The Brain and Cognitive Development

Chapter 3

Outline

• The Brain– Neurons– Brain Structure– Experience and Plasticity

– Objective: Describe the developmental changes in the brain during adolescence.

Outline

• The Cognitive Developmental View• Piaget’s Theory• Vygotsky’s Theory

• Objective: Discuss the cognitive developmental view of adolescence.

The Brain

• Suffice it to say the adolescent’s brain in changing.

• The adolescent’s brain is different that the child’s brain (Kuhn & Franklin, 2006; Toga, Thompson & Sowell, 2006)

The Brain

• Neuron-nerve cells, nervous system’s basic unit

• Neuron has three basic parts: – the cell body, – dendrites – and axon.

The Brain

• Dendrites receive information• Axon carries information away for the cell

The Brain

Synapses- gaps between neurons where connections between the axon and dendrites take places

They do not actually touch; but rather "hover" over each other.

Neurotransmitters are released from the pre-synaptic terminal (cell which is sending the "message"), and bind to receptors on the post-synaptic terminal (receiving the "message").

The cell will reset, so another synapse will be able to take place.

The Brain

• Synaptogenesis-dramatic increase in connections between neuron and synapses

• These areas are critical for higher-order cognitive functioning:– Learning– Memory– Reasoning

The Brain

• Blooming and pruning varies considerably by brain region.– Prefrontal cortex controls

• Higher-order thinking • Self–regulation• Judgment region that reins in intense emotions

– Do not reach adult density of synapses until late adolescence!

The Brain

Puberty-change in the neurotransmitters (chemicals) that carry information across the synaptic gap

The Brain

Click on the image to watch/hear explanation of neurotransmitters.

• For example, during puberty levels of dopamine increase.

Increases in dopamine have been linked to:

• Increased risk taking and use of addictive drugs (Stansfield & Kirstein, 2006)

• And schizophrenia (which occurs during adolescence).

The Brain

• The adolescent brain is changing structurally.– The Corpus

Callosum– The Prefrontal

Cortex– The Amygdala

Corpus CallosumNever fibers that connect the brain’s two hemispheres; they thicken in adolescence to process information more effectively

Prefrontal CortexThis “judgment” region reins in intense emotions but doesn’t finish developing until at least age 20.

AmygdalaThe seat of emotions such as anger; this area develops quickly before other regions that help to control it.

The Brain (94)

• The book ask, due to the information garnered in this research, should adolescents be tried as adults for crimes?

Piaget Theory (96)

• Motivated to understand their world because it is biologically adaptive.

• Construct understanding– Organizing their experiences– Categorizing information – Connecting one idea to another– Adapting thinking to include new ideas because

new information furthers their understanding

Piaget Theory (96)

• Schema– Mental concept or framework– Useful in organizing– Interpreting information

Piaget Theory (97)

• Adolescents Adapt Schema Through Two Processes:– Assimilation-the incorporation of new information

into existing knowledge– Accommodation-the adjustment of a schema to

new information (the schema changes)

Piaget Theory (97)

• Equilibration-a shift in thought from one state to another

• Adolescents experience cognitive conflict (disequilibrium) in their attempts to understand the world.

Piaget Theory (98)

• Four cognitive stages– Adolescences is the forth: Formal Operational (11-15)– Abstract thought– No longer limited to concrete experiences as anchors

for thought– Think about thought itself---metacognition

• Full of idealisms and possibilities– Ideal characteristics– Leads to comparing themselves with others

Piaget Theory (98)

• Formal Operational (11-15)– Full of idealisms and possibilities

• Ideal characteristics• Leads to comparing themselves with others

Piaget Theory (98)

• Formal Operational (11-15)– Hypothetical-deductive reasoning

• The ability to develop hypotheses, or best guesses, about how to solve problems

• The ability to systematically deduce, or conclude the best path to follow to solve the problem (children would solve by trial and error)

Piaget Theory (99)

• Formal Operational (11-15)– Could be two subperiods:

1. Early formal operational thought. –Unconstrained thoughts with unlimited

possibilities, –flights of fantasy, –often view world too subjectively or

idealistically• Assimilation is the dominate process.

Piaget Theory (99)

• Formal Operational (11-15)–Could be two subperiods:

2. Late formal operational thought. –Test their reasoning against

experiences–Intellectual balance is restored.–Accommodation rules.

Piaget Theory (100)

• Lots of individual differences regarding when/degree of formal operations – 17-67% of college students think on formal operational

level

• Differences in regards to content area• More likely to use formal operational in areas

in which they have the most experience• Expertise in areas may make possible higher

level thought

Realistic and Pragmatic Thought

• Cognitive Changes in Adult• Work---reality---causes changes in thinking• Constraints of reality results in a decrease in

idealism (Lobouvie-Vief, 1986).

Realistic and Pragmatic Thought

• Cognitive Changes in Adult– Adolescents often view world in terms of

polarities (right/wrong, good/bad).– Adults begin to move away from this polarity

(dualistic) of thinking (Perry, 1970, 1999).– Could be as a result of becoming more aware of

diverse opinions, multiple perspectives of others

Realistic and Pragmatic Thought

• Cognitive Changes in Adult– Need for more reflective, complex thinking as a

result of complexity of cultures.– Need to decide on world view– Recognize that worldview is subjective– Diverse world views exist (Labouvie-Vief, 2006)***Level of education greatly influences degree of

maximization of cognitive potential.

Postformal Stage 102

• Postformal thought:– Reflective, relativistic, and contextual—best answer

requires reflective thinking and may vary by situation.– Provisional—Growing skepticism of truth and final

answer (truth is ongoing search)– Realistic—Thinking not always abstract (often realistic

and pragmatic).– Open to emotions and

subjective—emotions/subjective factors can color decisions/perception of truth

Vygotksy’s Zone of Proximal (103) Development I (ZPD)

Knowledge is situated and collaborative.

Knowing can best be advanced though interaction with others in cooperative activities.

Vygotksy’s Zone of Proximal (103) Development I (ZPD)

Range of tasks that are too difficult for and individual to master alone, BUT that can be mastered with guidance and assistance of adult or more-skilled person.

Vygotksy’s Theory of Social Constructivism

• Emphasizes the social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction

• Students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more-skilled peers (Daniels, 2007)

• Teachers serve as facilitators and guides, rather than

as directors and molders of learning.

• Attitudes of those around students also influence students’ learning.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Piaget Vygotsky

Both Piaget and Vygotsky are constructivist.

However, Vygotsky is a social constructivist.

Piaget and Vygotsky

Piaget Vygotsky• Individual• End point of cognitive

development is formal operational thought

• Children construct knowledge by transforming , organizing and reorganizing previous knowledge

• Teacher functions and facilitator, guide

• Collaboration, social• Depends on culture• Children construct

knowledge through social inteaction

• Teacher functions and facilitator, guide

Information Processing Theory

• Developmental changes in information processing are influenced by increased capacity and speed of processing---or cognitive resources.

Information Processing Theory

• Biology and experiences cognitive resources.

Information Processing Theory

• Changes to the brain result in faster processing.

• The improved ability to encode and ignore material.

• To do so with little effort (automaticity)• And to generalize existing information to new

Attention (107)

• What is attention?• Selective attention• Shiftable attention• Adolescence allocate attention better than

children but worse than adults (Manis, Keating, & Morris, 1980).

Decision Making

• Brain development and its effect on decision making (emotions).

• Adolescents need opportunities to practice and discuss realistic decision making (Jones, Rasmussen, & Moffitt, 1997).– Role playing – Group problem solving

Critical Thinking

• What is critical thinking?– Thinking reflectively, productively and evaluating

evidence.• Many adolescence show self-serving biases in

their reasoning…duh.

Critical Thinking

• Cognitive changes that effect critical thinking during this period:– Increased speed, automaticity and capacity of

information processing– Greater breadth of content knowledge– Increased ability to construct new combinations of

knowledge– Greater range of strategies for obtaining and

applying knowledge

Critical Thinking

• Adolescence need better knowledge of:– Recognizing that problems exist– Defining problems more clearly– Handling problems with no single right answer– Making personal decisions– Obtaining information– Thinking in groups– Developing long-term approaches to long-term

problems

Critical Thinking (113)

• What is the problem? – Passive learning

• What is the solution?– Controversial topics for discussion– Conflicting accounts of an argument– Teachers should refrain from telling their own

views.

Creativity

• What is creativity?– The ability to think in novel ways and discover

unique solutions to problems. • Why is it important?

Creativity

• Convergent Thinking– One correct answer

• Divergent thinking– Many answers to the same questions

Creativity

• Promote Creativity– Brainstorming as many answers as possible– Introduce students to environments that promote

creativity.– Don’t over control– Encourage internal motivation– Introduce to creative people

Multiple IntelligencesRobert J. Sternberg (1986, 2003, 2006) developed the

triarchic theory of intelligence:• Analytical intelligence

–ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast

• Creative intelligence–ability to create, design, invent, originate,

and imagine• Practical intelligence

–ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

Multiple Intelligences

• Gardner’s Eight Frames of Mind – Howard Gardner (1983, 1993, 2002, 2006)

suggests there are eight types of intelligence, or "frames of mind."

Verbal Musical Mathematical Interpersonal Spatial Intrapersonal Bodily-Kinesthetic Naturalist

Emotional Intelligence (121)– Daniel Goleman (1995) emphasized interpersonal,

intrapersonal, and practical aspects of intelligence

– Initially developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer (1990)

• defined it as the ability to perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively (such as taking the perspective of others), to understand emotion and emotional knowledge (such as understanding the roles that emotions play in friendship and marriage), to use feelings to facilitate thought (such as being in a positive mood, which is linked to creative thinking), and to manage emotions in oneself and others (such as being able to control one’s anger).

Social Cognition (124)

• Adolescent Egocentrism– The heightened self-consciousness of adolescents,

which is reflected in their belief that others are as interested in them as they are themselves, and in their sense of personal uniqueness and invulnerability.

Adolescent Egocentrism

• Imaginary Audience– Involves attention-getting behavior– The attempt to be noticed, visible, “onstage”

• Personal Fable– Adolescent’s sense of personal uniqueness and

invulnerability– Makes them feel that no one can understand how they

really feel– Connected to risk-taking behaviors

Social Cognition (124)

• Perspective Taking– The ability to assume another person’s

perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings.

– Linked to adolescent egocentrism because perspective taking causes young adolescents to be acutely concerned about what others think of them.