the environmental pollution and energy waste due to urban ...€¦ · on the environmental...

On the environmental pollution and energy waste due to urban lighting

F. Leccese & G. Tuoni Dept. of Energetica "L. Poggi ", Faculty of Engineering, University of Pisa, Italy

Abstract

The problem of light pollution (LP) has been recently assuming a remarkable importance in all strongly industrialized and urbanized regions of the world. It is opportune to prevent the LP phenomenon in order to protect the astronomical observatories areas, to preserve biological equilibrium in protected natural areas, to safeguard the night fauna and the avifauna's migratory routes and to reduce energy waste. In this paper environmental risks caused by LP are described, zoning criteria and lighting requirements are examined and the latest national and regional law provisions concerning LP are compared to the most significant ones peculiar to other countries.

1 Introduction

Since 1976 the 16' General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted the following resolution: "The IAU notes with alarm the increasing levels of interference with astronomical observations resulting from artificial illumination of the night sky.. . . The IA U therefore urgently requests that the responsible civic authorities take action to preserve existing and planned observatories from such interference" [ l ] . In 1977 the Report of the IAU Commission 50: "Ident$ication and Protection of Existing and Potential Observatory Sites", was a pioneering work which gave practical recommendations to protect the observatory sites from urban night sky brightness [l]. Twelve years later, in 1988, the 2 0 ~ IAU General Assembly, adopted the following resolution: "The IAU noting with grave concern the increasing impact of light pollution ... that adversely affect observing conditions from the ground and in space reafirms the special importance of the resolutions

Transactions on Ecology and the Environment vol 63, © 2003 WIT Press, www.witpress.com, ISSN 1743-3541

adopted by previous General Assemblies ... ; strongly urges that all astronomers request civil authorities and others in their countries to implement solutions to preserve the quality of observing conditions; ... encourages all others, everywhere, to become aware of the need to minimize the impact on the environment of light pollution ... which are causing increasingly severe impact on observing conditions for astronomy and which will compromise mankind's view of the Universe". Afterwards at the UNESCO Conference (Paris, 1992) it has been suggested to classify the most important observational sites as "Objects of World Cultural Heritage" [21. Recently, during its meeting in Kyoto (Japan, 1997), the 23rd IAU General Assembly approved this resolution: "The night sky is the heritage of all humanity, which should therefore be preserved untouched". In order to meet a request for the absence of LP, besides obviously for an high average of cloudless night, today the great astronomical observatories are realized in isolated areas with low density of population, such as, for example: Mauna Kea (Hawaii, USA), Cerro Tololo (Ande Cilene), Canary Islands [3].

In Italy a recent government bill [4] promotes "the inclusion of the starry sky in the natural heritage of fhe Country". The ISTIL Report 2001 [5 ] reveals that for more than two thirds of the Italian population the night never really comes because of the sky brightness. Moreover one half of the Italian population has already lost the possibility to see the Milk Way and, if the growth of LP continues with the same average rates, the Milk Way will become invisible from almost everywhere in Italy at sea level before the year 2025 (see Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Growth of the artificial night sky brightness in Italy [5 ] .

The liberalization decrees relating to electric and gas market, recently enacted by the Italian Minister of Industry [6] , have promoted the energy efficiency in final uses in order to reduce the energy consumption without delay in the economic growth, coherently with the strategies adopted by the European Union [7]. The Italian Federation for the Energy Rational use (FIRE) suggests, for the Italian Decrees to be effected, some actions aiming at the energy efficiency improvement both in the industrial field and in the civil one [g]. In particular, in the "Outdoor Lighting" field the FIRE suggests the replacement of lamps with


other, more efficient ones, as well as the installation of timing devices which automatically turn on and off outdoor light fittings, in full agreement with rules against LP (see Sec. 3-4). Moreover, taking into account the strict correlation existing between outdoor lighting and vehicular traffic, the FIRE suggests adopting suitable town plans [9] in order to achieve the best results.

In the last few years the problem concerning LP has been assuming a remarkable importance in all strongly industrialized and urbanized regions of the world. Owing to the fast growth of this phenomenon an extensive specialized literature has been recently published on this topic [10-161. The same authors investigated, in previous studies [17, 181, the effects produced by the technical rules on the design of anti pollution light fittings (anti-LP) and the energy saving achievable by using them. In this paper environmental risks caused by LP are described, zoning criteria and lighting requirements are examined and the latest national and regional laws concerning LP are compared to the most significant ones peculiar to other Countries.

2 Light pollution: definitions, causes and effects

The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) defined the LP as the general sky glow caused by the scattering of artificial light in the atmosphere [l]. More recently, the CIE itself has proposed a new definition: LP is a generic term indicating the sum-total of all adverse effect of artificial light [2] . The Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) also regards LP as any adverse effect of manmade light [19]. The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) thinks of LP as a problem due mostly to bad nighttime lighting, e.g. poorly designed or misdirected or misapplied light fittings [13].

In general, LP is a kind of visual perception pollution due to the scattered luminous flux ratio, emitted by the fittings of a lighting system, which does not reach (or trespasses) the visual task the system is (functionally) designed for [17, 191. The scattered luminous flux ratio is represented by that percentage non- reaching or non-trespassing visual task owing to diffusive phenomena, due to an inadequate choice of the optics or to a wrong positioning of the light fittings. The LP, essentially due to an excessive or inadequate nighttime lighting of the high population density areas, can also depend: on the use of inadequate photometric characteristic lamps; on the luminous flux that is sent back, by reflection of the road surface, upwards to the vault of heaven; on the numerous and intrusive light signs and, finally, on an incorrect control and maintenance of the lighting systems. The artificial lighting polluting the sky contributes to increase its natural brightness owing to the dispersing phenomenon (scattering) due to suspended in the Earth's atmosphere particles hindering or making difficult the sight of heavenly bodies.

The effects of the LP can be urban sky glow, light trespass, glare and energy waste. Such effects can be defined as briefly described further [2,54,55].

The urban sky glow (natural or man-made) is the brightening of the night sky that results from the reflection of radiation scattered from the constituents of the atmosphere in the direction of observation.


The light trespass (spill, obtrusive or nuisance light) represents any form of artificial light emanating from a light fitting or illuminated sign that penetrates other property and creates a nuisance, this effect can be viewed as an invasion of privacy.

The glare is the sensation produced by luminance within the visual field that is sufficiently greater than the luminance to which the eyes are adapted to cause annoyance, discomfort or loss in visual performance and visibility.

Energy is wasted when excessive levels of light to perform the required lighting task [21-231 are used. Such levels of light contribute to LP since some portion of the luminous flux will be reflected in various directions.

The LP can occur with veiling-luminance effects making the driving unsafe [24], by nuisance phenomena hindering the sight of the artistic-architectonic heritage peculiar to the cities of art [25] and by excessive illuminance values being able to alter flora's and fauna's life balance and, as a consequence, cause serious ecological damages [26,27].

As for the flora, the artificial day-protraction (e.g. method used in greenhouse cultivations) gives rise to the phenomenon of photoperiodism altering the normal photosynthetic activity and, therefore, determining a phase-displacement of the alternation of flowering periods with vegetational rest.

As regards the fauna, disorientation phenomena concerning many animal species have been found out: such phenomena lead them to death from weariness while trying to reach far artificial light sources (it is the case of the sea turtles), or owing to their being unable to move away from night light sources and to alternate activity cycles with inactivity ones (it is the case of numerous insects and of the night avifauna).

3 Italian rules

In Italy the Town Council of Asiago (Padova, Veneto region) enacted the first measure against LP in 1963 [15], owing to its nearness to the main Italian Astronomical Observatories: Cima Ekar and Asiago.

In the last eight years sixteen bills, half of which only during the last year [28-341, have been introduced in Italy, and numerous local measures (regional laws and town regulations) have been recently passed [35-451, however the absence of a reference national law does not allow adopting a common criterion against the LP all over the Country.

Regional laws contain general aspects concerning, in particular: aims and limits; competencies assigned to Regions, Provinces and Municipalities; territorial zoning criteria and sanctions to be applied in case of non-observance of the law. However, a discordance (also in connection with the UN1 10819 standard [20]) about the criteria used for the classification of anti-LP light fittings and the maximum upward light output ratio, is observed while comparing the various regional laws.

Moreover, many of such local laws have been turning out to be, up until today, inapplicable owing to the absence of the required effective technical regulations, with the only exception of the Lombardia law [39] whose application criteria have been recently enacted by the Region Council [46,47].


In general, every kind of artificial light emission, directly or indirectly turned to the vault of heaven (particularly above the horizon plane), scattering outside the areas it is functionally dedicated to, is defined as LP in the Italian rules [37,39].

The regional laws also define the "antipollution, low-energy-consumption light fittings" for realizing new public and private lighting systems. In this case the definitions can result to be different depending on the involved Region, for example:

the Lombardia Region [39, 471 defines light fittings with maximum output light intensity varying from 0.00 to 0.49 cd/Klm per angles of emission not inferior to 900 (above horizontal), in the standard position of installation, to be anti-LP ones;

in Veneto Region [44] light fittings with luminous flux directed to the upper hemisphere smaller than 3% of the overall emitted luminous flux are considered to be anti-LP.

Regional laws are, on the other hand, in full agreement on the achievement of the energy saving requirement (see Sec. 1) by the following criteria (to be adopted in case of adaptation of already existing light fittings):

lamp enclosure with glasses or plastic anti-yellowing materials (i.e. polymethylmethacrylate), transparent and flat;

use of lamps having the highest efficiency as far as the technology state of the art is concerned (e.g. high or low pressure sodium vapour lamps);

use of automatic timing devices for the reduction of the luminous flux emitted during the operating period (for instance, in the nighttime) up to 50% compared to standard condition.

It should be observed that in Italy low pressure sodium vapour lamps are not much used except for the lighting of tunnels, crossroads or arterial roads. Metal- halide lamps are, on the other hand, widely uses, owing to the high luminous fluxes emitted even in front of low powers (varying, generally, from 35 to 150 W); even if, in general, they have poor qualitative peculiarities, i.e. a not very high efficiency and a considerable glare (see also Sec. 4).

The anti-LP light fittings features have to be declared in the technical documentation to be provided by the firms producing light fittings together with the conformity certification and the results obtained from photometric measurements [47]. Moreover, a recent bill [29] provides for the institution of a new skilled worker holding the position of an engineer specialized for designing new lighting systems, for working out plans concerning the adaptation of existing systems, and, finally, for taking measurements and checking in order to certie the observance of national and regional rules.

Both the regional laws and the UN1 10819 standard adopt zoning criteria of the national territory and identify more or less extensive areas in which the upward scattering of the luminous flux is meant to be restricted, with particular attention paid to the areas pertaining to astronomical observatories. As regards this, it is interesting to observe the introduction of new urbanistic tools the Regions and Municipalities will have to be supplied with in order to control and reduce LP:


PRPIL, Light Pollution Prevention Regional Plan; PRIC, Public Lighting Municipal Plan.

In particular, the PRIC is a programming tool for the realization and administration of public lighting systems and for the adaptation of the existing systems; it pursues the following aims [9,44]:

safety for vehicular traffic and people; reduction in LP; energy saving; improvement of life quality and fruition conditions of urban areas as well as

of environmental, monumental and architectonical heritage; = optimization of operation and maintenance costs.

As far as zoning criteria are concerned, Lombardia region [39, 46, 471, for example, identified professional and non-professional astronomical observatories and the relative pertinent areas in which criteria of peculiar protection are to be adopted against the LP (see Fig. 2): a. - zone having its centre in professional astronomical observatories with radius not inferior to 25 Km, in which upward light emissions are to be drastically reduced; b. - zone having its centre in astronomical observatories of regional importance with radius not inferior to 15 Km, in which upward light emissions are to be reduced, on an average, by 55-60%; c. - zone having its centre in astronomical observatories of provincial importance with radius not inferior to 10 Km, in which upward light emissions are to be reduced, on an average, by 50%.

Merale (LC) Brera Astmn. Obs. Magasa (BSI Cima Rest Astron. Ohs. Lumezme (BS) "S. Zani" kstron. Ohs. Somano (CO) Astron. Obs. Camp dei Fiori (VA) %.V. Schiapparelli" Astron. Obs. Aviatico (BC) Prealpi Orobichc Astron. Obs. Castione dells Presolana (BC) 'Presolana" Astron. O b . Covo (BC) Shmu Astron. Obs. Brcscia (BS) Civica Specola Cidnea Aslron. Oh. Bassano Bresciano (BS) Private Obs. Muzzate (CO) New Millennium Ohs. Cremona (CR) Gruppo Astrofili Cremonesi Social Obs. Soresina (CR) Public Obs. Lodigiano (LO) Prov. Astron. Obs. Gorgo San Benedctto PO (MN) Asuon. Obs. Legnano (MI) Town Ohs. Brugherio (MI) "A. Grosso" Social Obs. Pontc in Vallellina (SO) 'Q. Piazzi" Public O h .

Figure 2: Astronomical Observatories distribution within Lombardia region 1461.


Regional laws contemplate restrictions on the use of spotlights, floodlights, and rotating beams generally used for the lighting of advertising signs, buildings and historical monuments, sporting plants, and also suggests using top-down swinging or inclinable light fittings so that the output luminous flux could be contained within the perimeter of the illuminated object. Inadequate and highly polluting are considered to be traditional light fittings such as globes and lanterns, widely used in the historic centres, which can be adapted by using shieldings for the luminous flux emitted upwards, or even replaced.

4 International rules

International rules, strongly influenced by the United States ones, are based on the recommendations of the IESNA and CIE [l, 2, 19, 22, 231. A justified "concentration" of acts and legislative measures, even of local type, aiming at preserving observation and astronomical research activities near astronomical sites and observatories of remarkable importance, is noticed (it is the case of San Diego city, in California, for Mount Palomar Observatory or of Canary Islands, in Spain, for the Institute of Asttophysics). The USA, in particular Arizona [48-521, owing to the concentration of important Astronomical Observatories, among which the USA National Observatory in Kitt Peak and the Multi Mirror Telescope on Mount Hophns, turn out to be, without any doubt, in the van of progress and distinguish theirselves for making definite choices which have been determining remarkable conditionings on design, production and marketing of light sources and fittings.

The city of Flagstaff (Arizona - USA) enacted the "First outdoor lighting restrictions" in 1958 and then the "First comprehensive outdoor lighting code" in 1973. More recently, the revised Flagstaff Arizona Outdoor Lighting Ordinance [52] encourages lighting practices and systems which will: minimize LP, glare, light trespass; preserve energy and resources while maintaining nighttime safety, utility, security and productivity; curtail the degradation of the nighttime visual environment. Besides, the City of Flagstaff, promotes, through the Lighting Code, the reduction in LP which interferes with the successful operation of astronomical observatories.

Similarly to the Italian regional laws (see Sec. 3), in the United States rules, too, territorial zoning criteria are generally adopted (see, for example Tab. l), with particular attention paid to the astronomical observatories sites, as well as energy saving criteria relating to the photometric characteristics of lamps and light fittings.

In order to minimize the LP phenomenon and to restrict energy consumption the New Jersey Research Commission [55] suggests, for example, the following:

using good-optical-control devices for the most effective and efficient possible light distribution;

using the minimum light quantity for satisfying recommended lighting levels;

using, where required and as far as possible, shielded outdoor light fittings;


using, where required and as far as possible, low pressure sodium vapour lamps;

implementing (energizing) light fittings, when necessary, by using automatically timed devices;

providing for the turning off of some of the fittings constituting the outdoor lighting systems from 23:OO up to dawn.

Table 1: Zoning criteria and allowed outdoor light fittings in the County of San Diego [48].

CLASS I LIGHTING (COLOR RENDITION IMPORTANT) Lamp type

Low Pressure Sodium Other

Elements differing from Italian rules are represented, in particular, by the restrictive use of shielded or filtered devices and by the use of sodium vapour lamps only (preferably low pressure ones). The definitions of the shielding or filtering properties are generally included in the rules and can be resumed as follows [51, 521. m Fully shielded (or full cut-of!) means outdoor light fittings shielded or constructed so that light rays emitted by the fitting are projected below the horizontal plane passing through the lowest point on the fitting from which light is emitted.

Partially shielded (or semi cut-ofS) means shielding so that the lower edge of the shield is at or below the centreline of the light source or lamp so as to minimize light emission above the horizontal plane.

Filtered means any outdoor light fitting which has glass, acrylic or translucent enclosure of the light source reducing the width of the spectral range

(i.e. high pressure sodium, mercury vapour, metal halide, fluorescent, incandescent) Luminous Tube

Zone A (circular area with 15 m radius

centered on the Palomar Observatory)

Partially or Fully Shielded

Zone B (other areas within the County of San Diego)

Partially or Fully Shielded

Prohibited

Allowed

Fully Shielded

Allowed


of the emitted light (in particular metal halide lamps have to be filtered owing to their peculiar photometric characteristics).

The realization of public lighting systems by fully shielded fittings can unfavourably influence the installation geometry [16-171. In fact, in these cases, an interdistance, non-exceeding three times as much the installation height between two following fittings, is recommended in order to satisfy the minimum required lighting levels [20-231.

It should be noticed that the definition of filtered light does not appear on the Italian rules, even though this solution is warmly supported by the Associations of astronomers and astrologers, particularly for white light sources (for instance, metal halide lamps), widely used in public lighting (see also Sec. 3).

5 Conclusions

The LP is a broad term which includes urban sky glow, glare, light trespass and energy waste. The LP causes a detrimental effect on the environment, astronomical research, enjoyment of the night sky or causes undesirable glare or unnecessary illumination of adjacent properties.

It is opportune to prevent the LP phenomenon in order to protect the astronomical observatories areas, to preserve biological equilibrium in protected natural areas, to safeguard the night fauna and the avifauna's migratory routes. Technical standards and legislative measures regulating LP progressive reduction and control also contribute to limit energy consumption with the reduction in luminous flux dispersions and the choice of higher efficiency lamps. A careful design of the outdoor light fittings can improve their efficiency, correcting light emission and reducing the luminous flux ratio directed (scattered) to the upper hemisphere (vault of heaven).

The use of lamps having a light efficiency not inferior to 90 lm/W (it is essentially low or high pressure sodium vapour lamps), prescribed by numerous rules on LP, can involve strong conditionings on the design of light fittings owing to the large dimensions of such lamps as well as to the positioning of the switching-on integrated devices. Also notice that sodium lamps can be checked to be deprived of those photometric characteristics required by the peculiar visual task (for example, a good colour rendition).

An appropriate administration of the public lighting systems, including baffles and automatic timing devices to give light emitted control reducing luminous flux and turning off (partially or fully) light fittings in the nighttime, can favour a reduction in LP and a remarkable energy saving.

Rules on LP can, therefore, be interpreted as guidelines the designer should know and use throughout the design phases of light fittings and lighting systems. From the comparison of the Italian rules with the United States ones and with international recommendations on LP, it seems to be evident that the main differences are represented, in particular, by the restrictive use of shielded or filtered light fittings and by the prevailing use of low pressure sodium vapour lamps.


CIE 1- 1980, Guidelines for minimizing Urban Sky Glow near Astronomical Observatories, Cayrel R., Smith F.G., Fisher A.J. and de Boer J.B. Eds., IAUICIE joint publication: Paris (France), 1980. CIE 126-1997, Guidelines for minimizing sky glow, CIE technical report: Wien (Austria), 1997. Royal Decree n. 243, Regulations for the enforcement of Act 31/1988, 31 October, for the protection of the astronomical qualities of the observatories of the Astrophysics Institute of the Canary Islands, Madrid (Spain), 1992 March 13'~. Bill n. 1072, Inclusion of the starry sky in the Italian natural heritage. Rules relevant to the guarded areas about light pollution and establishment of astronomical observation sites, Italian Senate, Roma (Italy), 2002 January 30". Cinzano P., Falchi F., Elvidge C.D., The situation of the night sky and light pollution in Italy - ISTIL Report 2001 (in Italian), Light Pollution Science and Technology Institute: Thiene (Italy), 2001. Barra L., Energy efficiency in the final uses - 2001 April 24'h ministerial decrees (in Italian), La Termotecnica LVI (g), pp. 33-36, 2002. European Community Commission, Action plan to improve the energy eficiency in the European Cornmunify, COM(2000) 247 definitive, Brussels (Belgium), 2000 April 26Ih. Boffa C., Di Santo D., Tomassetti G., The point of the Italian Federation for the Energy Rational use (FIRE) on the energy efficiency decrees (in Italian), La Termotecnica LVI (8), pp. 4548,2002. Covitti A. (ed.), Guide on the outdoor lighting town-planning scheme (in Italian), Italian Ass. of Lighting (AIDI) ed.: Milano (Italy), 1998.

[l01 Candy P., The starry sky as mankind heritage (in Italian), Travel Factory: Roma (Italy), 2001.

[ I l ] ASSIL/Federeletttica, Guide to quality outdoor lighting (in Italian), ANIE: Milano (Italy), 2001.

[l 21 iGuzzini Study and Research Centre, Against lighting pollution, Editoriale Domus: Milano (Italy), 1999.

[l31 Crawford D.L., Light pollution: the problem, the solutions, IDA Information Sheet, n. 134, pp. 1-3, February 1998.

[l41 Di Sora M,, The right of a pure sky: the astronomers' point of view on light pollution (in Italian), ARREDO&C17TAi, 11 (l), pp. 2-5, 1998.

[l51 Cinzano P., Light pollution and night sky protection (in Italian) Istituto Veneto di Scienze Lettere ed Arti: Venezia (Italy), 1997.

[l61 Kosiorek A.S., Exterior lighting: glare and light trespass, IDA Info. Sheet, n. 76, pp. 1-2, July 1996.

[l71 Leccese F., Tuoni G., The rules on light pollution such as design tool (in Italian), Proc. of the Nut. Congress: "Light as innovation " - AIDI 2001, Perugia (Italy), AIDI ed.: Milano (Italy), pp. 119-126,2001.


[l81 Leccese F., Tuoni G., The normative summary on light pollution (in Italian), Proc. of the Congress: "The rules on environmental comfort: state of the art and outlooks", Firenze (Italy), ATI-DPMPE ed.: Firenze, pp. 55-64,2000.

[l91 IESNA 33-99, Lighting for Exterior Environments, IESNA Recommended Practice: New York (USA), June 1999.

[20] UN1 10819, Light and lighting - Outdoor lighting installations - Requirements for the limitation of the upward scattered luminousjlux (in Italian), UN1 Italian Standard: Milano (Italy), March 1999.

1211 UN1 10439, Illumination technology - Lighting requirements of roads for motorized trafic (in Italian), UN1 Italian Standard: Milano (Italy), October 1995.

[22] CIE 136-2000, Guide to the lighting of urban areas, Int. Commission on Illumination technical report: Wien, 2000.

[23] CIE 115-1995, Recommendations for the lighting of roads for motor and pedestrian trafic, Int. Commission on Illumination technical report: Wien, 1995.

[24] Shaflik C., Environmental effects of roadway lighting, IDA Info. Sheet, n. 125, pp. 1-11, August 1997.

[25] Terzi C. (ed.), The plans of light, iGuzzini Study and Research CentreIEditoriale Domus: Milano (Italy), 2001.

[26] Fraticelli F., Palella A., Reveal the night - Or rather, light pollution reduction, WWF Dossier, D3 1 , November 1995.

1271 Endres L., Light requirements in the outdoor lighting of green areas, LUCE, 4, pp. 14-17, 1992.

[28] Bill n. 1572, Provisions on the subject offight against light pollution and of energy saving, Italian Senate, Roma (Italy), 2002 July 5".

[29] Bill n. 1269, Rules on light pollution prevention and reduction, Italian Senate, Roma (Italy), 2002 March 2oth.

[30] Bill n. 2403, Provisions for preventing andjighting against Eight pollution, Italian Chamber of Deputies, Roma (Italy), 2002 February 22nd.

[31] Bill n. 2231, Provisions for the location of areas protected from light pollution and for the institution of astronomical observation sites, Italian Chamber of Deputies, Roma (Italy), 2002 January 29'.

[32] Bill n. 1906, Provisions for light pollution prevention and elimination, for the correct use of energy resources and for the protection of astronomical and astrophysical observatories sites, Italian Chamber of Deputies, Roma (Italy), 2001 November 6".

[33] Bill n. 183 1, Rules for the protection from light pollution with the purpose of the sky astronomical observation and of the energy saving, Italian Chamber of Deputies, Roma (Italy), 2001 October 231d.

[34] Bill n. 697, Rules for energy saving aadjight against light pollution, Italian Chamber of Deputies, Roma (Italy), 2001 June 12'~.


[35] Local rule of Campania region (Italy) n. 12, 2002 July 25", Rules on the control of light pollution and energy consumption due to outdoor public and private lighting for the environment protection, for the professional and non-professional astronomical observatories activity safeguard, and for an appropriate exploitation of the historic centres.

[36] Local rule of Marche region (Italy) n. 10, 2002 July 24", Urgent measures on energy saving and light pollution control.

[37] Local rule of Lazio region (Italy) n. 23, 2000 April 13", Rules on light pollution reduction and prevention.

[38] Local rule of Basilicata region (Italy) n. 41, 2000 April 10", Lightpollution and preservation of the atmospheric clearness and stability in the astronomical observatories sites.

[39] Local rule of Lombardia region (Italy) n. 17, 2000 March 27", Urgent measures on energy saving for the use of outdoor lighting and of jight against light pollution.

[40] Local rule of Piemonte region (Italy) n. 3 1,2000 March 24", Provisions on the prevention and the jight against light pollution and on the energy sources correct employment.

[41] Local rule of Urnbria region (Italy) n. 27, 2000 March 24", Territorial and town planning scheme - Environmental and territorial risk (Head V ) - Light and electromagnetic pollution (Art. 52).

[42] Local rule of Toscana region (Italy) n. 37, 2000 March 21"' Rules on light pollution prevention.

[43] Local rule of Valle d'Aosta self-governing region (Italy) n. 17, 1998 April 28th, Rules on outdoor lighting.

[44] Local rule of Veneto region (Italy) n. 22, 1997 June 27", Rules on light pollution prevention.

[45] City of Frosinone (Lazio - Italy), Rules for the outdoor public and private lighting improvement by energy consumption controlling and light pollution reducing, Town Council Resolution n. 76, 1996 July 26".

[46] Regional Council Resolution of Lombardia region (Italy) n. 71261 1, 2000 December l l th , Updating of the astronomical observatories list in Lombardia region and determination of the relative pertinence areas.

[47] Regional Council Resolution of Lombardia region (Italy) n. 716162, 2001 September 2oth, Application criteria of the L.R. ~ 7 ' ~ March 2000 - n. 17.

[48] County of San Diego (Arizona-USA), Light pollution ordinance - San Diego County Ordinance - Sec. 59, IDA Info. Sheet, n. 56, pp. 1-6, July 1999.

[49] City of San Diego (Arizona-USA), Light pollution law - San Diego City Ordinance - Div. 13 - Sec. 101 (added October 1985), IDA Info. Sheet, n. 37, pp. 1-4, October 1997.

[SO] City of Tempe (Arizona-USA), Dark sky lighting ordinance - Ord. 90.02 - Sec. 25, IDA Info. Sheet, n. 55, pp. 1-5, June 1996.

[S l ] County of Tucson and Pima (Arizona-USA), Tucson/Pima County Outdoor Lighting Code - Ord. 8120 (passed March 1994), IDA Info. Sheet, n. 91, pp. 1-7, April 1994.


[52] City of Flagstaff (Arizona-USA), Flagstaff Lighting Code in Land Development Code (LDC) - Div. 10-08-002: Development lighting regulations (adopted November 1989, LDC revision April 1991), IDA Info. Sheet, n. 94, pp. 1-8, April 1994.

[53] Borough of Eatontown (New Jersey-USA), Eatontown Outdoor Lighting Ordinance - Municipal Land Use Law - Sec. 89 (passed May 1997), IDA Info. Sheet, n. 92, pp. 1-5, August 1994.

[54] Batinsey J., Comments and Options Concerning the Eatontown Outdoor Lighting Ordinance, IDA Info. Sheet, n. 93, pp. 1-7, April 1999.

[55] Batinsey I., New Jersey Light Pollution Study Commission Recommendations, IDA Info. Sheet, n. 121, pp. 1-6, April 1997.


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