningthat[hispartner]couldn’tleavethehousewhileIwasthere.Theridiculousnessofthis-thatImaybearisktotwolittleboysaged1and4whenthecomplainanthadbeenateenagegirl-wasevencriticizedbytheprosecutorduringthetrial.’(Owen)

Arjunreportedtheexperienceofhavinghisdaughter’sfriendscometothehouseas‘terrifying’,causingfurthertensioninthehome.Imogen,RobandJacobalsodescribedanxietyandnervousnessathavingchildrenaroundthehomeorintakingpartinsocialactivitieswherechildrenwerepresent.Susannahexplainedthatherhusband’s‘relationshipwithowngranddaughterswascompletelyrupturedbecauseweneverknewandhadnowayofknowingwhethertheyknewanythingaboutitatall.’Assuch,‘thesafestwaytohandleourrelationshipwiththegrandchildrenwasremoteness’.

Restrictedaccesstochildrenandgrandchildrenisoneofthedeepestcutsofsuchallegations.Evenwheretherearenoformallyimposedrestrictions(whichisrare),informalcheckscanoccur,resultingfromsuspicionalone.Sevenparticipantsdescribedtheirpartnerorotherfamilymembers‘watching’themaroundtheirownchildrenorgrandchildren:

‘Perhapsthemostupsettingfeaturehasbeentheimpactallthishashadthroughmeonmygrandchildren.WhilstIenjoyagoodrelationshipwiththemIfeelveryself-consciousintheirpresenceandconstantlywanttobeprotectedfromanypossiblesuggestion,andfromwhateversource,thatmyrelationshipwiththemmightbequestioned.Ihardlyeverinteractwiththemaloneandtendnottowanttodoevenordinarythingswiththemincasethisisviewedas“grooming”.’(Andy)

Robrecountedthepainoflyingtohisgrandchildren,whohadpreviouslyoftensleptoveratweekends,aboutwhytheycouldnolongerdoso.Fourofourparticipantsrecalledthedistresscausedbythepolicevisitthehomeandtheirhomebeingsearchedinfrontoftheirchildren,andhavingtolietothemaboutwhatwashappening.Val,whosehusbandwasfalselyaccused,experiencedtheaddedstressofattemptingtoexplainthesituationtotheirautisticson,andtryingtogaugehiscomprehensionandwellbeing.

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Notwithstandingtheseimmediatetroubles,eightoftheparticipantsdescribedthelonger-termdifficultiesfortheirchildrenofhavingaparentaccusedofchildabuse.Theserangedfromupsetduringfamilyholidays(particularlywhilegoingthroughsecuritycheckswhentravellingabroad),topressuresonpartnerstosuperviseallactivitiesandensuretheirchildrenarenotleftalonewiththeaccusedparent,andinthreesadcases,self-harmandbullying(whichresultedinwithdrawalofthechildfromtheirschool).

Althoughhersituationwasanomalous,thefollowingquotefromEllaillustrateshowdetrimentaltheeffectsofafalseallegationcanbefortheaccused’srelationshipwithachild,andhowtheeffectsarebynomeanstemporary:

‘Mydreamformanyyearswastoholdmyownchild…[after3miscarriages].TothengivebirthandbetoldthatIcouldneverbealonewithhim,thatsocialworkerswouldsitinthehospitalatmyeveryvisittohim(hewasintheneonatalunitfor4months)watchingmyeverymoveandmakingnotesaboutmy‘parenting’,wasmostdistressingandtookmostofthejoythatIfeltinbeinganewmummy.IlovedmychildbutwasfrightenedtobondwithhimbecauseIlivedunderthethreatofthemremovinghim.Oncedischargedfromthehospital,thesocialworkerstoldmyhusbandtomoveintomyparent’shomewiththebaby,butwouldnotallowmetomoveinforthefirst2weeks;Iwasallowedtwohoursperdayvisitinghim,withasocialworker.Iwasnotallowedtogivehimhisfirstbathathome,ortoputhimintohiscribforhisfirstnightathome.Mybaby,now20months,stillsuffersseparationanxietyandthoughIacceptthatsomeofthatisduetobeinginneo-natalforsolong,Ibelievesomeisbecausehewastakenfromhismummydailywhenher‘timewasup’.’

4.5 EffectsonBeliefsandOutlook‘Formetheoverwhelmingfeelingisofoneofbetrayal.IfeelbetrayedbythepeopleIlookedafter.Inolongertrustchildren(whichisverysad)andnolongertrustthesystem.Ifeelletdownbymyemployer(s)who,fearingfortheirreputations,notmine,abandonedanysenseofdutyofcaretome.Ifeelabandonedbytradesunionswho,almostwithoutexception,abandonmembersaccusedofabuseafraidthatanyassociationwithsomeonewhoastheyseeit,potentiallymightbeguiltyistobeavoidedatallcosts.…Ifeelletdownbythepolicewho,itseems,areonacharmoffensivetowinovermuchneededpublicsupportbymakingabusecases[a]causecélèbre.Theirmantrathatcomplainants“willbebelieved”isfranklyverydisturbing.Nolongercanweregardthepoliceastruthseekers.IfeelletdownbythePress,whowithsomeexceptions,feedanunjustifiedmoralpanicregardingcurrentandhistoricalabuseinoccupationalsettingssimplytosellcopy.Ifeelletdownbypoliticianswho,inthemain,haveabandonedtheirroleasbastionsofjusticeandreplaceditwithaneedforvengeance,andbythejudiciarywhoseemunabletoappreciatetheveryrealdifficultythosefalselyaccusedofabuse-especiallyhistoricalabuse-haveinprovingtheirinnocence.Provingsomethingdidnothappenespeciallyyearsagoisvirtuallyimpossible.’(Andy)27

Thesefeelings–ofbetrayal,prejudiceandofalackofsupportweredominantinourparticipants’accounts.

CampbellandDenovconductedin-depthinterviewswithfiveCanadianexonerees(2004)andfoundprofoundcynicismandmistrustofauthorityfigures,severeintolerancetoanyperceivedinjustice,andaviewofthecriminaljusticesystemasillegitimate.Eachof

27Supplementarymaterialwasprovidedbysomeparticipantsthatisalreadyinthepublicdomain.ThisisanextractfromalongeraccountinBurnett(2016,inpress).Seechapter2forfurtheraccounts.

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theseeffectswerealsofoundinoursampleofpeoplewho(apartfromone)havenotbeenconvicted,sentencedorimprisoned.Ourfindingsindicatethatsuchcynicism,mistrustandaversiontootherperceivedinjusticesarequicktoform,andhavelong-lastingeffectseveninasamplewhohavehadmuchlessprolongedcontactwiththecriminaljusticesystemthanthoseinotherstudies.

Effectsonbeliefsandoutlook(n=30)Lostfaithinthecriminaljusticesystem:28participantsLosttrustinthepolice:20participants(of25whosecaseshadpoliceinvolvement)Concernthataccusersaretreatedasvictimsbeforeguiltisestablished:24participantsAngeratemployers:23participantsAlienationandlossofconfidence:16employers

Whileourparticipantswerenotspecificallyaskedaboutotherissuesoftrustorfaith,ninespontaneouslymentionedfeelingnoillwilltowardsaccuserwhile10feltaggrievedbylackofanapology,andwhilefivefelttheirexperienceshadstrengthenedtheirreligiousconvictions,anotherthreeabandonedreligion.LostfaithinthecriminaljusticesystemAlmostallparticipants(28)expressedaclearlossoffaithinthecriminaljusticesystem.Theywerecriticalof:lawyersstrikingdealswithemployers;treatingthefalselyaccusedasguiltyfromthestart;policemistakesandmalpractice;andtheindividualagendasofinvestigatingauthorities.AsEllastated:

‘Sincethiscase,InolongerhaveanyfaithinChildren’sServices,ortheChildProtectionarena...InmycasethePoliceandsocialworkersworkedtogethertoattempttogettheoutcomethattheywanted…InowdoubttheintegrityofthoseIonceplacedmytrustin.’

Paulalsoexpressedacynicalviewpoint:‘Iimmediatelylostfaithinthecriminaljusticesystem…ItunnervedmewhenIrealisedthatPolicearenotinterestedin‘Truth’.Theirinterestisinsecuringaconviction,andwillmanufacture‘evidence’tosupporttheirsuspicions.Intheopinionofthepolice,agoodSocialServicesdepartment,isonewhichproducesmanysuspicionsagainstadults.Theyseetheirjobasdone,iftheycanbanamanfromworkingwithchildren,andthenrecordallchildrenhewasworkingwithas‘wehaveprotectedXnumberofchildrenfromabuse’.

Jackdescribeshow:

‘Thepolicemishandledthewholeinvestigationinmyopinion(mycomplaintsarestillbeinginvestigated).SocialServicesdidnotoffersupportofanykind.Thejusticesystemwasawful.Ihadtositinacellincourtforfourdayswhilemyaccuserdidnotevenhavetoappearinthecourt….InowhavenofaithatallinthePoliceorthejusticesystemandneitherdoanyofmyfamily(andIamanexPoliceman).IwastreatedasaguiltymanfromthemomentIwalkedintothePolicestationandthatcontinuedthroughout.EverythingIhadinmydefencewasignoreduntilwegottocourt.’

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LossoftrustinthepoliceTwentyofthetwenty-fiveparticipantswhohadpolicecontactasaresultoftheallegation,describedthepoliceinvestigationashaving‘blinkeredvision’andbias.Jonstated:

‘BeforeallthishappenedIhadanaivetrustinthepolice.NowIknowthatthepolicecanbeprejudiced,blinkered,andarepronetoignorethefacts…Inmyrecenttrialitwasrevealedthatthepolicethemselvesinformtheaccusersoftheireligibilityforcompensation….Itrusted,rathernaively,thatthepolicewouldinvestigatetoseeifIwasinnocent;insteaditbecameapparentthat,sinceIwasareligiousBrotherconnectedtotheCatholicChurch,theyassumedIwasguilty.’

Hewasnotaloneinfeelingpersonallyvilified,andthattheinvestigationwasprejudicedfromthestart.Rickclaimed:‘Ihavenorespectforthepoliceatall.Theyweredeterminedtoprosecuteme,eventhough,iftheyhadfollowedtheleadsIgavethematinterview,theywouldhavequicklyascertainedthatIwasinnocent.Theychosenottoseekevidence,onlytosearchforcorroboration…[thehardestpartwas]thepolice’sbiasedapproach.Theytreatedthewholeprocessasagameof‘destroythedefendant.’Theywerenottheslightestbitinterestedinthetruth,onlymyconviction.IwillNEVERtrustthemagain.Ihavehadnoapology.’

Thirteenparticipantsdescribedwhattheysawtobepolicemalpractice.Susannahrecallshowthepoliceinvestigationincorporated‘trawling’forcases,theuseof‘underhandtactics’,andthe‘leaking’ofinformationsuchasthechargenotice.RobandArjunbothdescribethepolicewithholdingpotentiallyexculpatoryevidencefromthedefence.Paulalsostatedthatthebailreleasenoteshowedthatthepolicehad‘trumpedup’theallegationsagainsthim.Owensaid:

‘Iwasastaunchdefenderofthepoliceandwasactuallythebestmanatapoliceman’swedding...[Now]Ithinkthepolicearescum.Iabsolutelyhatethemwitheveryfibreofmybeing.IthinkthereareprobablydecentindividualpoliceofficersbutasagroupIloatheanddetestthem.’

Threeparticipantsmentionedhavingformerlybroughttheirchildrenuptorespectandtrustthecriminaljusticesystem,andthepoliceinparticularbutnowfeltdifferently.Sevenreflectedthatthepoliceasaforcewerenotallbad,andthattheymayhavebeenunluckytohavebeenincontactwithafew‘badapples’.Robstatedthatalthoughhehadmetsomerespectableindividualofficers,manycarrytheirownagendaastheforcebecomesverypoliticised.Jennysimilarlydescribedanoverzealousnessofofficerstomakearrestsandbringcasestocourt.Herlastingmemoryoftheexonerationprocesswasamomentinthecourtroom,afterherconvictionwasoverturned,whereshesawthepolicemanresponsibleforsecuringherconviction‘hanghisheadinshame’.Paulexplained:

‘Whilstitisdifficultforauthoritiestodiscernwhowillorwillnotabusechildren,theydonotoftenusejudgmentbasedonbalancedcommonsense,instead,labellingmenasabusers‘justincase’,inordertocovertheirownbacksbynotlettingthenextabuserthroughthenet.Policearenotconcernedhowmanyinnocentmentheyaccuse,providedtheystopthefewrealabusers.Thecultureofvictimsbeingbelievedautomaticallyisworsened,andworsens,thelackofdisciplinebeinggiventochildrenfromadultsfortheadults’fearsofallegations,repercussions,beingshunnedbyotheradults.Becauseauthoritiesmanipulatethetruth,peoplewillfeeltheycan'tbetruthfultotheauthorities,instead,feelingtheneedtocovertheirownbackstoo.Thiswillleadto‘everymanforhimself’,distrust,andeventualfragmentation/breakdownofsociety.’

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Catherine,whowasaccusedofpushingachildthroughopendoor,spokeforathirdofourparticipantswhenshecommentedthat:‘Ihavenofaithinourprocessesandproceduresandhowwetreatourinnocentpeople….Thiswasadrainonresourcesanddidnotneedtohappen.IfeelIneedanswers.Thewholeexperiencehasbeendevastating.IworkinanenvironmentwhereIfeelwearecreatingindividualswithnosenseofresponsibility;thereisonlythepowerforyoungpeopletonowreacttoanysituationthatdoesnotmeetwiththeirapprovalandpunishtheadultswhocareforthem.Thereisnoconsequenceforthisbehaviour,onlyexcuses.’

‘Accusers’or‘victims’?Thirteenofourparticipantsmentionedthattheiraccusersweretreatedasvictimsbeforeanytruthintheabusewasfound.Thisaddedtothesenseofdisillusionmentatthefailureofthejusticesystemtoprotecttheirinterests,andwhattheyperceivedtobeapoliceinvestigationcharacterisedby‘tunnelvision’:

‘Withadiscoursecallingthenarratorsvictims,ithastobeassumedthatthepolicebelievedthatthoseallegedagainstwerecorrespondinglyabusersandtheycontinuedtobehaveinthisprejudicialmannertothebitterend.’(James)

Twentyfouroftheparticipantsexpressedtheviewthatvictims’rightshadtrumpedtherightsoftheaccused.Marcusthoughtthatthesystem‘isnowinthegripsof“perception”overfact’.Claudewaspleasedthatvulnerablepeoplewerenowaffordedprotection,‘AstheparentofayoungadultwithsevereautismIwouldliketorecordmygeneralapprovalandsupportfortheattemptsmadetoensurethesafetyofallvulnerablemembersofsociety.’However,hefeltthat:‘asamanfalselyaccusedofsexualabuse,Iwouldsubmitthatintherushtoprotectvulnerablegroupsfromtheperceivedthreatofabuse,thependulumhasswungtoofarintheoppositedirection.’

Similarly,Jacobthoughtthat:‘Thoughitisabsolutelyrightthatperpetratorsshouldbestoppedandproperlypunished,theremustalsobeprotectionagainstdeluded,mistakenormaliciousallegationswhichcancauserealandlastingdamage–Iamnotsurethatourpresentproceduresandcheckstakeadequateaccountofthis.’

WhileNicoleexplained:‘Itisofcourseright,inthelightoftheJimmySavilescandalandthedegreeofabusewhichwascovereduphistorically,toencourageandsupportgenuinevictimstocomeforwardandreportabuse.ButIfeelstronglythatthependulumhasnowswungsofartheotherway,thatpeoplearebeinghoundedoutofjobsorpublicrolesmerelyonthebasisofanallegationwhichmightneveractuallybetestedbyanycourtorotherjudicialforum.Thisisaseriousnaturaljusticeissue…Complainantshaveanonymity,allegedperpetratorsshouldhaveanonymityuntilconviction.’

Severalparticipantsreflectedonhowthingscouldbeimproved.Nicolearguedthatthosewhomakeallegationsarecomplainantsandshouldonlybereferredtoasvictimswhentheallegationsaredeemedattrialtobetrue,andthatascomplainantshaveanonymity,allegedperpetratorsshouldhaveanonymityuntilconviction.Robworriedaboutthelureoffinancialcompensation,‘Tomeitseemssoobviousthatitcouldallbestopped…bystoppingcompensationandgivingcounsellingifpeoplewantit.’Heexpressedangeratthefactthatothersarestillbeingfalselyaccused,inspiteofthecampaignsand

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casesthathaveoccurredsincehewasaccusedin1999,ofoffencesdatingback30years.Despitebeingacquittedattrialin2004,hestated,‘theredoesn’tseemtobeanyendtoit…there’safeelingoffrustrationthereallthetime.’Disillusionwithoccupationsofcareandtrustandemployers’lackofsupportElevenparticipantscommentedonhowawarenessofthevulnerabilityofthoseworkingintheiroccupationhadbeenbroughtsharplyintofocusbytheirexperienceofbeingfalselyaccused.Claudeexplainedthat:

‘Teachersworkingwithstudentswithlearningdifficultiesandcommunicationproblemsaresubjecttoadditionalissueswhenfacedwithafalseaccusation,astherewillinvariablybeathirdpartyinvolvedintherecording/reportingofanysuchallegation.Inotherwords,itisaparent,carerorotheradultwhoreportstheallegation.Inmycase,noinvestigationconsideredthereliabilityorintegrityofthesethirdparties.’

Jennyregrettedbeing‘sostupid’inwhereshehadchosentowork(achildren’scarehome,whichhousedmany‘damaged’childrenwhoengagedindeviantbehaviour).However,eightotherparticipantsdescribedtheirdisappointmentwiththeiremployers’lackofcompassion,orfailuretocarryoutathoroughinvestigationorapply‘commonsense’intheabsenceofanyevidenceinsupportoftheallegation:

‘Theinjusticeofthewholesituationmakesmeincrediblyangry.Becauseofaspuriousallegation…Ifeltthatbeingdeadwasapreferablealternativetohavingtobeidentifiedfalselyasachildabuser.Mostofthiscouldhavebeenavoided,hadtheschoolconductedafullandfairinvestigation.’(Rhys)

Thisviewpoint–thatthewholeordealcouldhavebeenavoidedbyamore‘commonsense’approachtotheallegationsonbehalfofemployers–wasechoedbynineotherparticipants.Arjunexplainedhowhisviewhadbeenaltered:

‘Therewasacompletedeafnessfromthoseinauthoritytolistentoanywordsoftruth.Theywereonlyinterestedinthingsthatwouldstrengthentheiragenda,whichseemedtobetowin…Thatwasabigshock…itissosicktowatchthedishonestyrevolvingaround…itaffectsmytrustinmyfellowmen.’

Shockwasexpressedbythemajorityofparticipantsinrelationtohowtheiremployers‘protected’themselves,apparentlyfailingtounderstandthechallengesassociatedwiththeirjobsorthetypesofchildrenoryoungadultstheycaredfor.Fourparticipantsreflectedonthepossibilitythat,asawarenessspreadofotherfalseaccusationsintheirprofession(seeforexample,thesurveyoffalseallegationsreportedbytheAssociationofTeachersandLecturers,2015)disillusionmentmayspreadfromtheparticipants,tocolleaguesandfriendsinoccupationsofcareandtrust,resultinginalossof(particularlymale)staffinthisfield,oranoverlycautious,no-touch,approachinsuchroles,andavoidanceofone-to-onetuition,whichcouldadverselythecareandqualityofserviceprovided.

Twooftheparticipantswhoworkedinchurch-basedrolescommentedthattheywereshockedatthe‘self-interest’displayedbytheinstitution,whentheallegationsarose.‘Idonotbearillwilltowardstheonewhomadetheallegation–butIfoundourdiocesanarrangementsthatacted‘inrighteousness’trulyrotten’(Jacob).Stefanconcurred:

‘IhavesomeverynegativefeelingsabouttheChurchthatIhadservedallmylifeasIthoughtitshandlingofthecaseincompetenttothepointofcruelty-morecock-upthanconspiracy.ButIdidmanagetofocusmy

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frustrationontheinstitution,ratherthanonindividuals,andtorecognizetheinadequacyofasystemratherthanthefollyofparticularpeople.’

Itisnotablethattheangerexperiencedbysomeparticipantswasdirectedattheinstitution,ratherthantheaccusersthemselves.FeelingstowardstheaccusersAlthoughparticipantswerenotdirectlyaskedhowtheyfeltabouttheaccuser,ofthethirteenwhovolunteeredtheiropinion,ninestatedthattheyborenoillwilloranimositytowardstheiraccusers.Thisseemedtobebecausetheyrecognizedthattheaccusermighthavebeenabusedormistreatedelsewhere,camefromdisadvantagedbackgrounds,orhadangermanagementissues.Imogenstatedthatdespiteherhusband’sseverepsychologicaldamage,socialwithdrawalandeventualpassing(whichsheattributedtothestressoftheaccusationsandinvestigation),she‘wouldstillwelcome[theaccusers]intoherhome,andaskthemiftheyhadhadenoughtoeat’.Nathanechoedsixotherparticipants’viewsinstating,‘Idonotblameanyofmyaccusers,Iblamethesystemwhichencourages,throughtrawlingandcompensation,falseallegationsthatarenotdealtwithappropriatelyoncedisproved.’Andyelaborated:

‘Idon’treallyblamemyaccusers-Imostlyseethemasvictimsofacomplexmoralandmisplacedprofessionalpanic.Ironically,the“victims”arebeingmanipulated(andgroomed)sothattheirdistortedrealitycanbeusedtonotonlypromoteormaintainafalsebeliefsystembutalsotojustifytheactionsofpeoplewhoshouldknowbetter,forexample,professionals,police,politicians,press.…ThepeopleIblamearethosewhohaveabusedchildren.Hadtheynotdonesothiswouldnothaveoccurredandthoseofuswhoarefactuallyinnocentwouldhavebeensparedthebacklashwhichhasresulted.’

Itwasparticularlynoticeablethatmostparticipantsdidnotfeelantagonismtowardsthosewhomadetheaccusations,insteadtheyfocusedtheirireontheactorswithinthecriminaljusticesystemwhohad‘wronged’them.AsImogenexplained:

‘Itisnotjustaboutthepersonwhomadetheallegations,it’saboutprocessesandsociety–thepoliceandCPShavebrokentheirowncodesofpracticeover,andover,andover,andoveragain.Theyseemtohave,inthiscurrentclimate,carteblanchetodoastheywant,andtreatyouwithabsolutedisregard.’

NoapologyTenparticipantsexpressedgrievanceatthelackofapologyfromanyauthorityovertheir(mis)treatment.SinceJosefexperiencedthepolicekickhisdoordowninthesmallhoursofthemorning,heandhisfamilyhavesufferedseriousmentalhealthissues.AfterninemonthstheCPSfoundthathehad‘nocasetoanswer’.Yet,hehasreceivednoapologyorformofredress.Jennytooexpressedresentmentatbeinggivennoformalapologyhavingexperiencedtheharrowingordealofarsonattacksonherhome,vilificationontelevisionandnationalnewspapers,andbeingwrongfullyimprisoned.Shehasyettoreceiveanycompensation.Thedesireforanapologytypicallystemmedfromparticipants’indignationattheextensiveandunjustifieddamagetotheirlives.AsJacksaid:

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‘Ijustfeelsmashed.EverythingIbelievedinthroughoutmylifehasbeensmashed.Truth,honesty,morals–allthethingsIwasbroughtuptobelieveinhavebeensmashed.TherehasneverbeenanyformalacknowledgementthatIwasandamstillinfactthevictiminallofthis.IhavehadNOapologyfromanyone.IfeelbetrayedbypeopleItrusted.ApersonIhappilycaredfor,for24yearsmadetheseawfulallegationsfornoapparentreason.’

SenseofalienationandlossofconfidenceinpublicopinionSevenparticipantsexpressedscepticismaboutthetruthofnewsstoriesconcerningabuseallegations.Notonlydidthesestoriesremindthemoftheirownordeals,buttheyfelttheyenforcedpublictrustintheveracityofallallegationsasnewspaperstendedtoautomaticallytreatthecomplainantsasvictims,demonisingtheallegedperpetrators.Alongwiththeirsenseofabandonmentbyemployers,friends,communitiesandevenGod,sixteenoftheparticipants’accountsreflectedfeelingsofabandonmentbythepublic,withtwelveexpressingalackoffaithinhumannature.

Marcusexplainedthat,‘peopleneedtoexperiencethetortureofhavingyourlifeonaknife-edge’,thathefelt‘enragedwiththeignoranceofthepublic’andthat,‘Ihavelostpatiencewithpeopleingeneral…[their]ignorance,lazinessorpeopleunwillingtomoveforwardorconsiderotherideas’.ForOwen,thispublicmistrustarosefromtheeasewithwhichothersadoptedthe‘nosmokewithoutfire’viewpoint:

‘Iwasdisgustedatthewayinwhichsomemembersofthepublicwerequicktomakeassumptions.Thepressonlycoveredtheprosecutionstagesandeventhoughtherehadbeennoverdict,peopleassumedIwasobviouslyguilty…ThepressisanothergroupIamnowsuspiciousof–andthisiswhyIhavenevercontactedthemtotellmystory.’

Afurthersevenparticipantsexpressedanti-publicsentiments,throughfrustrationsatthoseinauthorityorthroughasenseofcompleteisolation.Davidexplained:‘Itisannoyingthatsomepeoplegiveperjuredevidenceagainstyouanditisestablishedincourt-yetthepolicewhobringtheprosecutionfailtomakearrests?Becausetheallegationswerenearlythirtyyearsago,itwasdifficulttogatherevidence.PolicecolleaguesdidnotwanttogetinvolvedespeciallythosethatIhaveassistedinthepast.CommunitymemberswhomIhadhelpeddidnotwanttoassist.MylocalMPdidnotwanttoassist.Evenasanelectedmemberofthecouncil,fellowcouncillorsavoidedme.’EffectsuponreligiousfaithTheordealsexperiencedbythreeparticipantscausedthemtoabandonreligion.AsRickputit,‘IhavelostmyfaithinGod,andnolongerpray.Whathappenedtomewasmalicious,cruel,vindictive,and,ifthereweresomesortofSuperiorBeing,howcouldheallowsuchthingstohappen?Whatwouldbethepointofsuchrandombehaviourintheschemeofthings.?’However,fiveparticipantsreflectedthattheexperienceofbeingfalselyaccusedhadeitherstrengthenedtheirreligiousfaith,citingitasasourceofsupport,orthattheirfaithhadbeenunshaken.

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4.6 CopingMechanisms

‘Iappreciatedthecourageshownbythosewhohavechallengedtheperceivedviewthatthereis‘nosmokewithoutfire’,andthatchildabuseisrifeintheUK-sometimesatgreatcosttothemselvesandtheirreputations.’(Andy)

‘Ihaverefocusedmyenergy,havelearnedthingsaboutcontrol/management,self-responsibility.Ivaluemylifeandtheopportunitieswithinit…OnceIhadgonepastthedisillusioningexperienceoftheIPCC,Iwasabletoreclaimmylife.Whilethereisalwaysasub-surfaceanxietythatunscrupuloussolicitorsorpolicemighttryagaintowreakhavoc,IhaveaplaceinmyinnerarchitecturewhereIcanputthatpotentialfear.Asafriendsaidduringtheexperience,“Donotletlifeslipthroughyourfingerseventhoughyourhandsaretied”.’(James)

Complainants,manyofwhomwillbegenuinevictimsofabuse,areentitledtocertainprivilegesinordertoassisttheminthecriminalprocess,helpthemtorecoverandcompensatethemfortheharmsdonetothem,eveniftheiraccusationsdonotresultinaconviction.Incomparison,thosewhoareaccused-evenwhentheyareacquitted-receivelittletonoformalsupportfromthestate.Mostofourparticipantsfeltaggrievedaboutwhattheyconsideredtobeanunfairresponsetotheirtrauma.Indeed,nineofthemfeltthattheyhadnotreceivedsupportfromanyone.

CopingMechanisms(n=30)Therapy,counselling&medication:12participantsAssistingothersinasimilarsituation:16participantsSupportgroups(e.g.FACT):22participantsPositivemind-set:14participantsSeekingsupportfromothers:24participantsLearningnewskillsorhobbies:9participants

Thateachofourparticipantsvolunteeredtotalkcandidlyabouttheirexperiencescouldindicatesadegreeofresilienceandpsychologicaladjustment.Indeedafewofourparticipantsreflectedonsuchoutletsasameansofcomingtotermswiththeirexperiences.Thatsaid,someofthosewhodeclinedourinvitationtoparticipateindicatedthattheypreferrednottotalkabouttheirexperiences,orwouldfinditupsetting.28Therapy,CounsellingandSupportgroupsOnlyeightofthoseinoursamplereceivedprofessionaltherapyandcounselling,thoughafurtherfourhadbeenprescribedantidepressantmedication.Rhysspokeofthevulnerabilityanddependencythatapersoncanfindthemselvesin,onceaccusedofabuse:

‘Nohelpwasreceivedfromtheschool–thestaffmemberdesignatedasacontactmadenoattempttocontactmetoascertainmyphysicalandmentalwellbeing....SupportwassoughtthroughmyGPinitiallyandthenthroughtheNHSlocalCRISISteam.IwouldgotoCRISIS2-3timesperweekforcounsellingandtoreceive

28ThepresentstudywaslimitedtoreferralsthroughFACT.Thismeanswemighthaveasamplebiasedtowardsthosewhoarehappytomakecontactwithsupportgroups.

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medication.IwouldcalltheSamaritanshelpline2-3timesperweekIcontactedFACTbeforemyhearingafterhavingsearchedonlineIwaslaterreferredtoTalkingTherapiesforweeklycounsellingsessions.’

Otherscautionedagainstsharingtheirtraumaanddeep-rootedpersonaltroubles,associatedwithbeingfalselyaccused,tothoseinprofessionalsupportroles.Twoexpressedhorrorattheideaof‘baringtheirsouls’toastranger–whomightgoontoassesstheirmentalwellbeingandwriteareport–forfearthatthecounsellorortherapistwouldtoothink,‘nosmokewithoutfire’.Twofurtherparticipantsindicatedthattheywouldfeeluncomfortableseekingprofessionalmentalhealthsupportduetothedistressofbeingperceivedasweakenoughtoneedit–evenbythemselves.Thisfindingcausesussomeconcern;someofthosewhohavesufferedatthehandsofthecriminaljusticesystem,beitthroughmistakenidentityormaliciousaccusations,feelunabletoaccessprofessionalsupportforfearofbeingdisbelievedbythosetheyshouldbeabletotrust.

Giventhefearandriskofbeingjudgedbyotherswhomightnotunderstandtheirpredicament,itisunsurprisingthatthemajority(22)ofparticipantscitedFACTasasourceofsupportspecificallybecauseFACTmemberscanrelatetoothersfacingthesamestruggles.AtFACTtheycan‘speakdirectlytosomeonewhohadbeenthroughit’(Rebecca).Marcus,whowasnotallowedtodiscusstheallegationswithanyoneheworkedwith,explainedthat‘Itwasscarybutreassuringtomeetpeoplewhowerepreparedtolisten,andgenuinelyunderstoodwhatIwasgoingthrough…Fewofmyfamilyorfriendsknewwhatwashappening.’Insteadofseekingprofessionalsupportathisworkplace,thefocusofhisabuseallegation,he‘engagedwithFACT,[which]hasinmanywayshelpedmetorebuildtheunderstandingthatIwasthevictimofaterriblecrime’.

WhiletheyappreciatedsupportfromgroupssuchasFACT,FASO,PAFAAandtheBritishFalseMemorySociety(BFMS),severalparticipantsacknowledgedthattheyoftenstillfeltdamagedandalone:

‘Wehavebenefittedgreatlyfromtheopportunitiesandforums[FACT]providetodiscussandshareourexperiences.Yet,thenegativeeffectsofthiscontinuetoovershadowourlives.’(Nathan)‘FACTweresupportivebutIfeltverymuchalonethroughouttheprocessanditwaslefttomealonetomountmydefence.Itwasmealoneversusapoliceincidentroomteam.AndIwon.Why?Becausemysidewasbuiltuponthetruth.’(Rick)

Althoughfiveparticipantsexplicitlystatedthattheirbeliefintheirowninnocencewasasourceofsupportandstrength,thevastmajoritydidnot.Itseemsthatrelianceandcomfortcannotbedrawnsimplyfromtheknowledgeofbeinginnocent(see‘BeliefsandOutlook’).AssistingothersinsimilarpositionsAroundtheworld,storieshaveemergedaboutexonereeshelpingotherstheybelievetobewronglyconvicted.HereintheUK,forexample,MoJo,themiscarriageofjusticesupportgroupinGlasgow,wasthebrainchildofPaddyHillwhilehewasstillinprison.Itshouldnotbesurprisingthereforethatoverhalfofourparticipantsassistothersinsimilarpositions,havingexperiencedforthemselvestheoverwhelminglynegativeconsequencesofbeingfalselyaccused,andhavinglearntsomethingabouthowtocope.

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Arjunrecalledlearningstrategiesthroughcognitivebehaviouraltherapytocompartmentalizethevariouschallenges,dealingwitheachproblemasitarose.Hedescribedhowhewasabletomakethebestofwhathadhappenedtohimbyadvisingand‘counselling’othersinthesameposition,‘IfeelsoproudthatallofthistraumaI’vebeenthrough,allofthispsychologicalsupport,it’snotwasted.Thecounsellingthathelpedme,IcanputintoanapproachofhelpingpeoplewhocallFACT’shelpline’.Anotherparticipant,Marcus,reflectedthattheonlypositivehecouldtakefromtheordealofbeingfalselyaccused,wastotranslatewhathelearnedduringhisexperienceintohelpandadviceforothers:

‘Myknowledgeofthelawisvastlyimproved…Iammoreabletoengagewithareasofthelawandhelppeoplewhoareaffectedbytheseissues.Thisincludesadvising,writingletterswiththem,compiling,andoftenjustbeingasoundingboardordevil’sadvocatesotheycantalktosomeoneabouttheissue.’

Whileassistingothersinasimilarpositioncanbeakeycopingstrategy,thiscanhaveadetrimentaleffect;inchoosingtoassistothersandsharetheirownexperiences,storiesandstrategies,theaccusedriskcontinuallyremindingthemselvesoftheirstatusasavictimoffalseaccusations,andmayfixtheiridentityassomeonewhohasbeenfalselyaccused.Josefexplainedthathe‘wantedtoleaveFACT,leaveeverythingassociatedwiththefalseallegationsandjustmoveonwithlife,butsomehowkeptcomingback…..[realizing]itwasinordertohelpothers’.Defensiveness,self-preservationandpositivethinkingApartfromtheabilitytohelpothers,discussedabove,themajorityofparticipantsfeltthattheexperienceofbeingfalselyaccusedhadtaughtthemagreatdealand,inparticular,madethemmorejudiciousintheirassessmentofothers.Drawingonabattlegroundanalogy,afewparticipantsfeltthattheycouldnow‘arm’themselveswithnewknowledgeorskillsasadefensiveweapon.However,thiscouldbeseenasadouble-edgedsword;eachofourparticipantswhofeltanincreasedsenseofcautiousnessaroundothers,alsoexpressedcynicismandmistrustofothers.

Thatsaid,themostprevalentcopingstrategy,evidencedin22accounts,wasuseofadeterminedlyresilientmind-set.Thiswasexpressedasgaining‘perspective’overwhattrulymatteredintheirlives(7participants),orreflectingthatthingscouldhavebeenfarworse,particularlyastheywerenotwrongfullyconvicted(afurther5participants).Forexample,Owenexpressedpositivitythroughastrongappreciationofnotlosingfamilymembers,ashewouldhaveifhehadbeenimprisoned.AndJonexplained,‘Ihavegracefullymovedintoretirement,earlierthanIexpected,butmuchhealthiersinceteachingcanbeverystressful’.Jamestoldushehad‘refocusedmyenergy,learnedthingsaboutcontrol/managementandself-responsibility.Ivaluemylifeandtheopportunitieswithinit’.

Thetendencyofparticipantstoadoptapositivemind-setincopingwiththeordealofbeingwronglyaccused,shouldnotbeinterpretedasanindicatorthatsomeparticipantswereabletodustthemselvesoffandcontinuelivingtheirlivesasnormal.Everysingleparticipantdescribedtheordealofbeingfalselyaccusedashavingchangedtheirlives

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permanently.Participants’attemptstoputthischangeintoperspective,tominimizeandmoveon,shouldnotdistractusfromunderstandingthedepthandtheextentofthepaincausedbywrongfulaccusationsandthecriminaljusticeresponsethereafter.Andysummedthisupperfectlybyexplaining:

‘MylifewillneverbethesameagainandIcannotevergetbacktowhereIwasbeforetheseeventsoccurred.Ihavelearnedtocopebyrealisingthatmylifechancescouldhavebeenworse.InadifferentgenerationIcouldhavebeensenttowarandkilled.Icouldhavebecometerminallyillatanearlyage.Icouldhaveledanunfulfillinglife.IcouldhavenothadthesupportIdohave.’

SeekingsupportfromothersTwenty-fouroftheparticipantsmentionedsupportfromfriends,familyorapartner.Twoinparticulardiscussedactivelyseekingsupport,asameansofrestoringtheirdamagedself-concept:

‘Itoldclosefriendsamongpastcolleaguesandpupilswhatwashappeningandaskedthemtowritetomydefenceteamiftheyfelttheycould,nottopronouncemeinnocentorguiltybuttooutlinewhattheyknewofmyvaluesandbehaviour.Thiswouldneverhavebeenenoughto‘prove’myinnocencebutitwouldprovideacounter-narrative.Intheend,Iaskedabout100people.Theywrotethemostmovinglettersofsupportandtheykeptmeinconfidence.’(James)

Arjunalsorecountedhow,livinginthesameareaastheschoolwheretheallegationsoccurred,hesawparentsregularly.Severalprovidedverbalsupport;somepromisedstrongsupportintheeventofatrial,othersofferedkindwords.Heaskedthemtowritetheirnameanddetailsiftheyofferedsupport,preparinga‘back-upteam’fortheanticipatedcharacterassassination.Heexplainedthathedidthistomakethemfeeltheyweretiedintosupporthim.Whilethismaybeasuccessfulcopingmechanism,italsodemonstratesanunderlyingsenseofmistrust,fearofabandonmentorastrongneedforsupportandpeopletobetruetotheirword.Thisneedtocollect‘characterevidence’isarguablydrivenbythepaucityofexculpatoryevidenceinsuchcases,andtheinability(eitherformallyenforcedorpersonallyfelt)todiscusstheallegations,theensuingvulnerability,andthedesperateneedforsupport.

Learningnewskills/pastimesNineparticipantsmentionedbeingabletofindsolaceandenjoymentinnewhobbies,particularlycreativewritingandkeepingfit.Theseservedasstressreleaseactivities,orprovidedasenseofprideinsomethingtheyhavecreatedorworkedhardtoachieve,remindingthemoftheirpersonalqualitiesandtalents.Theseprovedtobeimportantingivingourparticipantsopportunitiestorepairtheir‘stainedreputations’(discussedabove).Fourparticipantsmentionedfindingthatcreativewritinginparticularoffersavaluableplatformforthosesufferingfalseallegationstoexpressandraiseawarenessofthehorrorsoftheirexperienceswithoutbeingmetwithdisdain,disbeliefanddisgust.

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Section5:DISCUSSIONandCONCLUSION‘Otherthanthefactthatmyfamilywerethereforme,andthefeelingthatwewerebroughtclosertogether,therehasbeennothingpositive.Iamafraidtoreturntoaschoolsetting,Iamstillunabletosleepproperlyatnights,rarelyleavethehousetogooutsideandIrarelyenjoyengaginginactivitiesthatIusedto.’(Rhys)

Rhys,likemanyofourparticipants,remindsusthat,despitehavingthesupportoflovedones,theexperienceofbeingfalselyaccusedcausesenduringtrauma,evenforthosewhoarenotarrested,prosecutedorconvicted.Thisreporthasexploredthemanystructural,culturalandpsychologicalharmssufferedbythosewhogenerouslysharedtheirexperienceswithus.Muchcanbelearnedfromtheiraccounts.

Thisreportpresentsdatacollectedfromasampleofpeoplewhohavebeenwronglyaccusedofabuseinoccupationsoftrust.Participantsrespondedtoourquestionsininterviewandourpromptsinprovidingwrittenaccounts.Inthissense,weguidedtheirstories.However,wegavethemspacetodefinetheirownissuesofconcernandtalkorwriteaboutmattersbeyondourprompts.Whilewecannot,norshouldnot,reproduceverbatimallthattheysaid,wehavesoughtfairlytoreportonthemostpertinentissuesandhavereproducedintheirownwordswhattheyfeelabouttheirexperiences.Indoingsowehavenotsoughttocorroborateourparticipants’experiencesbuttosimplypresentthemastheirperceptions.

Thoseaccusedbutnotconvictedofthemajorityofothertypesofcrimesdonottendtolosetheirjobs.However,thisresearchsuggeststhatthemajorityofthoseaccusedofabuseintheworkplacedo.Mostofourparticipantswhowereworkingatthetimeoftheallegationlosttheirjobsorwerepreventedfromworkingwithchildrenorvulnerableadultsagain.Mechanismstocheckthereliabilityofpotentialemployeeswhowishtoworkwithvulnerablepopulations–suchasCRBorDBSchecks–canexcludethosewhohavefallenunderacloudofsuspicioneveniftheyarenotfoundguiltyofanycriminaloffence.Riskaverseenvironmentsmilitateagainstthosefalselyaccusedandtheupshotisdamagedreputationsandruinedcareers.Innocentmenandwomenareleftwithoutacareer,whiledifferentinstitutionsloseskilledandcaringemployees.

Thereareconsiderablefinancialburdensaccruingfromthisbutlossofearningsisnotthesoleconsequence;thewronglyaccusedmayalsofacesteeplegalfees,thelossofahome,andfinancialpressureontheirpartner.Formany,thelossofavocationtheyhadtrainedforandworkedatforyearscausedmultipleotherharms.Beingaccusedinanoccupationofcareortrustcarriestheadditionalconsequenceoftheaccusedhavingtoletdownthosetheyassistedinthesevocations–bothco-workersandchildrenorvulnerableadults.Someofourparticipantshadtoabandoncarework,teaching,friendshipsandotherworkingrelationshipsspanningdecades,resultinginsocialwithdrawal,panic,fear,anxietyandacompleteinabilitytotrustothers,withtheinevitablecostsonmentalhealth.

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Measurestakentopreventtheaccusedfromdiscussingtheallegationswithcolleaguesmakeitincrediblydifficultforthemtomountadefenceandpreventthemfromdrawingonsupportfromco-workers,whoareoftenalsofriends.

Theeffectofsocialwithdrawalispronouncedinfalseallegationsagainstthoseinoccupationsofcareandtrustbecausethemistrustthattheaccusedexperiencescomesfromboththeiremployers,co-workersandfriends,leavingthemwithlittlesupport.Ourparticipants’accountsshowedacleardisintegrationofrelationshipsbetweenthefalselyaccusedandtheiremployersandcolleagues,andapolarisationbetweenthosewhosupportedthem,andthosewhodistancedthemselves,eitherduetomistrustorsimplynotwantingtobeassociatedwithsomeoneundersuspicion.Whilethebitternessandangerexpressedbymanyofourparticipantsareperfectlyunderstandable,somefearedthattheywerecaughtinaviciouscycleofwithdrawalfromthosewhomightbeabletohelpthemforfearthattheymightdisbelieveorrejectthem.Althoughthesesuspicionswereattimeswell-founded,insomecases,itwasnotclearthatotherscouldnotbetrustedtosupportthem.Clearly,creatingabarrierforprotectionmilitatesagainstcomfortandassistanceandfurtherdamagesmentalhealth.

Someofourparticipantsstruggledtoreconciletheneedto‘fighttheallegations’withthedesiretoshutdownandhidefromtheshameofanunwarrantedlabel.Severalaccountsdescribedthewronglyaccusedasa‘fighter’,presentingatough,no-nonsensepersonwhowouldresistallsuggestionsofwrongdoing.Thebattlegroundanalogiesextendedtosupportnetworks,withmanydescribingotherswhowere‘onourteam’,‘closedranks’,or‘cameoutfightingforme’.Alongsidethis,however,ourparticipantsrevealedfearandemotionalvulnerability,andasenseofbeingworndownbytheaccusationsandthefearthatthoseclosetothemmaybepersuadedoftheirveracity.Thestigmaofthelabel‘paedophile’wasarecurringthemeinourparticipants’accounts.Itwasmadeclearthatthestigmaassociatedwithchildsexualabuseissogreatthattheyfeltitalongtimeaftertheyhadbeendeclaredlegallyinnocent.Forsuchcases,mudreallydoesstick.

Furthermore,theirtraumawasinsomecasesaggravatedbyafearoffurtherallegations.Again,thisveryrealconcernseparatesthisgroupofwronglyaccusedfrommanyotherswhofacefalseallegations.Beingwronglyaccusedofmurderorrobberyisadeeplyunpleasantexperiencebutnotsolikelytoberepeatedoncethestatusofthewronglyaccusedhasreturnedto‘legallyinnocent’.Conversely,ourparticipants,workingwithvulnerableandoftentimestroubledyouthsandadultswhomaywellhavebeenabusedinothercontextsorbyotherpeople,wereexposedtoriskoffurtherallegationsthatwouldbeequallydifficulttochallenge.Theyhad,inotherwords,rationalconcerns.

Theseconcernsaboutpastandpotentialfutureallegationsleftafewfeeling‘obsessive’abouttheircases.Theyporedoverlegaldocuments,attemptedtoinvestigatefurtherthesourceoftheallegations,andonewasregularlyengagingin‘internetsurveillance’ofhisaccuser’ssocialmediapresenceinthehopeoffindingevidencetochallengehiscredibility.Thisobsessionisunsurprisingbuthas,insomecases,strained

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relationshipswithothers.Asoneofourparticipantsputit,‘Iammorequestioning,moredoubting,andlesseasilyconvincedofanything’.Anotherparticipantexplained,‘Beingmorefocused,determined,andattunedtojusticemeansthatone(formeatleast)hastosacrificeenjoyingshallowandmeaninglessrelationshipswithpeople:andsoIdon’tbother.Iamalotmoreinsular,substantiallymoreunforgiving’.

Inthemajorityofaccounts,anoverwhelmingsenseofangerandbetrayalemerged.Thiswasnotdirectedattheiraccusers,butatemployerswhowerethoughttohaveencouragedtheallegations,atthepoliceforwhatourparticipantssawastreatingthemasguiltyfromtheoutset,andata‘victim-centred’criminaljusticesystem,withitsprovisionsforcomplainantsononehand,andwhattheyfeltwasafailuretorecognizerightsordueprocessoftheaccusedontheother.Indeed,almostallofourparticipantshadlostfaithinthecriminaljusticesystemthoughallbutonewerenotconvicted,werenotformallyfoundguiltyofanycrime,anddidnotlosetheirliberty.

Themajorityreportedhighanxietylevels,severedepression,illhealthandassociatedsymptomsoftrauma,withshortandlonger-termsymptoms,withsomeexperiencingpermanentbehaviouralandpersonalitychanges.Theeffectsoffalseallegationswerefeltbytheirpartnersandchildrentoo,withanxietyanddepressionexperiencedbymanyfamilymembers,inadditiontoconsequentialfinancialburdens.Thestigmaofafalseallegationisfeltbythewholefamilyandcanleadtofamilybreakdown,orpermanentlydamagetherelationship.

Thosewhoserelationshipswereirretrievablyharmedmetchallengeswhenattemptingtoformnewrelationships.Theycannotknow‘whoknowswhat’andsoarefacedwiththechoiceeithertoinformothersthatallegationshave,inthepast,beenmadeagainstthem–andriskpoisoningtheirownreputationsandfuturefriendships–orremainsilentandsufferguiltandangstthattherelationshipcouldberuinediftheallegationsarerevealed.Clearly,beingwronglyaccusedcanpoisonfuturerelationshipsaswellasestablishedones.

Mostofourparticipantsreceivednoprofessionalpsychologicalsupport;eitheritwasunavailableortheycouldnottoleratebaringtheirsoultoacounsellorforfearofbeingjudgedordisbelieved.Thelackofsupport,formalandinformal,apologyorrecognitionofthepaincausedtotheaccusedwasaconstanttheme.Itresultedindeepmistrustofothers,particularlythoseinauthorityandthemedia,andasenseofalienation.

Thatsaid,morethanhalfofourparticipantsfoundsolacefromassistingothersfacingfalseallegations.Thisprovidedasenseofself-worth,raisingself-esteemwhichhad,perhapsinevitably,beendamagedbytheallegations.Assistingwithcampaignworkandsupportgroupsalsoprovidedasenseofsolidarityandfosteredpositiverelationshipsinanon-judgmentalatmosphere.However,perhapsitsmaingoalwasthesearchfortruthandjustice,ifnotintheirowncases,theninothersimilarones.AsAndyexplained:

‘InthelongertermIhaverealisedthatmyreputationisnotwhatmatters.WhatmattersmoreisthesearchfortruthandthedamagecausedtotheinstitutionsofStateandwidersocietywhicharisesfromontheonehand

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beingfalselyaccusedandontheotherhandwhenindividualscanexploitthevulnerabilityofpeoplewhodidtheirbesttolookafterthem.’

Inourview,thecumulativeimpactoftheseinterviewsisbothshockingandimmense.Itiswidelyacceptedthattobedescribedasapaedophilewillbedamaging.However,untilweconductedthisstudy,wehadlittlegraspoftheextenttowhichafalseallegationislikelytoaffecteveryaspectofaperson’slife,psychological,materialandphysical.Mostoftheparticipants,itshouldberecalled,wereabletorefutetheaccusationsmadeagainstthematarelativelyearlystageofthelegalprocess.Despitethis,theirliveswere,toputitsimply,wrecked.Itneedhardlybestatedthatforfactuallyinnocentdefendantswhoarewronglyconvictedandimprisoned,butwhocannotlegallydemonstratethis,theconsequencesarelikelytobestillgreater.

Itisalsoofdeepconcernthattheexperiencesdescribedbytheparticipantsinthisstudyarefarfromrare.AsurveybytheAssociationofTeachersandLecturersof685ofitsmembersfoundin2015that22percentofschoolandcollegestaffhadbeenthesubjectofafalseallegationofabusebyapupil(AssociationofTeachersandLecturers,2015).Ofthissample,7.5percentsaidtheallegationwasreportedtopolice,and94percentsaidthatthosewhofacedsuchallegationsshouldbegrantedanononymity.Thesurveyalsofoundthat,notsurprisingly,theprevalenceoffalseallegationsandthepublicitygiventothemisdrivingexperiencedstaffoutofteaching,and,presumably,deterringothersfromseekingtoenterit.InthewordsofaprimaryteacherfromKent:‘TheincreasingoccurrenceofallegationsisonereasonwhyIwillbeleavingtheprofessionsoonerthanIwouldlike’(Garner,2015).Thisisadamagingcostwhichsocietycanillafford.

Theauthorsofthisstudyhopethatitwillprovideavaluablecorrectivetotheuncriticaldiscoursethathasdominatedmedia,politicalandpolicy-makingdiscourseoverthepast20years–thediscoursewhichstatesthatvictimswill,almostinvariably,betellingthetruth.ItisworthhererepeatingtheMetropolitanPolicestatementonOperationMidland,‘ourstartingpointwithallegationsofchildsexualabuseistobelievethevictimuntilweidentifyreasonablecausetobelieveotherwise.’29Itwillberecalledthatthisstatementwasmadeafterithademergedthatthemainsourceoftheallegationswasprobablyafantasist.

Nodoubttheintentionsbehindthatstatementwerehonourable:adesiretorightanhistoricwrong,andtogivevictimswhohadbeenpreviouslyignoredavoice.Butthisstudysuggeststhatintheprocess,awholenewandgrowingclassofvictimsisbeingcreated,whosesufferingisjustasintense–allthemoresoforhavingbeen,untilnow,passedunnoticed.Theroadtohell,itissaid,ispavedwithgoodintentions.Unfortunately,thatiswherethevictimsoffalseallegationsofabusearelikelytofindthemselves–inalivinghell.

29MetropolitanPoliceService(2015)‘HistoricchildabuseinvestigationsandOperationMidland’,September21st.http://news.met.police.uk/news/historic-child-abuse-investigations-and-operation-midland-130034

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