The definition of Orientalism • Said14 (1978) argued that European culture gained in

strength and identity by setting itself of against the

Orient as a sort of surrogate and even underground self,

defining Orientalism as a Western style for

dominating, restructuring, and having

authority over the Orient. He presented the

important hypothesis in his book, Orientalism, that

without examining Orientalism as a discourse one

cannot possibly understand the enormously systematic

discipline by which European culture was able to

manage--and even produce--the Orient (Said, 1978).

Orientalism by Edward Said ①①①① • Said’s Orientalism can be a critical tool to examine

the validity of all the literature on the East written

by the Westerners. Influenced by the imperialism

and colonialism of the 19th century, Western

people became interested in the natives and the

cultures of Western colonies.

• This led to the advent of anthropology as related

to Darwinian Evolutionism12 and Hegelian

Progressivism in The Philosophy of History.13

Exponents of evolutionism believed that culture

generally develops and evolves from primitive

stages into advanced ones. (Nakamura, 1998)

•

Orientalism by Edward Said ②②②② • People who supported the Hegelian progressive

view of history believed that history is not

meaningless chance, but a rational process and

transition from the ancient Oriental world through

classical Greece and Rome and the Middle Ages to

the modern German world.

• These people are supporters of a Western-

centered linear theory of history and culture based

on a developmental dialectic. This theory led to

the Western-centered view of non-Western

cultures as inferior to Western cultures. This view

was to be criticized by Edward Said in his work on

Orientalism in the late 20th century. (Nakamura, 1998)

Said’s Conviction • Said (1981) emphasizes the following point:

• Underlying every interpretation of other

cultures is the choice facing the individual

scholar or intellectual; whether to put intellect

at the service of power or at the service of

criticism, communities, and moral sense.16

• To use Said's phrase, Benedict faces the conflict;

whether to put her intellect at the service of the

American power as an Orientalist or at the

service of an understanding of Japanese cultural

identity as a relativist. (Nakamura, 1998).

6

The Voice from Edward Said

at Cairo University in 2003

• You cannot deal with others without profound

knowledge of his or her culture, society and history.

• 他者や他民族の文化・社会・歴史への深い理解他者や他民族の文化・社会・歴史への深い理解他者や他民族の文化・社会・歴史への深い理解他者や他民族の文化・社会・歴史への深い理解

• Force never works, because you can never destroys the will of people and the power of people.

• 力や軍事力で人民の意志や力を破壊できない。力や軍事力で人民の意志や力を破壊できない。力や軍事力で人民の意志や力を破壊できない。力や軍事力で人民の意志や力を破壊できない。

• Idea is equality, coexistence and sustainable life. • 真の思想は平等・共存・何世代も続く未来の生活への保障。真の思想は平等・共存・何世代も続く未来の生活への保障。真の思想は平等・共存・何世代も続く未来の生活への保障。真の思想は平等・共存・何世代も続く未来の生活への保障。

• The present is our battle ground and knowledge is our main weapons.

• 現在こそ戦場であり、知識こそ武器現在こそ戦場であり、知識こそ武器現在こそ戦場であり、知識こそ武器現在こそ戦場であり、知識こそ武器

(Edward Said:2003)

The Clash of Civilizations by Samuel P. Huntington

• In the longer term other measures would be called for. Western civilization is both Western and modern. Non-Western civilizations have attempted to become modern without becoming Western. To date only Japan has fully succeeded in this quest. Non-Western civilization will continue to attempt to acquire the wealth, technology, skills, machines and weapons that are part of being modern. They will also attempt to reconcile this modernity with their traditional culture and values. Their economic and military

strength relative to the West will increase. Hence the West will increasingly have to accommodate these non-Western

modern civilizations whose power approaches that of the West but whose values and interests differ significantly from those of the West. This will require the West to maintain the economic and military power necessary to

protect its interests in relation to these civilizations. • Concluding paragraph of Foreign Affairs Summer 1993 by Huntington

The Clash of Civilizations ②②②②

by Samuel P. Huntington

• It will also, however, require the West to develop

a more profound understanding of the basic religious and philosophical assumptions

underlying other civilizations and the ways in which people in those civilizations see their

interests. It will require an effort to identify elements of commonality between Western and

other civilizations. For the relevant future, there

will be no universal civilization, but instead a world of different civilizations, each of which will

have to learn to coexist with the others.

• Concluding paragraph of Foreign Affairs Summer 1993 by Huntington

What Are Some Examples Of Orientalism?

• Orientalism refers to mannerism, quality, or customs specific to or characteristic of the Orient. Given definition of the Orientalism doesn't suffice for a complete reflection of the Orientalism, as Edward Said contends that Orientalism means more than sheer understanding of the Orient, rather it refers to a biased understanding of the Orient on the part of the west. Some glaring examples of Orientalism can be found in the following content:

• Firstly, the justifying principle of colonialism, which the west used extensively for its imperialistic designs, emerged out of Orientalism whereby the west conveniently declared the Orient "ignorant and dark" and to enlighten it the west embarked upon colonial expedition.

• Secondly, so long as cultural interaction started between the east and the west, one way flow of ideas and philosophy appears marked, the stream of flow has been from the west to eastwards. It again proves that under the influence of the Orientalism the west has been reluctant to open up its acceptance to the Oriental philosophy and ideas, rather it has been immensely concentrating on pouring the western philosophy and ideas generously on the Orient.

• Thirdly, the recent most manifestation of Orientalism is exhibited through neo-imperialism, under which the west led by the U.S.A. is invading the dark and ignorant of the Orient, to enlighten them.

• http://www.blurtit.com/q751105.html

Rightly or wrongly, one popular stereotype

of Japanese working culture

"Stereotype is a standardized concept or image of a specific group of

people. Stereotypes force a simple pattern upon a complex mass and

assign a limited number of characteristics to all members of a group."

Yellow Peril 黄禍論黄禍論黄禍論黄禍論

• Admiral Mahan of the United States Navy saw:

…Western world at bay, in danger

of losing its momentum and facing

the staggering task of assimilating

millions of semi-civilized people.

• (The Troubled Encounter(The Troubled Encounter(The Troubled Encounter(The Troubled Encounter: The United States : The United States : The United States : The United States and Japan, New York. Wiley, 1975, p.28)and Japan, New York. Wiley, 1975, p.28)and Japan, New York. Wiley, 1975, p.28)and Japan, New York. Wiley, 1975, p.28)

Stereotype

Stereotypeｓｓｓｓ

Stereotypes of British

Stereotypes of German

Japanese typography, Western

stereotypes about Japan

These incisive Russian cartoons call attention to the role the United States

played in helping to finance Japan’s war. In fact, the Japanese government

depended on large private loans raised in both New York and London to

meet its enormous military expenses.

Japanese Stereotypes. *Japanese are all small and

skinny. enjoyingjapan.blogspot.com

ヘーゲルの歴史哲学

• ヘーゲルの歴史哲学は，「哲学が歴史に赴く際に携えてくる唯一の思想は，単純な理性の思想，つまり理性が世界を支配し，したがって世界の歴史も理性的に進行する，という思想である。ヘーゲル歴史観は「オリエントでは一人のものが自由であり，ギリシア・ローマでは若干のものが自由であり，ゲルマンにおいてすべてのひとが自由となる」

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of

Capitalism (1904, 1905)ｂｙｂｙｂｙｂｙ Max Weber, a

German economist and sociologist.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

• Weber argues that Puritan ethics and ideas

influenced the development of capitalism and

brought wealth.

• Religious devotion usually rejects worldly affairs

but Protestant ethic accepted secular world and

addresses this apparent paradox in the book.

• Examples, (West Europe, North Europe and USA)

• How could he explain Japan’s case and China?

• It must be a challenge to analyze Weber’s book in

terms of Orientalism.

Beyond Orientalism and Occidentalism • Recrimination vs. Reconciliation

• worn-out dogma vs. Direct dialog and Contact

• Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism

• Racism and Xenophobia vs. Multiculturalism in L. D. Indoctrination vs. (Liberal Democracy )

• Colonialism vs. Cross-cultural Education

• Unipolarism vs. Cultural Diversity and

• Respect for cultural identities

• Trans-cultural and Transnational (supranational) perspectives, without losing individual cultural identities

and sense of human solidarity (Koji)

Beyond Orientalism and Occidentalism

• European culture gained in strength and identity by

setting itself of against the Orient as a sort of surrogate

and even underground self, defining Orientalism as a

Western style for dominating, restructuring, and having

authority over the Orient (Said, 1978).

• Stereotyped portrayals of Westerners appear in

many works of Indian, Chinese and Japanese artist

during this period. The Ideals of the East by

Tenshin Okakura.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

• In the book, Weber wrote that capitalism in

northern Europe evolved when the Protestant

(particularly Calvinist) ethic influenced large

numbers of people to engage in work in the

secular world, developing their own enterprises

and engaging in trade and the accumulation of

wealth for investment. In other words, the

Protestant ethic was a force behind an unplanned

and uncoordinated mass action that influenced the

development of capitalism.

The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

• Weber argues that Puritan ethics and ideas

influenced the development of capitalism.

Religious devotion, however, usually accompanied

a rejection of worldly affairs, including the pursuit

of wealth and possessions. Why was that not the

case with Protestantism? Weber addresses this

apparent paradox in the books.

• （（（（Wikipedia））））