nuclear waste pollution

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NUCLEAR WASTE POLLUTION

INTRODUCTION

Nuclear wastes arewastesthat containradioactivematerial. Radioactive wastes are usuallyby-

productsofnuclear powergeneration and other applications ofnuclear fissionornucleartechnology, such asresearchandmedicine. Radioactive waste ishazardousto most forms of lifeand the environment, and isregulatedby government agencies in order to protect human healthand the environment.

.

, .

,

Radioactivity diminishes overtime, so waste is typically isolated and stored for a period of timeuntil it no longer poses a hazard. The period of time waste must be stored depends on the type ofwaste.Low-level wastewith low levels of radioactivity permassorvolume(such as somecommon medical or industrial radioactive wastes) may need to be stored for only hours, days, ormonths, whilehigh-level wastes(such asspent nuclear fuelor by-products ofnuclearreprocessing) must be stored for thousands of years. Current major approaches to managingradioactive waste have been segregation and storage for short-lived wastes, near-surface disposalfor low and some intermediate level wastes, anddeep burialortransmutationfor the long-lived,high-level wastes.

diminishes,

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reprocessing )

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Nature and significance of radioactive waste
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repositoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repositoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repositoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_transmutationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_transmutationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_transmutationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_transmutationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_geological_repositoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_wastehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By-producthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_decayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waste


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Radioactive waste typically comprises a number ofradioisotopes: unstable configurations ofelements thatdecay, emittingionizing radiationwhich can be harmful to humans and theenvironment. Those isotopes emit different types and levels of radiation, which last for differentperiods of time.

, ionizing emitting: radioisotopes .

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1.Physics

The radioactivity of all nuclear waste diminishes with time. All radioisotopes contained in thewaste have ahalf-lifethe time it takes for any radionuclide to lose half of its radioactivityand eventually all radioactive waste decays into non-radioactive elements(i.e.,stable isotopes).Certain radioactive elements (such asplutonium-239) in spent fuel will remain hazardous to

humans and other creatures for hundreds or thousands of years. The shorter aradioisotope's half-life, the more radioactive a sample of it will be. The opposite also applies; The energy and thetype of theionizing radiationemitted by a radioactive substance are also important factors indetermining its threat to humans.[4]The chemical properties of the radioactiveelementwilldetermine how mobile the substance is and how likely it is to spread into the environment andcontaminatehumans.

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diminishes. radioisotopes

radionuclide -

(, ) decays. "" (

-239) .

radioisotope , . ; ionizing

[4]

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2.Pharmacokinetics

Depending on the decay mode and thepharmacokineticsof an element (how the body processesit and how quickly), the threat due to exposure to a given activity of aradioisotopewill differ.For instanceiodine-131is a short-livedbetaandgammaemitter, but because it concentrates inthethyroidgland, it is more able to cause injury thancaesium-137 which, beingwater soluble, israpidly excreted in urine. In a similar way, thealphaemitting actinides andradiumare
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considered very harmful as they tend to have longbiological half-livesand their radiation has ahighrelative biological effectiveness, making it far more damaging to tissues per amount ofenergy deposited. Because of such differences, the rules determining biological injury differwidely according to the radioisotope, and sometimes also the nature of the chemical compoundwhich contains the radioisotope.

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radioisotope .

-131 ,

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, radioisotope .

B.Sources of waste

Nuclear waste is produced from industrial, medical and scientific processes that use radioactivematerial. Nuclear waste can have detrimental effects on marine habitats. Nuclear waste comesfrom a number of sources:

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:

2.1 Nuclear fuel cycleThe nuclear fuel cycle, also called nuclear fuel chain, is the progression ofnuclear fuelthrough a

series of differing stages. It consists of steps in thefront end, which are the preparation of the

fuel, steps in the service periodin which the fuel is used during reactor operation, Waste from

the front end of thenuclear fuel cycleis usually alpha-emitting waste from the extraction of

uranium. It often contains radium and its decay products.

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. ,

,
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-emitting .

.

and steps in the back end, which are necessary to safely manage, contain, and eitherreprocess

or dispose ofspent nuclear fuel. If spent fuel is not reprocessed, the fuel cycle is referred to as

an open fuel cycle (or a once-through fuel cycle); if the spent fuel is reprocessed, it is referred to

as a closed fuel cycle.
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The back end

of the nuclear fuel cycle, mostly spentfuel rods, containsfission productsthat emit beta and

gamma radiation, andactinidesthat emitalpha particles, such asuranium-234,neptunium-237,

plutonium-238andamericium-241, and even sometimes some neutron emitters such as

californium(Cf). These isotopes are formed innuclear reactors.

, rods,

, actinides -234 ,

-237, -238-241 americium

, (Cf) emitters.

.
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Nuclear fuel cycle begins whenuranium

is mined, enriched and manufactured to

nuclear fuel (1) which is delivered to a

nuclear power plant. After usage in the

power plant the spent fuel is delivered

to a reprocessing plant (if fuel is

recycled) (2) or to a final repository (if

no recycling is done) (3) for geological

disposition. Inreprocessing95% of

spent fuel can be recycled to be

returned to usage in anuclear power

plant(4).

, mined

(1) .

reprocessing () (2) () (3)

. Reprocessing 95%

(4) .

2.2 Nuclear weapons decommissioning Waste from nuclear weapons decommissioning is unlikely to contain much beta or

gamma activity other thantritiumandamericium. It is more likely to contain alpha-emitting actinides such as Pu-239 which is a fissile material used in bombs, plus somematerial with much higher specific activities, such as Pu-238 or Po.

In the past the neutron trigger for anatomic bombtended to beberylliumand a highactivity alpha emitter such aspolonium; an alternative to polonium isPu-238. For reasonsof national security, details of the design of modern bombs are normally not released tothe open literature.

decommissioning americium . Pu-239

, Pu-238 Po

, -emitting actinides .

;
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Classification of radioactive waste

3.1 Uranium tailingsUranium tailingsare waste by-product materials left over from the rough processing of

uranium-bearingore. They are not significantly radioactive. Uranium mill tailings typically alsocontainchemically hazardousheavy metalsuch asleadandarsenic

3.2 Low-level wasteLow level waste(LLW) is generated from hospitals and industry, as well as thenuclear fuel

cycle. Low-level wastes includepaper, rags,tools,clothing, filters, and other materials which

contain small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity

3.3 Intermediate-level wasteIntermediate-level waste (ILW) contains higher amounts of radioactivity and in some cases

requires shielding. Intermediate-level wastes includesresins,chemical sludgeandmetal reactor

nuclear fuelcladding, as well as contaminated materials fromreactor decommissioning

3.4 High-level wasteHigh-level waste(HLW) is produced by nuclear reactors. It containsfission productsand

transuranic elementsgenerated in thereactor core. It is highly radioactive and often thermally

hot

3.5 Transuranic wastewaste that is contaminated withalpha-emitting transuranicradionuclideswithhalf-livesgreater

than 20 years and concentrations greater than 100nCi/g (3.7MBq/kg), excluding high-level

waste.

AFFECTS OF NWP

Environmental effects of accidents

Fukushima disaster

In March 2011 an earthquake and tsunami caused damage that led toexplosions and partialmeltdownsat theFukushima I Nuclear Power Plantin Japan.

Radiation levels at the stricken Fukushima I power plant have varied spiking up to 1,000 mSv/h(millisievertper hour),

[56]which is a level that can causeradiation sicknessto occur at a later

time following a one hour exposure.[57]Significant release in emissions of radioactive particlestook place following hydrogen explosions at three reactors, as technicians tried to pump in
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seawater to keep the uranium fuel rods cool, and bled radioactive gas from the reactors in orderto make room for the seawater.[58]

Three of the reactors atFukushima Ioverheated, causingmeltdownsthat

eventually led to explosions, which releasedlarge amounts ofradioactivematerial intothe air.[1]

Concerns about the possibility of a large scale radiation leak resulted in 20 km exclusion zonebeing set up around the power plant and people within the 2030 km zone being advised to stayindoors. Later, the UK, France and some other countries told their nationals to consider leavingTokyo, in response to fears of spreading nuclear contamination.

Chernobyl disaster

One of the worst nuclear accidents to date was theChernobyl disasterwhich occurred in 1986 inUkraine. That accident killed 30 people directly, as well as damaging approximately $7 billion ofproperty. A study published in 2005 estimates that there will eventually be up to 4,000 additionalcancer deaths related to the accident among those exposed to significant radiation levels.[16]Radioactive fallout from the accident was concentrated in areas of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.Approximately 350,000 people were forcibly resettled away from these areas soon after theaccident

The abandoned city ofPrypiat, Ukraine,following theChernobyl disaster. TheChernobyl nuclear power plant is in thebackground

Effects that nuclear explosion has1. Direct effect of a nuclear blast is damage to life and property. This explosion is most serious in

places of higher altitude. The blast range increases with height gain.2. The blast winds are much more powerful than a hurricane. So one can imagine the destructionthat it can likely have.3. A nuclear explosion releases large amounts of radioactive substance. This can cause damageto the eyes. The retina of the eye can either become blinded due to the intensity of the infra redrays or it can melt because of the high temperature release.4. The tremendous heat output will result in burn injuries, both to the skin and to the skeletalsystem.
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5. Gamma rays will cause metal wires to act as antennas and produce high voltage. This voltagewill result in permanent damage of wires and electronic applications.6. Earthquakes can occur as an aftermath to nuclear blasts. The pressure wave will travel fromthe underground to the area of explosion and cause a quake of great intensity.7. It will result in the death of many living organisms. Those that survive will show symptoms of

radioactive poisoning.8. In the survivors, gene mutation will occur as a result of the radiation. This mutation will bringserious health hazards for the future generations.9. The explosion will have negative impact on the environment and theatmosphere.

10. Every exposure to radiation increases the risk of damage to tissues, cells, DNA and other vital

molecules. Each exposure potentially can cause programmed cell death, genetic mutations, cancers,

leukemia, birth defects, and reproductive, immune and endocrine system disorders. There is no safe

threshold to exposure to radiation.

Management of wasteNuclear waste requires sophisticated treatment and management to successfully isolate it from

interacting with thebiosphere. This usually necessitates treatment, followed by a long-term

management strategy involving storage, disposal or transformation of the waste into a non-toxic form.[2

5.1 Initial treatment of wasteo 5.1.1 Vitrification

Long-term storage of radioactive waste requires the stabilization of the waste into aform which will neither react nor degrade for extended periods of time. One way to do

this is throughvitrification.[31]Currently atSellafieldthe high-level waste (PUREXfirst

cycleraffinate) is mixed withsugarand then calcined.Calcinationinvolves passing the

waste through a heated, rotating tube. The purposes of calcination are to evaporate the

water from the waste, and de-nitrate the fission products to assist the stability of the

glass produced.[

o 5.1.2 Ion exchangeIt is common for medium active wastes in the nuclear industry to be treated withion

exchangeor other means to concentrate the radioactivity into a small volume.
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o 5.1.3 Synroco The AustralianSynroc(synthetic rock) is a more sophisticated way to immobilize such

waste, and this process may eventually come into commercial use for civil wastes

Long term management of waste

The time frame in question when dealing with radioactive waste ranges from 10,000 to 1,000,000 years,

Above-ground disposal

Dry cask storagetypically involves taking waste from aspent fuel pooland sealing it (along with aninert

gas) in asteelcylinder, which is placed in aconcretecylinder which acts as a radiation shield.

Geologic disposal

The basic concept is to locate a large, stable geologic formation and use mining technology to excavate a

tunnel, or large-boretunnel boring machines(similar to those used to drill theChannel TunnelfromEngland to France) to drill a shaft 500 metres (1,600 ft) to 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) below the surface

where rooms or vaults can be excavated for disposal of high-level radioactive waste. The goal is to

permanently isolate nuclear waste from the human environment

Transmutation

There have been proposals for reactors that consume nuclear waste and transmute it to other,less-harmful nuclear waste.

Re-use of waste

Another option is to find applications for the isotopes in nuclear waste so as tore-usethem.[68]Already,caesium-137,strontium-90and a few other isotopes are extracted for certain industrialapplications such asfood irradiationandradioisotope thermoelectric generators.

Space disposal

Space disposal is attractive because it permanently removes nuclear waste from the environment.

Radioactive Pollution

Nuclear energy is a form of energy thats released by the splitting of atoms.

Since scientists have found a way to make use of the energy, it has also been used to

generate electricity. Nuclear energy has been recognized as a clean energy because it

doesnt release pollutants such BS CO2 to the atmosphere after its reaction that could
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damage our environment. Its also known that nuclear energy has reduced the amount of

greenhouse gas emission, reducing emissions of CO2 for about 500 million metric tons of

carbon. Despite the advantage of nuclear as a clean energy, the big concern is the waste

resulted from nuclear reaction, which is a form of pollution, called radioactivity.

Radioactivity is a form of radiation a (form of energy that travels through space).Some elements in this world are naturally radioactive while some others are made to be.

Radioactivity is emitted when a radioactive element become wastable and begin to decay in

the attempt to regain their molecular stability. When an element decays, it emits energy

and small particles. f its still radioactive, it will repeat the process, until it finally regains its

molecular stability and stop decaying. The time that it takes for halfway of decaying process

is called half-life, and this differs for each radioactive element.

It possibly takes up to 4.5 billion years (Uranium 238) and as short as 8 days (Iodine 131).

This process constantly remains, not thermal factors such as pressure or temperature. This

process is expressed ill units called Becquerels. One Becquerel is equal to one disintegration

of nuclei per second. There are commonly three types of radiation namely:

Alpha particles, can be blocked by a piece of paper and human skin. Beta particles can penetrate through skin, which can be blocked by some pieces of glass

and metal

Gamma rays can penetrate easily to human skin and damage cells on its way through,reaching far, and can only be blocked by a very thick, strong, massive piece of concrete.

Sources and Methods

We can classify major sources that lead to radioactive pollution to the following categories

nuclear power plants nuclear weapon transportation disposal of nuclear waste uranium miningUranium Health Effects

A discussion of chemical and radiological health effects associated withexposure to uranium and its compounds.

Chemical Toxicity

Exposure to uranium can result in both chemical and radiological toxicity. The mainchemical effect associated with exposure to uranium and its compounds is kidneytoxicity. This toxicity can be caused by breathing air containing uranium dusts or byeating substances containing uranium, which then enters the bloodstream. Once in thebloodstream, the uranium compounds are filtered by the kidneys, where they can causedamage to the kidney cells. Very high uranium intakes (ranging from about 50 to 150


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nuclear waste pollution

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