The Development of the The Development of the Roman ArmyRoman Army

The Most important Stages of The Most important Stages of developmentdevelopment

1 the Monarchy 1 the Monarchy 2 The Republic 2 The Republic

The Earliest Infantry and CavalryThe Earliest Infantry and CavalryThe Regal PeriodThe Regal Period

traditions about origins vary among ancient traditions about origins vary among ancient authors; we have little information about origins authors; we have little information about origins of the infantry; of the infantry;

Sources suggest that structure of early Roman Sources suggest that structure of early Roman army linked to the original three tribes founded army linked to the original three tribes founded by Romulus by Romulus

Multiples of three in later Roman military Multiples of three in later Roman military formation points to this original division formation points to this original division

The earliest regal armyThe earliest regal army

““[They are called] soldiers [[They are called] soldiers [militesmilites] ] because at first the legion was because at first the legion was composed of 3,000 men, the composed of 3,000 men, the individual tribes of the Titenses, individual tribes of the Titenses, Ramnes and Luceres each Ramnes and Luceres each contributing 1,000 soldiers.” contributing 1,000 soldiers.”

((Varro, on the Latin Language 5.89.1)Varro, on the Latin Language 5.89.1)

““After Romulus had founded the city, After Romulus had founded the city, he divided up those capable of he divided up those capable of bearing arms into military units. Each bearing arms into military units. Each unit consisted of 3,000 infantry and unit consisted of 3,000 infantry and 300 cavalry. The unit is called a 300 cavalry. The unit is called a legion because the men selected legion because the men selected were chosen for their warlike were chosen for their warlike character from the entire character from the entire population.” population.” ((PlutarchPlutarch,, Romulus Romulus 13.113.1))

The early Roman cavalryThe early Roman cavalry

We have more information in our sources We have more information in our sources on the cavalry than for the infantry;on the cavalry than for the infantry;

Association of horses in battle with the Association of horses in battle with the elite in the Mediterranean world; wealth elite in the Mediterranean world; wealth and property required to raise horsesand property required to raise horses

Not clear when Romans began to fight Not clear when Romans began to fight from horseback; Most likely this began from horseback; Most likely this began around 600 BCE in Etruria as consequence around 600 BCE in Etruria as consequence of Greek influenceof Greek influence

In accounts of early Roman battles the In accounts of early Roman battles the cavalry dismounts to engage in fightingcavalry dismounts to engage in fighting

The origins of the Roman cavalryThe origins of the Roman cavalryaccording to Livyaccording to Livy

At the same time [when the wars At the same time [when the wars against the Sabines were concluded], against the Sabines were concluded], [Romulus] enrolled three centuries of [Romulus] enrolled three centuries of horses. One was named Ramnenses horses. One was named Ramnenses after Romulus, the second was called after Romulus, the second was called Titienses after Titus Tatius and the Titienses after Titus Tatius and the last was known as the Luceres. last was known as the Luceres. However, the origin and name of the However, the origin and name of the last is uncertain.” last is uncertain.” (Livy 1.13.8)(Livy 1.13.8)

The Origins of the Roman The Origins of the Roman cavalrycavalry

according to according to Dionysius of Dionysius of Halicarnassus’ Halicarnassus’ “ “ After Romulus had established the Senate from one After Romulus had established the Senate from one

hundred men, he saw that he had need of a formation as a hundred men, he saw that he had need of a formation as a guard for his own person and for service in pressing guard for his own person and for service in pressing matters. He chose 300 men from the most distinguished matters. He chose 300 men from the most distinguished families who were the most physically fit. The curiae families who were the most physically fit. The curiae selected them as they had done the senators; each curia selected them as they had done the senators; each curia chose ten men and Romulus constantly kept them around chose ten men and Romulus constantly kept them around his person. They were called celeres, a name given them his person. They were called celeres, a name given them according to the majority of writers because of their speed according to the majority of writers because of their speed in carrying out their tasks. However, Valerius Antias claims in carrying out their tasks. However, Valerius Antias claims that they were so called because that was the name of their that they were so called because that was the name of their commander. This leader (Celer) was an extremely commander. This leader (Celer) was an extremely distinguished man, who had three centurions under him. In distinguished man, who had three centurions under him. In the city they followed Romulus about and executed his the city they followed Romulus about and executed his orders, and on campaigns they were in the vanguard and orders, and on campaigns they were in the vanguard and the king’s companion in arms. They fought on horseback in the king’s companion in arms. They fought on horseback in suitable terrain and on foot where the ground was rough suitable terrain and on foot where the ground was rough and unfit for cavalry.” (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman and unfit for cavalry.” (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 2.13)Antiquities 2.13)

The Servian ReformThe Servian Reform(6(6thth century BCE) century BCE)

Reform linked to adoption of Greek Reform linked to adoption of Greek phalanxphalanx

Greek Hoplite soldierGreek Hoplite soldier

The Greek hoplite phalanxThe Greek hoplite phalanx

Reflected social organization Reflected social organization ((at democratic Athens – equality)at democratic Athens – equality) BenefitsBenefits: close formation served as powerful force : close formation served as powerful force

on flat terrain – worked like a tankon flat terrain – worked like a tank Main striking power dependent on heavy thrusting Main striking power dependent on heavy thrusting

spear and momentum of charge to defeat enemyspear and momentum of charge to defeat enemy Shortcomings:Shortcomings: too inflexible on rough terrain too inflexible on rough terrain Spartans and Macedonian Phalanx more flexible: had Spartans and Macedonian Phalanx more flexible: had

units fighting with different armor and different waysunits fighting with different armor and different ways Sources do not tell us what formation the Romans Sources do not tell us what formation the Romans

adopted, but division into classes suggests that adopted, but division into classes suggests that Roman phalanx was perhaps more flexible than the Roman phalanx was perhaps more flexible than the GreekGreek

The 6The 6thth century warrior century warrior

Sources limited about equipmentSources limited about equipment Chest protector = kardiophylax (a disk of Chest protector = kardiophylax (a disk of

bronze 17-35 cm in diameter attached by bronze 17-35 cm in diameter attached by straps or metal band over shoulder attached straps or metal band over shoulder attached to back plateto back plate

Shield, probably wood or hide (non survived)Shield, probably wood or hide (non survived) Spearheads of iron’Spearheads of iron’ Evidence of thrusting spears and javelinsEvidence of thrusting spears and javelins Sword of iron, like Greek hoplite swords (short Sword of iron, like Greek hoplite swords (short

– widened towards its point)– widened towards its point) Italian sword – two-sided bladeItalian sword – two-sided blade

Greek Phalanx formationGreek Phalanx formationChigi VaseChigi Vase

Hoplite phalanxHoplite phalanx

Alexander and DariusAlexander and Darius

Polybius on the Greek PhalanxPolybius on the Greek PhalanxHistoriesHistories 18.28-32 18.28-32

Many considerations may easily convince us that, if only the Many considerations may easily convince us that, if only the phalanx has its proper formation and strength, nothing can resist phalanx has its proper formation and strength, nothing can resist it face to face or withstand its charge. For as a man in close order it face to face or withstand its charge. For as a man in close order of battle occupies a space of three feet; and as the length of the of battle occupies a space of three feet; and as the length of the sarissae are sixteen cubits according to the original design, which sarissae are sixteen cubits according to the original design, which has been reduced in practice to fourteen; and as of these fourteen has been reduced in practice to fourteen; and as of these fourteen four must be deducted, to allow for the weight in front; it follows four must be deducted, to allow for the weight in front; it follows clearly that each hoplite will have ten cubits of his sarissa clearly that each hoplite will have ten cubits of his sarissa projecting beyond his body, when he lowers it with both hands, as projecting beyond his body, when he lowers it with both hands, as he advances against the enemy: hence, too, though the men of he advances against the enemy: hence, too, though the men of the second, third, and fourth rank will have their sarissae the second, third, and fourth rank will have their sarissae projecting farther beyond the front rank than the men of the fifth, projecting farther beyond the front rank than the men of the fifth, yet even these last will have two cubits of their sarissae beyond yet even these last will have two cubits of their sarissae beyond the front rank; if only the phalanx is properly formed and the men the front rank; if only the phalanx is properly formed and the men close up properly both flank and rear, like the description in close up properly both flank and rear, like the description in Homer: Homer:

So buckler pressed on buckler; helm on helm; And man on man; So buckler pressed on buckler; helm on helm; And man on man; and waving horse-hair plumes In polished head-piece mingled, as and waving horse-hair plumes In polished head-piece mingled, as they swayed In order: in such serried rank they stood. [Iliad, they swayed In order: in such serried rank they stood. [Iliad, 13.131]13.131]

Organization of the Early Roman Organization of the Early Roman Army (after Servian Reform)Army (after Servian Reform)

Drawn from 5 (property) classes below the Drawn from 5 (property) classes below the equestriansequestrians

Armor and equipment according to what they Armor and equipment according to what they could afford: Class 1 round shield, cuirass, could afford: Class 1 round shield, cuirass, greaves, spear, swordgreaves, spear, sword

Class 2 no cuirassClass 2 no cuirass Class 3 no cuirass, no greavesClass 3 no cuirass, no greaves Class 4 only spear and shieldClass 4 only spear and shield Class 5 sling shotsClass 5 sling shots Below Class 5: Below Class 5: capite censicapite censi (no wealth) not (no wealth) not

eligible for military service except in certain eligible for military service except in certain emergencyemergency

Servian ReformServian Reform

Further division into centuries of 1. Further division into centuries of 1. senioresseniores (over age 46) for defense of (over age 46) for defense of citycity

2.2. juniores juniores (age 17-45) went to war (age 17-45) went to warVoted in assembly – Voted in assembly – Comitia CuriataComitia Curiata

by century by century

Changes in the Roman Changes in the Roman RepublicRepublic

Change to ManiplesChange to Maniples

Change to Maniples in 4Change to Maniples in 4thth century BCE century BCE Perhaps in response to fighting with Cisalpine Perhaps in response to fighting with Cisalpine

Celts/Gauls, but not clear; Romans defeated in Celts/Gauls, but not clear; Romans defeated in 387 by Gauls, probably raiding bands of warriors, 387 by Gauls, probably raiding bands of warriors, interested in lootinterested in loot

Gauls fought in flexible open unitsGauls fought in flexible open units Development took place over long period, stages Development took place over long period, stages

of development already obscure to Romans by of development already obscure to Romans by 200 BCE 200 BCE

By 400 BCE Romans fought at various fronts; By 400 BCE Romans fought at various fronts; much more bellicose and expansive than in earlier much more bellicose and expansive than in earlier periods periods

Maniple: etymologyManiple: etymology

““Their standards were of hay, but Their standards were of hay, but there was as deep a reverence as the there was as deep a reverence as the eagles now possess. They carried eagles now possess. They carried these suspended in bundles these suspended in bundles [[manipulosmanipulos] on a long pole and it is ] on a long pole and it is for this reason that the soldier is for this reason that the soldier is called a called a manipularis.manipularis. Ovid, Ovid, FastiFasti 115-117 115-117

Maniples are the smallest military units Maniples are the smallest military units that follow a single military standard. that follow a single military standard. Varro, Varro, On the Latin LanguageOn the Latin Language 5.88 5.88

Surpassing the enemy at their Surpassing the enemy at their own game own game

The Romans as pupils always surpassed The Romans as pupils always surpassed their teachers. In ancient times they used their teachers. In ancient times they used rectangular shields. The Etruscans who rectangular shields. The Etruscans who fought in a phalanx with round bronze fought in a phalanx with round bronze shields forced the Romans to adopt their shields forced the Romans to adopt their equipment and as a consequence were equipment and as a consequence were defeated by them. Later again, peoples defeated by them. Later again, peoples using the same shields as the Romans now using the same shields as the Romans now do and fighting in maniples were conquered do and fighting in maniples were conquered by those same Romans who had imitated by those same Romans who had imitated these excellent methods of fighting and of these excellent methods of fighting and of arming themselves. arming themselves. Diodorus Siculus, 23.2.1Diodorus Siculus, 23.2.1..

The ManipleThe Maniple

The single phalanx formation replaced by The single phalanx formation replaced by number of small phalanx-like units – maniplesnumber of small phalanx-like units – maniples

Arranged in 3 lines; in each line spaces Arranged in 3 lines; in each line spaces separate each unit which allowed for separate each unit which allowed for independenceindependence

Romans now fought by deploying lines Romans now fought by deploying lines successively instead of all at oncesuccessively instead of all at once

Resulted in much greater flexibility;Resulted in much greater flexibility; Accompanied by new equipment: short sword, Accompanied by new equipment: short sword,

large oval/rectangular shield – replacing heavy large oval/rectangular shield – replacing heavy thrusting spear and round hoplite shieldthrusting spear and round hoplite shield

The Fourth Century ArmyThe Fourth Century Army

Increased from 1 to 2 Legions Increased from 1 to 2 Legions Each legion in 3 battle linesEach legion in 3 battle lines 1. Line: 15 maniples of 1. Line: 15 maniples of hastatihastati (heavy infantry of (heavy infantry of

junioresjuniores, plus 20 light-armed soldiers (l, plus 20 light-armed soldiers (leveseves) with ) with spear and light javelinspear and light javelin

2. Line: 15 maniples of 2. Line: 15 maniples of principesprincipes (older and more (older and more experienced)experienced)

3. Line: 1. veterans (3. Line: 1. veterans (triariitriarii) 2 less experienced ) 2 less experienced rorarii,rorarii, 3 3 accensiaccensi

Later added? Later added? velites-velites- the youngest of the recruits the youngest of the recruits

The Republican SoldiersThe Republican Soldiers

1. Roman citizens: 1. Roman citizens: cives qui arma cives qui arma ferre possuntferre possunt = citizens who are able = citizens who are able to bear arms; based on census to bear arms; based on census qualifications; qualifications;

Length of service 16 seasons, not Length of service 16 seasons, not necessarily consecutive; between necessarily consecutive; between ages 17-46ages 17-46

509-384 BCE – often not enough men 509-384 BCE – often not enough men available for levy - due to pestilenceavailable for levy - due to pestilence

Republican changesRepublican changes Changes in levyChanges in levy Changes in conditions of serviceChanges in conditions of service Introduction of pay (not a wage but a compensation for Introduction of pay (not a wage but a compensation for

the service)the service) Tributum – military tax – changed views of how to pay Tributum – military tax – changed views of how to pay

for military expensesfor military expenses State provided military equipment as property State provided military equipment as property

requirements reduced to increase available soldiersrequirements reduced to increase available soldiers Shift of levy away from Servian census qualifications Shift of levy away from Servian census qualifications

became based on tribes citizens were enrolled inbecame based on tribes citizens were enrolled in Important bond that had bound the military century Important bond that had bound the military century

(original division) in its political aspect to its military (original division) in its political aspect to its military Contributed to social and political unrest and changes Contributed to social and political unrest and changes

The Republican Levy according The Republican Levy according to Livy 6.19.5-21to Livy 6.19.5-21

When the consuls in office wish to hold a levy they When the consuls in office wish to hold a levy they announce to the people that day on which all men of announce to the people that day on which all men of military age must assemble. His is done each year. On the military age must assemble. His is done each year. On the appointed day, when those fit for service have arrived in appointed day, when those fit for service have arrived in Rome and after they have assembled on the Capitoline, the Rome and after they have assembled on the Capitoline, the more junior tribunes divide themselves up in the order in more junior tribunes divide themselves up in the order in which they were elected or appointed by the consuls into which they were elected or appointed by the consuls into four groups, because the primary division of their force is four groups, because the primary division of their force is into four parts. They assign the four tribunes elected first to into four parts. They assign the four tribunes elected first to the first legion, the next three to the second, the following the first legion, the next three to the second, the following four to the third and the last three to the fourth legion. The four to the third and the last three to the fourth legion. The first two senior tribunes are assigned to the first legion, the first two senior tribunes are assigned to the first legion, the next three to the second. Then two are assigned to the next three to the second. Then two are assigned to the third and the last three to the fourth. Such is the division third and the last three to the fourth. Such is the division and assignment of the tribunes that each legion has the and assignment of the tribunes that each legion has the same number of tribunessame number of tribunes

Livy continuedLivy continued After this, the tribunes have separated and been After this, the tribunes have separated and been

grouped according to the legion to which they are grouped according to the legion to which they are assigned. They summon the tribes one by one assigned. They summon the tribes one by one according to lot. From the first tribe they select four according to lot. From the first tribe they select four young men as like each other as possible in age and young men as like each other as possible in age and physical condition. The four are brought forward and physical condition. The four are brought forward and the tribunes of the first legion select one of them, the tribunes of the first legion select one of them, then those of the second legion choose the next, …then those of the second legion choose the next, …etc. So with this rotation of choice it results that the etc. So with this rotation of choice it results that the men in each legion are approximately the same. men in each legion are approximately the same. They continue until they reach the required number They continue until they reach the required number of men, that is 4,200, sometimes 5,000, when the of men, that is 4,200, sometimes 5,000, when the situation is especially serious. They used to choose situation is especially serious. They used to choose the cavalry last; now they do it first, and the the cavalry last; now they do it first, and the selection is now done by the censor on the basis of selection is now done by the censor on the basis of wealth, with 300 assigned to each legion.wealth, with 300 assigned to each legion.

The allied SoldiersThe allied Soldiers

Alae Sociorum (troops of the allies) Alae Sociorum (troops of the allies) Latins and Italians;Latins and Italians;

Usually same numbers as the Roman Usually same numbers as the Roman legions; allied cavalry three times legions; allied cavalry three times largerlarger

Allied troops commanded by Roman Allied troops commanded by Roman praefecti sociorum praefecti sociorum

The First Century CEThe First Century CEchanges by Gaius Marius; Marius’ Muleschanges by Gaius Marius; Marius’ Mules

First to recruit First to recruit capite censicapite censi (landless not eligible for military (landless not eligible for military service) for his African Campaign in 106 BCE service) for his African Campaign in 106 BCE

Opened option of semi-professional armyOpened option of semi-professional army Became standard after this (census levy continued at least to the Became standard after this (census levy continued at least to the

40s BCE)40s BCE) Capite censiCapite censi only recruited previously during emergencies only recruited previously during emergencies Changed formation from manipular to cohortsChanged formation from manipular to cohorts Previously used in 2Previously used in 2ndnd Punic War (made up of 3 maniples) on Punic War (made up of 3 maniples) on

temporary basistemporary basis Characteristic of cohort: uniform equipment and trainingCharacteristic of cohort: uniform equipment and training Simplified command structureSimplified command structure Only 10 cohorts (10 officers) carried equipment and rations for Only 10 cohorts (10 officers) carried equipment and rations for

several days; increased mobility, self-sufficiency, several days; increased mobility, self-sufficiency, We do not know the exact details of new formation and command We do not know the exact details of new formation and command

structurestructure Marius responsible for cultivating strong identity of individual Marius responsible for cultivating strong identity of individual

legions legions

The cohort The cohort

[Scipio] taking the three leading turmae of [Scipio] taking the three leading turmae of cavalry, and placing in front of them the cavalry, and placing in front of them the usual number of velites and three maniples usual number of velites and three maniples – the Romans call this a cohort – from his – the Romans call this a cohort – from his right wing, while Marcius and Junius took right wing, while Marcius and Junius took the same units from the left, he advanced the same units from the left, he advanced straight against the enemy, wheeling his straight against the enemy, wheeling his men to the left while Marcius and Junius men to the left while Marcius and Junius wheeled their troops to the right. The units wheeled their troops to the right. The units immediately follwin gthem wheeled in turn. immediately follwin gthem wheeled in turn. ((Polybius, Histories 11.23.1-2Polybius, Histories 11.23.1-2))

Marius’ volunteersMarius’ volunteers ““[Marius] enrolled soldiers, not according to [Marius] enrolled soldiers, not according to

the classes in the manner of our forefathers, the classes in the manner of our forefathers, but allowing anyone to volunteer, for the but allowing anyone to volunteer, for the most part of the proletariat. Some say that most part of the proletariat. Some say that he did this through lack of good men, others he did this through lack of good men, others because of a desire to curry favor, since because of a desire to curry favor, since that class had given him honor and rank. As that class had given him honor and rank. As a matter of fact, to one who aspires to a matter of fact, to one who aspires to power the poorest man is the most helpful, power the poorest man is the most helpful, since he has no regard for his property, since he has no regard for his property, having none, and considers anything having none, and considers anything honorable for which he receives pay.” honorable for which he receives pay.” (Sallus, (Sallus, The War with JugurthaThe War with Jugurtha 86.2-3) 86.2-3)

Consequences of the Civil WarsConsequences of the Civil Warsexample of the Fimbriansexample of the Fimbrians

Tendency of armies to changed loyalty from state to individual successful Tendency of armies to changed loyalty from state to individual successful generals; disintegration of armiesgenerals; disintegration of armies

i.e. consul Quintus Pompeius when instructed by Senate to take command i.e. consul Quintus Pompeius when instructed by Senate to take command of army, was murdered by a group of hostile soldiers the moment he began of army, was murdered by a group of hostile soldiers the moment he began to take over his duties (Plutarch, Life of Sulla)to take over his duties (Plutarch, Life of Sulla)

i.e. i.e. The so-called FimbrianiThe so-called Fimbriani: men commanded by L. Valerius Flaccus in : men commanded by L. Valerius Flaccus in 86 BC switched allegiance to Gaius Flavius Fimbria after Fimbria murdered 86 BC switched allegiance to Gaius Flavius Fimbria after Fimbria murdered their commander.Fimbria had been sent from Rome as Flaccus’ legate, but their commander.Fimbria had been sent from Rome as Flaccus’ legate, but Fimbria had conflict with him, since he was unwilling to use any means to Fimbria had conflict with him, since he was unwilling to use any means to defeat cities loyal to Mithridates and did not allow the indiscriminate defeat cities loyal to Mithridates and did not allow the indiscriminate pillage of the Greek city states. When Sulla, the enemy of Fimbria emerged pillage of the Greek city states. When Sulla, the enemy of Fimbria emerged as winner against Mithridates marched against Fimbria, legions abandoned as winner against Mithridates marched against Fimbria, legions abandoned their commander in his tent and swore allegiance to Sulla. Frimbria their commander in his tent and swore allegiance to Sulla. Frimbria committed suicide committed suicide

In the 70s the Fimbriani under commander Lucius Lucullus – they In the 70s the Fimbriani under commander Lucius Lucullus – they abandoned him in 67 BC for Pompeius Magnus – very treacherous.abandoned him in 67 BC for Pompeius Magnus – very treacherous.

Goal of soldiers began to be twofold: associated with winner, receive Goal of soldiers began to be twofold: associated with winner, receive highest economic benefits: Plunder, loot, pillaging highest economic benefits: Plunder, loot, pillaging

When 10,000 of Marius men did in a clash, 6,000 survivors deserted, rest When 10,000 of Marius men did in a clash, 6,000 survivors deserted, rest of army disintegrated - loyalty was cheap of army disintegrated - loyalty was cheap

The impact of the Social WarThe impact of the Social War

Grant of citizenship to Italian allies; Grant of citizenship to Italian allies; Alae Alae SociorumSociorum disappeared disappeared

troops recruited from native people at the troops recruited from native people at the frontiers and in provincesfrontiers and in provinces

Germans, Numidians, Gauls – cavalryGermans, Numidians, Gauls – cavalry Archers from CreteArchers from Crete Slingers from the BalkansSlingers from the Balkans Caesar used Gauls who fought under their Caesar used Gauls who fought under their

own leadersown leaders Allied troops not organized in standard Allied troops not organized in standard

units; that followed under the principate …units; that followed under the principate …