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These were of two kinds: one with merchant trade-marks and the other with official stamps. The remainder of the cargo consisted of pewter goods, such as plates, large dishes, jugs, candlesticks and chamber pots. There was also a quantity of bronze spurs. Most remarkable of all were 600 lenses for eye-glasses to correct farsightedness due to old age.

Such cargoes tell us a great deal about the kind of trade practised at the time. Other ships that have been excavated car- ried ,cargoes of Dutch ceramics and clay pipes.

Harbour exploration has also given us vivid impressions of the kind of ship that visited the harbour and of the evolution of living conditions. A team excavating an area in Mmik harbour, for example, examined all objects in order to deter- mine whether there were any rules governing the behaviour of objects buried

in mud. The volume and specific weight of each object were measured and the depth at which it was found. Oddly enough, heavy iron objects were often found lying on the mud, while lighter objects had sunk quite deep. However, no clear trend, with a potential similar to that of stratigraphy in land archaeology, could be established.

The successful development of marine archaeology in Norway has been partly due to grants from the G. Unger Vetle- sen Foundation. The Norwegian state, however, has also gradually increased its financial assistance.

This has been an account of how a museum with limited funds has tackled the problems of marine archaeology. W e hope it has been of interest to readers.

[Tmzdated from Norwegian]

O & z Alpözen

Born in Izmir in 1940; received his degree in Classical Archaeology from Istanbul University. Joined the underwater excavations at Yassi Ada in 1962, while still an undergraduate, and continued to work on shipwreck excavations while an assistant at the Bodrum Museum and later at the Antalya Museum. In 1978 became director of the Bodrum Museum, which was officially named the Bodrum hfuseum of Underwater Archaeology the following year. His publications include articles on amphorae and anchors, Pampbylia, An Archatological G d e , and Tirhijede Sualti Arkeolojisi (Underwater Archaeology in Turkey).

The Bodrzcm Mzcsezcm of Underwater Archaeology

Bodrum is a town founded on ancient Halikarnassos, the capital of Caria in Asia Minor. Its great tomb built by the Carian satrap (governor) Mausolus was not only one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, but has given its name, ‘mausoleum’, to denote a monumental tomb in many languages. The tomb later served as a quarry from which the Knights of St John took building stones to construct a castle over the remains of the ancient acropolis of Halikarnassos. The construction of the castle was begun in 1402 and continued intermittently until 1513. The castle was finally sur- rendered to Suleiman the Magnificent on, 1 January 1523, without battle. Under Ottoman rule, it became one of the more renowned prisons. During the First World War, in 1915, the castle was bombarded and eventually abandoned.

Today the Bodrum castle houses a unique museum of underwater ar- chaeology which displays the remains of five scientifically excavated ancient ship-

wrecks, underwater finds ‘made by fisher- men and sponge-divers, and land finds from the vicinity. I t was begun, unoffi- cially, in the late 1950s, and in 1960 be- came a storeroom for underwater finds, especially those from the Bronze Age shipwreck at Cape Gelidonya, near Fi- nike. After this modest beginning, the castle was thoroughly restored, as a result of which it is now one of the sturdiest castles in the Mediterranean. Its English, French, Italian and Spanish towers, along with other areas, are now used as show- rooms. Although the castle was con- structed to make entry difficult, alter- ations have been made to allow visitors easy access. They come into the inner castle by way of tree-lined paths and wide steps; the inner castle itself is decorated with specially selected Mediterranean perennial trees and flowers. The holy trees of the ancient world-olive, bay and plane-provide shade for the guests. Upon entry to the inner castle, the visi- tors are greeted by a flock of pigeons

62 ORuz Alpözen

Diorama of the fourth-century Roman wreck. [Photo: Bodrum Museum.]

Mending glassware in the workshop of the B o d ” Museum. [Photo: Don Frey.]

which flap their wings on a whistle from a guard just outside the first gallery, the Bronze Age Hall.

Lessons about antiquity The Bronze Age Hall is housed in a structure which served as a chapel of the Knights of St John and later as a mosque for the Ottomans. In the apse of the chapel are large jars and pitchers from about 1600 B.C., excavated at Seytan De- resi, with large underwater photographs showing how the oldest scientifically ex- cavated shipwreck was uncovered. Along one side of the chapel are the finds from the shipwreck which sank at Cape Gelidonya about 1200 B.C. These finds are displayed in a manner which allows visitors not only to view old artefacts, but to understand the nature of the voyage. Copper ingots, for example, are arranged on sand as they lay on the sea-bed. On the wall above them is a large reproduc- tion of an Egyptian tomb-painting show- ing how these ingots were used as ingre- dients for making bronze. Each glass case holds a picture showing how the artefacts in the case were used: smith’s tools found on board, for example, are arranged with the illustration of a Bronze Age smith’s workshop; personal possessions from the shipwreck, which suggest the ship’s Near Eastern origin-cylinder seal, weights, scarabs, and stone mortars-are similarly grouped together with explanatory illus- trations as well as labels in Turkish and English. The illustrations thus allow visi- tors to learn who the owners of the Bronze Age artefacts were, and how the artefacts were used in manufacture, trade, and daily shipboard life. As in all the gal- leries of the museum, enlarged photo- graphs show how the excavation was conducted. Lastly, the opposite side of the chapel displays land finds from a My- cenaean cemetery excavated only a few kilometres from Bodrum.

Outside steps lead from the chapel to the knights’ dining hall which is now the Byzantine gallery. Here one can view ce- ramic, glass and metal finds from a fourth-century A. D. shipwreck excavated at Yassi Ada during the late 1960s. Be- cause this excavation introduced many of the modern techniques of underwater ar- chaeology, an aquarium placed in,a niche in the wall of the gallery holds a 1:20 scale diorama of the excavation in progress, with detailed models of the div- ing barge and its equipment, the grid sys- tem constructed over the wreck-site, lift- ing balloons and airlifts, an underwater

telephone booth, and a submersible de- compression chamber, as well as the three main types of amphorae carried on the fourth-century ship. A small compressor provides air for model divers and excavat- ing tools.

The Byzantine gallery also displays the main objects from a seventh-century By- zantine shipwreck also excavated at Yassi Ada, grouped according to use: boat- swain’s and carpenter’s tools, for example, are explained in cases separate from those which hold, say, the cook‘s materials. A detailed and accurate recon- struction model, the result of more than a dozen years of research, reveals the ship itself in the centre of the hall.

Amphorae, coins and the money economy The Spanish tower, better known as the snake tower because of the relief carving of a snake on its wall, is reached by a short flight of steps. The lower floor of this tower is used as a dispiay-storeroom to house part of the museum’s vast col- lection of amphorae, said to be one of the largest and most varied in the Mediter- ranean. The walls of the lower floor have been decorated with paintings of ancient scenes illustrating the purposes and con- tents of amphorae, and why they are found in mounds under water. Outside the entrance to the storeroom, an open- air exhibition of an ancient wine shop with its array of amphorae can be seen. Explanations and drawings tell visitors about the capacities of amphorae, and how long a labourer would have to work in order to purchase an amphora of wine in comparison with modern wine prices.

The lower section of the Italian tower is used for the display of coins and jewel- lery, both from land and under water. In this gallery, minting techniques, denomi- nations and values are displayed individu- ally. Generally, museum coin displays are interesting to numismatists, but can be rather boring to the general public. For the first time in museum history, however, we attempt to show the pur- chasing power of money throughout the centuries with a combination of coins and models. For example, in the sixth century B.C., one tetradrachma could buy an ox, but the same ox would cost eight tetradrachmas in the fifth century B.C., thirteen tetradrachmas in the fourth cen- tury B.C., and twenty tetradrachmas in the second century B.C. The economy of various periods, compensation doled out for the poor, what could be purchased for

The Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology 63

various sums, the cost of a slave for a single day, the cost of bread, meat and oil are all shown with the help of the mo- dels. The prices are compared with mo- dern prices so that visitors have a better insight into the economy and daily life of the past.

Recreuting the contexts of uuriozls uges The medieval gallery, in the lower floor of the French tower, is reserved for the display of materials excavated on an eleventh-century A.D. shipwreck at Serçe Liman. The gallery consists of two rooms. The outer room displays Byzan- tine cargo amphorae, Islamic glazed plates, fishing gear, millstones, weapons, chessmen and many other finds whose re- covery from the wreck is illustrated with colour photographs. An interested visitor can follow the complete process of under- water mapping, wreck excavation and re- covery of artefacts, then conservation, drawing and cataloguing of the artefacts which are displayed in the cases. Again, the purposes of the artefacts are explained with drawings showing how they were used in antiquity. The inner room of the gallery houses some of the tons of Islamic glass recovered from the wreck. The black-walled, vaulted room has no light- ing except for that in the cases, emphasiz- ing the forms and colours of the glass objects.

The upper floors of the French and Ita- lian towers are also used as showrooms. The uppermost chamber is the Hellenistic Period Hall which contains underwater chance finds brought up in sponge-divers’ nets, including two bronze statues netted at a deep site (80 metres) which was later located by sonar, and photographed from a two-man research submarine near Yali- kavak. How the statues were netted with the heavy, axled sponge-nets is illus- trated, with an actual net (kmguva) dis- played outside the hall (a complete gal- lery devoted to the history of Bodrum sponge-diving is now being planned).

The central room of the Italian tower is used as the classical period gallery. Above the door lintel an Ionic capital built into the wall bears the word ‘Italia’, a clear indication of the reason why the various towers are named after different countries. This small .gallery’s most im- portant piece is a part of the Skopas relief which once adorned the mausoleum, but which was later used by the knights as a building stone in the castle.

A sub-Mycenaean and archaic period

hall is situated on the middle floor of the French tower, with artefacts from the eleventh to sixth centuries B.C., including a number of archaic marble statues. A protogeometric krater (ceramic mixing bowl) bears a rare painting of a ship of its time.

The top floor of the English tower has been restored and furnished in the fashion of the 1500s. Visitors entering the tower on many special occasions are greeted by knights and ladies in six- teenth-century garments. Servants in medieval clothes present mugs of wine under candlelight, with medieval music and incense; this enables the visitor to appreciate the display with all five senses of the body.

Just below the top floor of the English tower, and in several other areas of the castle, are the laboratories, workshops, library, offices and storerooms of the museum. In these, glass, ceramics, and the entire wooden hull of an ancient ship are being conserved, photographed, drawn and catalogued by a large staff of Turkish and foreign specialists.

The courtyards of the castle are used for open-air displays. Anchors are ar- ranged according to their uses. Compo- site stone anchors are displayed on sand, whereas stone anchors for rocky bottoms are shown on rocks. Next to the stone anchors, lead anchor stocks are fitted to reconstructed wooden shanks and arms. Other areas of the courtyard hold am- phorae stacked in the same manner as they would have been in the cargo holds of ancient ships.

The main courtyard includes a rec- reational area where visitors can sit in the shade of trees and buy refreshments. Be- hind this area, one can see an erected no- mad tent containing the utensils, bags and weapons a nomad family might use. The guard of the tent is dressed in nomad style, and occasionally plays a nomad tune on his nineteenth-century nomad flute made from an eagle bone.

By the main entrance to the castle, what once was a casemated battery has been converted into an art gallery where contemporary artists and craftsmen dis- play their works in rotating exhibitions. Works of art acquired from the artists will later be displayed in the German tower. The museum, with its exhibitions, conferences and lecturers, and public edu- cation days has become a vital, selfire- newing institution, which, with the help of sponge-divers, seamen and scientists, has transformed the castle into a cultural centre.

BODRUM MUSEUM OF UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY. The Byzantine gallery. [Photo: Don Frey.]

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Drawing pottery from the sixteenth-century wreck at Seytan Deresi. [Photo: Don Frey.]