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The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o C (same as sun’s surface!) Enormous pressures keep elements in solid state

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Page 1: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

The Earth’s Core

Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel

Solid, innermost layer called the inner core

Temp reaches 5000oC (same as sun’s surface!)

Enormous pressures keep elements in solid state

Page 2: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Begins at a depth of ~5150km below surfaceRadius of ~1300kmSurrounding inner core is the second layer

of the core, the outer coreBegins at ~2900km below surface~2250km thickTemps range from ~2200oC to 5000oCOuter layer is in liquid state

Page 3: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Outer core thought to be reason for Earth’s magnetic field

Rotation of liquid metal core generates magnetic field

Page 4: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 5: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

The Earth’s Mantle

Layer of the Earth directly above the outer core is called the mantle

Extends to depth of ~2900km below surface

~80% of volume/~68% of mass found in mantle

Page 6: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Mantle is composed of mainly the elements silicon, oxygen, iron, & magnesium

Density of mantle increases with depth

Temperature & pressure also increase with depth

Temp ranges from 870oC to 2200oC

Radioactivity in mantle adds to earth’s internal temperature

Page 7: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Studies show that rock in mantle can flow like a thick liquid (like taffy or molasses)

High temperatures & pressures allow the solid rock to flow slowly, changing shape

Property of a solid to flow is called plasticity

Page 8: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 9: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 10: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

The Earth’s Crust

The thin, outermost layer of the Earth is called the crust

Much thinner than the cores and mantle

Similar to the skin on an apple in thickness

Made of three types of solid rocks:

-Igneous rocks -Sedimentary rocks

-Metamorphic rocks

Page 11: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic EarthThickness of Earth’s crust varies

Oceanic crust is less than 10km thick in most places (avg. thickness: 8km)

Made mostly of silicon, oxygen, iron, and magnesium

Mainly composed of an igneous rock called basalt

Page 12: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Continental crust has average thickness of 32km

Beneath mountain ranges, continental crust can be greater than 70km thick

Composed of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and potassium

Mainly composed of an igneous rock called granite

Page 13: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

The crust forms the upper part of the lithosphere

The lithosphere is the solid portion of the Earth, made of the crust and the uppermost mantle

Between 50-100km thick

Broken up (like an eggshell) into large chunks called lithospheric plates

Page 14: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 15: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Layer directly beneath the lithosphere is called the asthenosphere

130-160km thick

Made of hot rock that can flow (plasticity)

Lithospheric plates move around on top of the hotter, plastic asthenosphere

Page 16: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 17: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Under extreme pressure and temperatures, rock exists as a hot liquid called magma

Can reach the surface by:

- working its way through cracks in the crust

- melting through solid rock

When magma reaches the surface, it is called lava

Page 18: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Earth once had a single landmass that broke up into large pieces, which have since drifted apart

Landmass named Pangaea

Theory of continental drift authored by a German meteorologist, Alfred Wegener

Rejected by other scientists, supporters continued to collect evidence until acceptance

Page 19: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Evidence from Fossils

Wegener read article discussing identical fossils in both Africa & South America

Glossopteris- extinct plant: found in South Africa, Australia, India, & Antarctica

Seeds of plant could not have possible traveled such far distances

Climate of Antarctica must have been different millions of years ago

Page 20: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic EarthEvidence from RocksWhen Africa & South America “pieced”

together, rock formations on both continents match together

Glacial evidence also leaves traces on the rocks- same deposits/formations found on both continents

Glacial evidence found in areas with very warm climates: different climate than years ago

Page 21: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 22: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 23: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 24: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Question asked by skeptics: how could the continents plow through solid ocean crust?

No acceptable answer until 1950’s-60’s

New technology allowed better mapping of ocean floor

Discovered large system of underwater mountains with rift-valley system down center

Known as midocean ridges

Page 25: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Large amount of volcanic activity at ridge system

As ocean crust moves away from center of ridge, magma wells up and forms new ocean crust: cycle repeats

Process called ocean-floor spreading

Process helps explain how continents move

Page 26: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 27: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 28: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Ridges as a whole curve, even though individual section are straight

Straight sections offset by thin cracks where horizontal movement takes place

Called transform faults (think San Andreas)

Page 29: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

More evidence:

Drilling cores shows rocks get progressively older as you move away from ridge

Magnetic striping in rocks further convinced some skeptics

Magnetic minerals in magma were locked into place when magma hardened into rock

Why striping? Earth’s magnetic field reverses periodically

Page 30: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Minerals in rock were locked into position at that time, recording orientation of magnetic field

Pattern of magnetic stripes is symmetrical: same on both sides of the midocean ridge

Is Earth getting bigger?

Oldest continental rocks: ~4.3 billion years old

Oldest ocean crust rocks: ~200 myo

Page 31: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 32: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

All old ocean floor being destroyed at deep, V-shaped valleys called trenches in ocean floor

Process in which ocean crust plunges back into the mantle is called subduction

Areas where ocean crust is being recycled into the mantle are called subduction zones

Page 33: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 34: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 35: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Some of the melted ocean crust will rise to the surface and form volcanic mountain/island chains

As new rocks formed at midocean ridges, old rocks are being subducted at trenches

Earth’s crust remains the same size

Page 36: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

New theory of plate tectonics emerged from new evidence and continental drift

Theory of plate tectonics (links together ideas of continental drift and ocean-floor spreading) explains how the Earth has evolved over time

Helps to explain formation, movements, collisions, and destruction of Earth’s crust

Page 37: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Lithosphere broken up into plates

Often have both oceanic and continental crust as a part of a plate

Seven major plates:

- Pacific Plate - African

- North American Plate - Indo-Australian

- South American Plate - Antarctic

- Eurasian

Page 38: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Several smaller plates (still pretty big…):

- Philippine Plate - Nazca Plate

- Caribbean Plate - Arabian Plate

- Juan de Fuca Plate - Scotia Plate

-Cocos Plate

Even more pieces that are smaller than these…

Page 39: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 40: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Plates move at different speeds and in different directions

Most plate boundaries found on ocean floor

Some plate boundaries found on continents

All interactions between plates occur at plate boundaries

Page 41: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Three types of plate boundaries:

- Divergent boundaries (most often found at ocean ridges)

- Convergent boundaries (three types)

- Transform faults (boundaries)

Plate motion most likely fueled by convection currents in the mantle

Page 42: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

At divergent boundaries, new oceanic crust is formed

Page 43: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Convergent boundaries-

Oceanic-continental boundary:

When an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, one has to subduct beneath the other

Since oceanic rocks are denser, oceanic plate subducts

Forms oceanic trench and volcanic mountain chain (called volcanic arc)

Page 44: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 45: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Notice linear volcanic mountain range (Cascades) inland of subduction zone.

Page 46: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Oceanic-oceanic boundary:

When two oceanic plates meet, the older (denser) plate subducts beneath the younger plate

Forms a trench and a string of volcanic islands called an island arc

Ex.- Japan, Aleutian islands, Philippines

Page 47: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 48: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 49: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Continental-continental boundary:

When two continental plates collide, edges of contact fold upward (NO SUBDUCTION)

Forms large mountain ranges and plateaus

Ex.- Himalayas (Indo-Australian & Eurasian Plates)

Page 50: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 51: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 52: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Most major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in three zones around the world

Occur to due interactions and activity in earth’s crust in these regions

Page 53: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 54: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 55: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

An earthquake is the shaking and trembling that results from sudden movement of part of the Earth’s crust

~ one million earthquakes occur a year

Most too small to be felt at surface

Several hundred make major changes in earth’s surface

~ 20 a year make severe changes

Page 56: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Most common cause of earthquakes is faulting

Rocks break and slide past one another

Energy is released during the process

Page 57: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 58: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Faults can occur at the surface or deep within the crust

Point beneath the surface where the fault breaks/moves is called the focus

Directly above the focus, on the surface, is the epicenter

Energy waves from earthquake reach epicenter first

Page 59: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 60: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Energy waves produced during earthquakes called seismic waves

Three main types:

- Primary waves (P waves)

- Secondary waves (S waves)

- Surface waves (Love & Rayleigh waves)

Page 61: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 62: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

P waves travel the fastest; arrive first

Travel through solids, liquids, or gases

Push/pull rock particles as they travel through

Particles move back-and-forth in direction waves are traveling

Page 63: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Secondary waves arrive at location after primary waves

Travel only through solids

Cause rock particles to move side-to-side

Particles move at right angles to direction of wave motion

Page 64: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Surface waves the slowest of all waves

Originate at the epicenter

Move along surface like ocean waves (circular motion)

Surface moves up and down with each passing wave

Cause most damage due to bending and twisting of surface

Page 65: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Instrument called a seismograph is used to detect and record seismic waves

Record of waves is called a seismogram

Higher the peaks on the seismogram, the stronger the waves detected

Height of the tallest peaks used to determine the strength of the earthquake

Page 66: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 67: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 68: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Richter scale used to determine strength based on data and measurements

Prior scales used observations of damage done to determine strength: not always reliable

Each higher number represents an earthquake 10 times more powerful

Page 69: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 70: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Chapter 9 Earth Structure

During the passage through the Earth, speed & direction of waves change

Changes occur due to differences in the structure and makeup of Earth’s interior

At a depth of 2900km below the surface, P waves slow down, S waves disappear

Depth of 5150km, P waves increase speed

Page 71: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Chapter 9 Earth Structure

P waves slow down when travelling through liquids

S waves cannot move through liquids

So…..

Based on speed and motion of waves, scientists concluded Earth’s core made of two layers with different structure & makeup

Page 72: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 73: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 74: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Volcanoes are places where magma erupts onto the surface as lava

The lava erupts from vents (openings in the volcano)

Volcanoes may have more than one vent

Not all eruptions are the same

Some lava oozes out of vents quietly

Some lava explodes out of vents violently

Page 75: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 76: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/MSH/30210599-012_large.jpg
http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Imgs/Jpg/Rabaul/32022545-006_large.jpg
Page 77: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

The higher the silica content of lava, the “thicker” the lava & the more gas it can dissolve

Very gaseous lava tends to explode during eruptions

Low-gas/low-silica lava tends to flow easily

Two types of low-silica lava:

-Pahoehoe: ropy, hot, fast-flowing

-Aa: cooler, slow-flowing

Page 78: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 79: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 80: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Different types of volcanic eruptions form different types of volcanoes

Cinder cones:

Made mostly of cinders and other rock particles

Form from explosive eruptions

Not very high, with steep sides and a narrow base

Page 81: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 82: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 83: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Shield volcanoes:

Composed of layers of quiet, runny lava flows

Gentle slope, dome-shaped (cross-section)

Can be quite high

Can cover a large area

Page 84: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 85: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 86: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

The Dynamic Earth

Composite volcanoes:

Built up of alternating layers of rock particles and lava flows

Alternating eruption types build up large cone-shaped mountain forms

Often a funnel-shaped pit at top of cone called a crater

If top collapses/explodes, caldera forms

Page 87: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 88: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 89: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 90: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Minerals

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid that has a definite chemical composition and crystal structure

About 2500 different kinds of minerals

Page 91: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 92: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & MineralsMineral Groups

Elements oxygen and silicon make up ~75% of earth’s crust

Other elements found in large amounts:

-aluminum -iron

-calcium -sodium

-potassium -magnesium

Most common minerals made up of combination of these 8 elements

Page 93: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 94: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Rocks are the building blocks of the Earth

A rock is a solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally

-Some made of just one mineral

-Most are solid mixtures of minerals

In mixture, minerals keep characteristic properties

Few rocks consist of non-mineral matter (coal)

Page 95: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Rocks are placed into three groups according to how they form:

- Igneous

- Sedimentary

- Metamorphic

Page 96: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & MineralsRock Cycle

Interactions among Earth’s water, air, and land can cause rocks to change from one type to another

These continuous processes that cause rocks to change make up the rock cycle

Most changes take place over long periods of time

Page 97: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Weathering- process in which rocks are physically and chemically broken down by water, air, and living things to produce sediment

Sediment moved and deposited by water, wind, glaciers, or gravity

Sediment can be compacted and cemented to form sedimentary rock

Page 98: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

So a weathered igneous rock can become a sedimentary rock through the rock cycle

If sedimentary rock is buried deep, it will subjected to intense heat & pressure

Under extreme temp. & pressure conditions, sedimentary rock will change into a metamorphic rock

If temp & pressure increase, metamorphic rock may melt and recrystallize into igneous rock again

Page 99: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Other paths through rock cycle are just as likely to be taken

-Igneous rock can change into metamorphic rock

-Could melt and recrystallize into new igneous rock

-Metamorphic rock could weather and form sediments that become sedimentary rock

Page 100: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 101: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Igneous Rocks

Form from the crystallization of magma or lava

Different kinds of igneous rocks form magma or lava during crystallization based on location

Page 102: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 103: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 104: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 105: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 106: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 107: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 108: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Sedimentary Rocks

Begin to form when existing rocks are broken down into sediments

Consist mainly of weathered rock fragments, often transported to other places

After deposition, sediments eventually become compacted & cemented to form rocks

Page 109: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

Form when solids settle out of fluid such as water or air

Eventually become cemented to form rocks

Several major processes contribute to the formation of sedimentary rocks

Page 110: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Weathering, Erosion, & Deposition

Weathering often the first step in formation of sedimentary rocks

Chemical weathering takes place when minerals in rock change into new substances

Physical weathering takes place when physical forces break rocks into smaller pieces

Living things can cause both types

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Page 112: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Weathered sediments don’t often remain in place

Erosion- involves weathering and the removal of rock by wind, water, ice, or gravity

When any of these lose energy, the sediments settle out

Process called deposition

Page 113: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Sediments deposited according to size

Largest sediments deposited first

Smaller sediments deposited later

Some sediments are so small they are carried great distances before deposition

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Rocks & Minerals

Compaction and Cementation

After deposition, sediments are often lithified (turned into rock)

Two processes change sediments into rock:

-Compaction

-Cementation

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Page 117: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
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Page 121: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 122: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 123: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
Page 124: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o
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Page 126: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism means to change form

Often look much different from the original rock, or parent rock

May also develop a different composition than parent rock

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Rocks & MineralsFormation of Metamorphic Rocks

Most metamorphic changes occur at elevated temperatures and pressures

Conditions found a few kilometers beneath the surface and extending into upper mantle

Two main settings:

-Regional metamorphism

-Contact metamorphism

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Page 129: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & MineralsAgents of Metamorphism

-Heat

-Pressure

-Hydrothermal solutions

Rocks usually subjected to all three at once

Effect of each agent varies greatly from one situation to another

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Page 133: The Dynamic Earth The Earth’s Core Both layers of the core made up of iron and nickel Solid, innermost layer called the inner core Temp reaches 5000 o

Rocks & Minerals

Classification of Metamorphic Rocks

Classified by texture and composition

Texture can be:

-foliated

-nonfoliated

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