Chapter 8 Absolutism & Divine Right in Europe

Spain, England, France, Germany, & Russia

Aubrey, William Hickman Smith: “The National and Domestic History of England Vol 2” (1878)

The Tudors

The House of Habsburg or Hapsburg (also known as House of Austria) was an important royal house of Europe and is best known for being an origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1452 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian and Spanish Empire and several other countries. Originally from Switzerland, the dynasty first reigned in Austria, which they ruled for over six centuries. A series of dynastic marriages brought Burgundy, Spain, Bohemia, Hungary, and other territories into the inheritance. In the 16th century the senior Spanish and junior Austrian branches of the family separated.As royal houses are by convention determined via the male line, the Spanish branch ended upon the death of Charles II in 1700 and was replaced by the Anjou branch of the House of Bourbon in the person of his great-nephew Philip V. The Austrian branch went extinct in 1780 with the death of Empress Maria Theresa and was replaced by the Vaudemont branch of the House of Lorraine in the person of her son Joseph II. The new successor house styled itself as House of Habsburg-Lorraine (German: Habsburg-Lothringen).

Catherine of Aragon,• Catherine of Aragon, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of

Spain, was born in 1485. Henry VII was worried that England might be invaded by Spain, the most powerful country in Europe. In 1488 Henry signed a treaty with King Ferdinand of Spain. By this treaty Henry agreed that his eldest son, Arthur, should marry Catherine.

• On 14 November 1501, Arthur, who was just fifteen, married Catherine at St Paul's Cathedral in London. Five months later Arthur died of tuberculosis. Henry VII was keen that England and Spain should remain united and arranged for his other surviving son. Henry, to marry Catherine. At that time, Christians believed it was wrong for a man to marry his brother's wife. Henry VII therefore had to gain special permission from the Pope before the marriage could go ahead.

In 1509 Henry VII died. His son Henry now became king of England. It was very important to Henry VIII that his wife, should give birth to a male child. Without a son to take over from him when he died. Henry feared that the Tudor family would lose control of England. Catherine gave birth to six children but five died within a few weeks of being born. Only one child, Mary, survived into adulthood.By 1530 Catherine was too old to have any more children. Therefore, Henry decided he would have to have another wife. His choice was Anne Boleyn, the 20-year-old daughter of Viscount Rochford. Before he could marry Anne, Henry had to gain permission from the Pope.

Henry VIII sent a message to the Pope arguing that his marriage to Catherine had been invalid as she had previously been married to his brother Arthur. When Catherine discovered Henry's plans she informed King Charles (Carlos) of Spain and Emperor Charles (Karl) V of the Holy Roman Empire. Unwilling to have his aunt lose her position, Charles warned the Pope that he would be very angry if he granted Henry a divorce. The Pope knew that once he made a decision, he would upset one of these two powerful monarchs. In an attempt to keep the peace, the Pope put off making a decision about Henry's marriage.In January 1533 Henry discovered that Anne Boleyn was pregnant. As it was important that the child should not be classed as illegitimate, arrangements were made for Henry and Anne to get married. King Charles V of Spain threatened to invade England if the marriage took place, but Henry ignored his threats and the marriage went ahead.In September Anne gave birth to a daughter called Elizabeth.

While Henry was furious about having another daughter, the supporters of Catherine were delighted and claimed that it proved God was punishing Henry for his illegal marriage to Anne. Catherine was sent into retirement at Ampthill, Bedfordshire. Later she moved to Kimbolton, Cambridgeshire. Catherine of Aragon died in 1536.

Mlynde

Anne Boleyn

• Anne Boleyn, the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and Elizabeth Howard, daughter of the Duke of Norfolk, was born in 1501. Her father had high ambitions for his daughter and when she was only seven she was sent to Paris to be educated with the children of the French royal family.

• At thirteen she became one of the Queen's maids of honor. There was great competition to become a maid of honor as it offered the opportunity of meeting members of the nobility. Parents hoped that this would eventually lead to a good marriage. As maid of honor, Anne entertained the Queen by playing musical instruments and singing songs. She was also expected to make polite conversation with important guests at the royal court.

• In 1521 Sir Thomas Boleyn arranged for Anne to be brought home because England and France were on the verge of war. Boleyn hoped that Anne would now become a maid of honor to Catherine of Aragon, the wife of Henry VIII. However, Anne had to wait until 1526 before being granted the post. Anne was a great success as a maid of honor. She was a good musician and a talented singer. She was also extremely intelligent and her time in the French court provided her with a great deal of interesting conversation.

Henry seemed to find her very entertaining and was often seen dancing with her. It was not long before Henry VIII had fallen deeply in love with Anne. Ever since 1524 Henry had been planning to divorce Catherine of Aragon. Now he knew who he wanted to replace her with.

• Anne had strong opinions about religion. She tried to persuade Henry to give permission for Bibles to be published in English. Anne also introduced Henry to the books of Protestant writers such as William Tyndale.

• Henry sent a message to the Pope arguing that his marriage to Catherine had been invalid as she had previously been married to his brother Arthur. When Catherine discovered Henry's plans she informed King Charles (Carlos) of Spain and Emperor Charles (Karl) V of the Holy Roman Empire. Unwilling to have his aunt lose her position, Charles warned the Pope that he would be very angry if he granted Henry a divorce. The Pope knew that once he made a decision, he would upset one of these two powerful monarchs. In an attempt to keep the peace, the Pope put off making a decision about Henry's marriage..

• In January 1533 Henry discovered that Anne Boleyn was pregnant. As it was important that the child should not be classed as illegitimate, arrangements were made for Henry and Anne to get married. King Charles V of Spain threatened to invade England if the marriage took place, but Henry ignored his threats and the marriage went ahead. The child who was born was Elizabeth.

• In March 1534, the Pope eventually made his decision. He announced that Henry's marriage to Anne Boleyn was invalid.Henry reacted by declaring that the Pope no longer had authority in England. In November 1534, Parliament passed an act that stated that Henry VIII was now the Head of the Church of England, the Anglican Church.

• In January 1536, Anne had a son but unfortunately he was born dead. What is more, the baby was badly deformed. This was a serious matter because in Tudor times Christians believed that a deformed child was God's way of punishing parents for committing serious sins. Henry feared that people might think that the Pope was right when he claimed that God was angry because Henry had divorced Catherine and married Anne.

• Henry's solution to this problem was to claim that he was not the father of this deformed child. Soon afterwards, five men, including Anne's brother, were accused of committing adultery with the queen. Anne and the five men were found guilty and executed. Ten days after Anne was beheaded, Henry married Jane Seymour.

Jane Seymour

• Jane Seymour, the daughter of Sir John Seymour, was born in 1509. She was lady in waiting to both Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn and married Henry VIII in 1536.

• In 1537 Jane Seymour gave birth to Edward but she died of septicemia ten days later.

Family of Henry VIII

The following year, 1537, Jane died giving birth to a son. Henry now at last had a male heir, Edward VI. But the boy was sickly and frail.

Mark Twain will use Edward in his book The Prince and the Pauper

Anne of Cleves• Anne of Cleves, the daughter of John, Duke of

Cleves, was born in 1515. Jane Seymour, the 3rd wife of Henry VIII died in 1537. Henry now began to look for another wife. His Lord Chancellor, Thomas Cromwell, wanted England to form an alliance with the Protestants in Saxony. One way Henry could do this was by marrying Anne of Cleves.

• • In 1539 Henry was sent paintings of Anne but he suspected that the artist had

exaggerated Anne's beauty. Henry therefore sent Hans Holbein to Saxony to paint her picture. On the evidence of Holbein's painting. Henry decided to sign the marriage contract. However, when Anne arrived in England for the wedding Henry was very disappointed with her. Although he agreed that Holbein had captured her physical likeness. Henry did not like her personality.

• Henry divorced Anne in 1540 and married Catherine Howard. Anne was granted a pension and lived in England until her death in 1557.

Catherine Howard

Kathryn Howard was the daughter of Lord Edmund Howard, a younger brother of Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk. She was also first cousin to Anne Boleyn, Henry's ill-fated second Queen. She was brought up in the household of the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. As part of the Duchess' household, she would have spent most of her time at Lambeth and Horsham.Kathryn came to court at about the age of 19 as a lady in waiting to Anne of Cleves and there is no doubt that the spirited young girl caught Henry's attentions. Kathryn's uncle probably encouraged the girl to respond to the King's attentions and saw it as a way to increase his own influence over the monarch. The Duke of Norfolk also took advantage of the debacle of the Anne of Cleves marriage as a chance to discredit his enemy, Thomas Cromwell. In fact, Cromwell was executed shortly after the marriage was nullified.

• Sixteen days after he was free of Anne, Henry took his fifth wife, Kathryn Howard, on July 28, 1540. Henry was 49 and his bride was no older than 19.

• For all that can be said against this match, Kathryn did manage to lift the King's spirits. Henry had gained a lot of weight and was dealing with the ulcerated leg that was to pain him until his death. The vivacious young girl brought back some of Henry's zest for life. The King lavished gifts on his young wife and called her his 'rose without a thorn' and the 'very jewel of womanhood'.

• Less than a year into Kathryn's marriage, the rumors of her infidelity began. In a way, one couldn't blame her for seeking the company of handsome young men closer to her own age. But to do so, even if only in courtly flirtations, was dangerous for a Queen, especially one who came from a powerful family with many enemies. Kathryn didn't help matters much by appointing one of her admirers as her personal secretary.

• By November 1541, there was enough evidence against the Queen that Archbishop Cranmer informed the King of Kathryn's misconduct. At first Henry did not believe the accusations, but he agreed to allow further investigations into the matter. Enough evidence was gathered that the Queen had been promiscuous before her marriage and may have had liaisons after becoming Henry's wife. She was executed on the Tower Green on February 13, 1542 and laid to rest near her cousin Anne Boleyn in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula at the Tower of London.

Catherine Parr

• Catherine Parr, the daughter of Sir Thomas Parr of Kendal, was born in 1512.

• Henry VIII married his fifth wife, Catherine Howard, in 1540. The following year she was charged by Thomas Cranmer of having sexual intercourse before her marriage with Henry Mannock, Francis Dereham and Thomas Culpepper.

Henry now sought a new wife and in 1543 married Catherine Parr. She was a good stepmother to Henry's two daughters Mary and Elizabeth. Catherine also helped to moderate Henry's religious persecutions. Soon after Henry VIII died in 1547, Catherine married Thomas Seymour of Sudeley, but died in childbirth the following year.

British Timeline

1486 - Henry VII (Tudor) married Elizabeth of York uniting houses of York and Lancaster.

1487 - Battle of Stoke Field: In final engagement of the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII, defeats Yorkist army.

1502 - Margaret, daughter of Henry VII, marries James IV of Scotland.

1509 - Henry VIII, becomes king.

1513 - Battle of Flodden Field Scots are defeated by the English 1515 - Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop of York, is made Lord Chancellor of England and Cardinal

1521 - Henry VIII receives the title "Defender of the Faith" from Pope Leo X for his opposition to Luther

1529 - Henry VIII dismisses Lord Chancellor Thomas Wolsey for failing to obtain the Pope's consent to his divorce from Catherine of Aragon; Sir Thomas More appointed Lord Chancellor; Henry VIII summons the "Reformation Parliament" and begins to cut the ties with the Church of Rome

1530 - Thomas Wolsey dies

1532 - Sir Thomas More resigns over the question of Henry VIII's divorce

1533 - Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn and is excommunicated by Pope Clement VII; Thomas Cranmer appointed Archbishop of Canterbury

1534 - Act of Supremacy: Henry VIII declared supreme head of the Church of England

1535 - Sir Thomas More is beheaded in Tower of London for failing to take the Oath of Supremacy

• 1536 - Anne Boleyn is beheaded; Henry VIII marries Jane Seymour; dissolution of monasteries in England begins under the direction of Thomas Cromwell, completed in 1539.

1537 - Jane Seymour dies after the birth of a son, the future Edward VI

1540 - Henry VIII marries Anne of Cleves following negotiations by Thomas Cromwell; Henry divorces Anne of Cleves and marries Catherine Howard; Thomas Cromwell executed on charge of treason

1542 - Catherine Howard is executed

1543 - Henry VIII marries Catherine Parr; alliance between Henry and Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor) against Scotland and France

• 1544 - Henry VIII and Charles V invade France

1547 - Edward VI, King of England: Duke of Somerset acts as Protector

1549 - Introduction of uniform Protestant service in Edward VI's Book of Common Prayer

Edward VI• Edward was Henry VIII’s youngest child but first heir by the rules

of primogeniture, but because he was so young at the time of both his own and his father’s death, he had a council of regency ruling for him during his entire life. His reign was extremely important in the religious conflicts of the time because he was the first truly Protestant ruler of England. He was taught nearly exclusively by Protestants for his whole life. •

One of the reasons that Protestantism flourished in this time was because of the power that Edward’s main advisors had over him. One of his main advisors was the Archbishop Thomas Cranmer who virtually redesigned the English Protestant service in order to separate it from Catholicism. Cranmer achieved this with acts such as writing the “Book of Common Prayer” and appointing John Knox as a court Chaplin. The publication of this book caused the Prayer book Rebellion in Cornwall which lead to the slaughter of the Cornish rebels. The Earl of Warwick was another one of Edward’s influential advisors. He supported the destruction of Catholic Churches, the forced use of the Book of Common Prayer in all churches, and the burning of all religious rebels. Soon all unauthorized worship was outlawed. Before Edward died at age fifteen he changed his will so that instead of his Catholic sister Mary inheriting the throne, his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey would be crowned queen. Unfortunately for Jane Grey, she was not supported by the English people (because regardless of her religion and Edward’s wishes her reign was against English law) who had her declaration of royalty revoked after nine (or thirteen) days. Her cousin, Mary had her executed for treason shortly thereafter.

Religious Pandemonium in the House

of Tudor

• In the course of one hundred years the English monarchy changed England's national religion five times, an unprecedented development in European history. Each monarch changed a whole population’s religion to match their own beliefs; burning, beheading, and deporting anyone who stood in their way. This website is looking at why and how each monarch changed their subject’s religion, in the most concise and simplest manner possible.

1553 - On death of Edward VI, Lady Jane Grey proclaimed queen of England, her reign lasts nine days; Mary I, daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England (to 1558); Restoration of Roman Catholic bishops in England

1554 - Execution of Lady Jane Grey

1555 - England returns to Roman Catholicism: Protestants are persecuted and about 300, including Cranmer, are burned at the stake

1558 - England loses Calais, last English possession in France; Death of Mary I; Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn, becomes Queen; Repeal of Catholic legislation in England

1560 - Treaty of Edinburgh among England, France, and Scotland

1567 - Murder of Lord Darnley, husband of Mary Queen of Scots, probably by Earl of Bothwell; Mary Queen of Scots marries Bothwell, is imprisoned, and forced to abdicate; James VI, King of Scotland

1568 - Mary Queen of Scots escapes to England and is imprisoned by Elizabeth I at Fotheringay Castle

1577 - Alliance between England and Netherlands; Francis Drake sails around the world (to 1580)

The Execution of Lady Jane Grey by Paul Delaroche

• The Execution of Lady Jane Grey is an oil painting by Paul Delaroche completed in 1833. It is currently housed in the National Gallery in London. The painting portrays, erroneously in some regards, the moments preceding the death of Lady Jane Grey, who, on July 10 1553, was proclaimed Queen of England, only to be deposed nine days later and executed in 1554. Jane is sometimes known as "Nine Days' Queen" due to the brevity of her reign.

• Lady Jane Grey was the niece of Henry VIII of England and cousin to his son, the short-lived Edward VI. After the latter's death she was proclaimed queen, being given precedence over Henry's daughters, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth. Two weeks after the death of her brother, Mary, who had the support of the English people, claimed the throne, which Jane relinquished, having reigned for only nine days. Jane, her husband Lord Guilford Dudley, and her father, were imprisoned in the Tower of London on charges of high treason. Jane's trial was conducted in November, but the death penalty handed to her was temporarily suspended.

• In February 1554, Jane's father, who had been released, was one of the rebel leaders in Wyatt's rebellion, and on February 12, Mary had Jane, then aged 16, and her husband beheaded. Her father followed two days later.

Elizabeth I

• Elizabeth I was queen of England for forty five years. She is remembered as the virgin queen, and the savior of England. Her long reign stabilized England after the constant changes of her father and siblings' reigns. She restored the treasury after her father's extravagance destroyed the royal funds. Elizabeth I also made England a major naval power by building the fishing and boat building industries. For all of these things she is remembered fondly, but she is also remembered for being the most religiously tolerant member of her family.

Good Queene Bess

• Elizabeth’s reign marked the Golden Age of England. The arts flourished, England blossomed, the people loved her, and she was the best monarch—so much better than a son.

• Elizabeth I was queen of England for forty five years. She is remembered as the virgin queen, and the savior of England. Here long reign stabilized England after the constant changes of her father and siblings' reigns. She restored the treasury after her father's extravagance destroyed the royal funds. Elizabeth I also made England a major naval power by building the fishing and boat building industries. For all of these things she is remembered fondly, but she is also remembered for being the most religiously tolerant member of her family.

• Unfortunately, given the rest of her family, this is not saying much. Elizabeth I was a moderate Protestant, so when she came to the throne the Protestants in England were sorely disappointed when she refused to persecute the Catholics who had flourished under her sister's rule. On the other hand, she wasn't totally unbiased. She made church attendance and the use of a revised copy of Thomas Cranmer's “Book of Common Prayer” mandatory, but she also lessened the punishments for disobeying these laws. So while she wasn't a saint, she also wasn't as fanatical as the rest of her family, and her long reign gave England a chance to stabilize and heal in several areas.

• One of the major worries during her reign was her heir, or lack thereof. She never married and therefore had no direct heir. Her closest relative was the extremely Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots. Elizabeth spent a fair amount of her rule finding ways to keep Mary from usurping her power, until Elizabeth I finally had her cousin Mary beheaded after a lengthy stay in the Tower of London. When Elizabeth finally died she was seventy years old and her closest heir was Mary, Queen of Scots only son, James Stuart. He was the first of the House of Stuart, which was plagued to an even greater extent by religious turmoil.

Elizabeth I

Combine the Cross of St. George (England) with St. Andrew’s Cross ofScotland, then add the Irish flag, and you have the Union Jack

Mary, Queen of ScotsMary Stuart, also known as Mary, Queen of Scots is a fascinating player in the Tudor dynasty mostly because she wasn't in it. She fought her cousin, Elizabeth bitterly for the English throne several times, but each time she failed. Her cousin finally jailed her in the Tower until executing her in 1587. Mary was thought by many to be the rightful heir to the English throne due to the manner in which Elizabeth’s parents were married. They were married after Henry divorced his first wife, so to many in the Catholic Europe Elizabeth was a bastard and Mary Stuart was the legitimate Queen. Her son, James, would become the first King in the House of Stuart in 1603,long after her death.

1587 - Execution of Mary Queen of Scots; England at war with Spain; Drake destroys Spanish fleet at Cadiz

1588 - The Spanish Armada is defeated by the English fleet under Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir Francis Drake, and Sir John Hawkins: war between Spain and England continues until 1603

1597 - Irish rebellion under Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone (finally put down 1601)

1600 - Elizabeth I grants charter to East India Company

1601 - Elizabethan Poor Law charges the parishes with providing for the needy; Essex attempts rebellion, and is executed

1603 - Elizabeth dies; James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England

1605 - Gunpowder Plot; Guy Fawkes and other Roman Catholic conspirators fail in attempt to blow up Parliament and James I.

1607 - Parliament rejects proposals for union between England and Scotland; colony of Virginia is founded at Jamestown by John Smith; Henry Hudson begins voyage to eastern Greenland and Hudson River

1611 - James I's authorized version (King James Version) of the Bible is completed; English and Scottish Protestant colonists settle in Ulster

James I (Reigned from 1603-1625)

• In 1603, Queen Elizabeth (last of the Tudors) died, leaving no children. She was replaced by her near relative James, who became the first of the Stewart Kings of England.

• James was considered educated, and authored a popular book on witchcraft. He also directed the publication of the Bible that remains in use to this day.

• The famous Gunpowder Plot occurred during his reign, only serving to increase the persecution of Catholics in England.

• A number of scandals during his administration, as well as his much-rumored homosexuality, brought suspicion on his rule.

• James reigned until 1625, when he died of natural causes. • His ill-fated son, Charles I, was next in line to the throne.

• Jamestown was named for him and Shakespeare wrote “Macbeth” to honor his ancestors and mix in some witchcraft.

Guy Fawkes

• Fawkes is notorious for his involvement in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He was probably placed in charge of executing the plot because of his military and explosives experience. The plot, masterminded by Robert Catesby, was an attempt by a group of religious conspirators to kill King James I of England, his family, and most of the aristocracy, by blowing up the House of Lords in the Palace of Westminster during the State Opening of Parliament.

• The plot itself may have been occasioned by the realization by Protestant authorities and Catholic recusants that the Kingdom of Spain was in far too much debt and fighting too many wars to assist Catholics in Britain. Any possibility of toleration by Great Britain was removed at the Hampton Court conference in 1604 when King James I attacked both extreme Puritans and Catholics. The plotters realized that no outside help would be forthcoming. Fawkes and the other conspirators rented a cellar beneath the House of Lords after having failed in their attempt to dig a tunnel under the building. By March 1605, they had hidden 1,800 pounds (36 barrels, or 800 kg) of gunpowder in the cellar.

Fawkes is notorious for his involvement in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605. He was probably placed in charge of executing the plot because of his military and explosives experience. The plot, masterminded by Robert Catesby, was an attempt by a group of religious conspirators to kill King James I of England, his family, and most of the aristocracy, by blowing up the House of Lords in the Palace of Westminster during the State Opening of Parliament.

• A few of the conspirators were concerned about fellow Catholics who would have been present at Parliament during the opening. On the evening of 26 October Lord Monteagle, received an anonymous letter warning him to stay away, and to "retyre youre self into yowre contee whence yow maye expect the event in safti for ... they shall receyve a terrible blowe this parleament". Despite quickly becoming aware of the letter—informed by one of Monteagle's servants—they resolved to continue with their plans, as it appeared that it "was clearly thought to be a hoax".

Monteagle had been made suspicious, however, and the letter was shown to King James.

• The king ordered Sir Thomas Knyvet to conduct a search of the cellars underneath Parliament, which he did in the early hours of 5 November. Shortly after midnight, Fawkes was found leaving the cellar the conspirators had rented and was arrested. Inside, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered hidden under piles of firewood and coal.

• Fawkes gave his name as John Johnson, and was tortured over the next few days in an effort to extract from him the names of his co-conspirators. King James directed that the torture be light at first, but more severe if necessary. Sir William Wade, Lieutenant of the Tower of London at this time, supervised the torture and obtained Fawkes's confession. For three or four days Fawkes said nothing, nor divulged the names of his co-conspirators. Only when he found out that they had proclaimed themselves by appearing in arms did he succumb. The torture only revealed the names of those conspirators who were already dead or whose names were known to the authorities. On 31 January, Fawkes and a number of others implicated in the conspiracy were tried in Westminster Hall. After being found guilty, they were taken to Old Palace Yard in Westminster and St Paul's Yard, where they were to be hanged, drawn and quartered. Fawkes, weakened by his torture, was the last to climb the ladder to the gallows, from which he jumped, breaking his neck in the fall and thus avoiding the gruesome latter part of his execution

• Remember, remember the fifth of November, The gunpowder treason and plot, I know of no reason Why the gunpowder treason Should ever be forgot.”

1614 - James I dissolves the "Addled Parliament" which has failed to pass any legislation

1618 - Thirty Years' War begins, lasts until 1648

1620 - Pilgrims land at Plymouth Rock on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in the "Mayflower

1622 - James I dissolves Parliament for asserting its right to debate foreign affairs

1624 - Alliance between James I and France; Parliament votes for war against Spain; Virginia becomes crown colony

1625 - Charles I, King of England (to 1649); Charles I marries Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII of France; dissolves Parliament which fails to vote him money

1628 - Petition of Right; Charles I forced to accept Parliament's statement of civil rights in return for finances

1629 - Charles I dissolves Parliament and rules personally until 1640

1630 - England makes peace with France and Spain

1640 - Charles I summons the "Short " Parliament ; dissolved for refusal to grant money; The Long Parliament begins. 1641 - Triennial Act requires Parliament to be summoned every three years; Star Chamber and High Commission abolished by Parliament; Catholics in Ireland revolt; some 30,000 Protestants massacred; Grand Remonstrance of Parliament to Charles I

Charles I• Charles I, (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649), the

second son of James VI of Scotland and I of England, was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Charles famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. He was an advocate of the divine right of kings, which was the belief that kings received their power from God and thus could not be deposed. Many of his English subjects feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. Many of his actions, particularly the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent, caused widespread opposition.

• Religious conflicts permeated Charles' reign. He married a Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria of France, over the objections of Parliament and public opinion.

Cavalier King Charles Spaniels

• His last years were marked by the English Civil War, in which he fought the forces of the English and Scottish Parliaments, which challenged his attempts to augment his own power, and the Puritans, who were hostile to his religious policies and supposed Catholic sympathies. Charles was defeated in the First Civil War (1642–45), after which Parliament expected him to accept its demands for a constitutional monarchy. He instead remained defiant by attempting to forge an alliance with Scotland and escaping to the Isle of Wight. This provoked the Second Civil War (1648–49) and a second defeat for Charles, who was subsequently captured, tried, convicted, and executed for high treason.

• The monarchy was then abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England, also referred to as the Cromwellian Interregnum, was declared. Charles's son, Charles II, became king after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660.

• In that same year, Charles I was canonized by the Church of England.

1642 - Charles I fails in attempt to arrest five members of Parliament and rejects Parliament's Nineteen Propositions; Civil War (until 1645) begins with battle of Edgehill between Cavaliers (Royalists) and Roundheads (Parliamentarians)

1643 - Solemn League and Covenant is signed by Parliament

1644 - Battle of Marston Moor; Oliver Cromwell defeats Prince Rupert

1645 - Formation of Cromwell's New Model Army; Battle of Naseby; Charles I defeated by Parliamentary forces

1646 - Charles I surrenders to the Scots

1647 - Scots surrender Charles I to Parliament; he escapes to the Isle of Wright; makes secret treaty with Scots. 1648 - Scots invade England and are defeated by Cromwell at battle of Preston Pride's Purge: Presbyterians expelled from Parliament (known as the Rump Parliament); Treaty of Westphalia ends Thirty Years' War 1649 - Charles I is tried and executed; The Commonwealth, in which; England is governed as a republic, is established and lasts until 1660; Cromwell harshly suppresses Catholic rebellions in Ireland

1650 - Charles II lands in Scotland; is proclaimed king. 1651 - Charles II invades England and is defeated at Battle of Worcester; Charles escapes to France; First Navigation Act, England gains virtual monopoly of foreign trade

1653 - Oliver Cromwell becomes Lord Protector

1658 - Oliver Cromwell dies; succeeded as Lord Protector by son Richard; Battle of the Dunes, England and France defeat Spain; England gains Dunkirk

Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector

• The English Civil War (1641–1651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians (Roundheads) and Royalists (Cavaliers). The first (1642–46) and second (1648–49) civil wars pitted the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (1649–51) saw fighting between supporters of King Charles II and supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651.

• The Civil War led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son, Charles II, and replacement of English monarchy with first, the Commonwealth of England (1649–53), and then with a Protectorate (1653–59), under Oliver Cromwell's personal rule. The monopoly of the Church of England on Christian worship in England ended with the victors consolidating the established Protestant Ascendancy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without Parliament's consent, although this concept was legally established only with the Glorious Revolution later in the century.

Oliver Cromwell (1599 - 1658)

• Oliver Cromwell • English soldier

and statesman who helped make England a republic and then ruled as lord protector from 1653 to 1658.

• Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 Old Style, died September 3, 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland.

• He was one of the commanders of the New Model Army which defeated the royalists in the English Civil War. After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Cromwell dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England, conquered Ireland and Scotland, and ruled as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658.

• Cromwell was born into the ranks of the middle gentry, and remained relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. At times his lifestyle resembled that of a yeoman farmer until his finances were boosted thanks to an inheritance from his uncle. After undergoing a religious conversion during the same decade, he made an Independent style of Puritanism a core tenet of his life. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (1640-49) Parliaments, and later entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians.

• An effective soldier (nicknamed "Old Ironsides"), he rose from leading a single cavalry troop to command of the entire army. Cromwell was one of the signatories of Charles I's death warrant in 1649 and was an MP in the Rump Parliament (1649-1653), being chosen by the Rump to take command of the English campaign in Ireland during 1649-50. He then led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650-51. On April 20, 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament before being made Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland on 16 December 1653 until his death. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, but when the Royalists returned to power his corpse was dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded.

• Cromwell has been a very controversial figure in the history of the British Isles---a regicidal dictatorto some historians and a hero of liberty to others . In Britain he was elected as one of the Top 10 Britons of all time in a 2002 BBC poll. His measures against Irish Catholics have been characterized by some historians as genocidal or near-genocidal, and in Ireland itself he is widely hated.

1659 - Richard Cromwell forced to resign by the army; "Rump" Parliament restored

1660 - Convention Parliament restores Charles II to throne

1661 - Clarendon Code; "Cavalier" Parliament of Charles II passes series of repressive laws against Nonconformists; English acquire Bombay

1662 - Act of Uniformity passed in England 1664 - England seizes New Amsterdam from the Dutch, change name to New York

1665 - Great Plague in London

1666 - Great Fire of London

1667 - Dutch fleet defeats the English in Medway river; treaties of Breda among Netherlands, England, France, and Denmark

1668 - Triple Alliance of England, Netherlands, and Sweden against France

1670 - Secret Treaty of Dover between Charles II of England and Louis XIV of France to restore Roman Catholicism to England; Hudson's Bay Company founded

1672 - Third Anglo-Dutch war (until 1674); William III (of Orange) becomes ruler of Netherlands

1673 - Test Act aims to deprive English Roman Catholics and Nonconformists of public office

1674 - Treaty of Westminster between England and the Netherlands

Charles II/The Restoration

• Charles II was King of England, Scotland and Ireland, whose restoration to the throne in 1660 marked the end of republican rule in England.

• A political crisis following the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in Charles being invited to return and assume the throne in what became known as the Restoration. Charles II arrived on English soil on 27 May 1660 and entered London on his 30th birthday, 29 May 1660. After 1660, all legal documents were dated as if Charles had succeeded his father in 1649. Charles was crowned King of England and Ireland at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661.

• Charles was popularly known as the Merrie Monarch, in reference to both the liveliness and hedonism of his court and the general relief at the return to normality after over a decade of rule by Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans.

• Charles's wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no children, but Charles acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses.

The Diary of Samuel

Pepys

• Samuel Pepys, 23 February 1633 – 26 May 1703) was an English naval administrator and Member of Parliament, who is now most famous for his diary. Although Pepys had no maritime experience, he rose by patronage, hard work and his talent for administration, to be the Chief Secretary to the Admiralty under both King Charles II and subsequently King James II. His influence and reforms at the Admiralty were important in the early professionalization of the Royal Navy.

• The detailed private diary he kept during 1660–1669 was first published in the nineteenth century, and, although it was written in a shorthand code, it is one of the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period. It provides a combination of personal revelation and eyewitness accounts of great events, such as the Great Plague of London, the Second Dutch War and the Great Fire of London.

The Great Fire of London 1666

• The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London, from Sunday, 2 September to Wednesday, 5 September 1666. The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman City Wall. It threatened, but did not reach, the aristocratic district of Westminster, Charles II's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums. It consumed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, St. Paul's Cathedral, and most of the buildings of the City authorities.

• It is estimated that it destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the City's ca. 80,000 inhabitants. The death toll from the fire is unknown and is traditionally thought to have been small, as only six verified deaths were recorded. This reasoning has recently been challenged on the grounds that the deaths of poor and middle-class people were not recorded anywhere, and that the heat of the fire may have cremated many victims, leaving no recognizable remains.

1677 - William III, ruler of the Netherlands, marries Mary, daughter of James, Duke of York, heir to the English throne 1678 - 'Popish Plot' in England; Titus Oates falsely alleges a Catholic plot to murder Charles II

1679 - Act of Habeas Corpus passed, forbidding imprisonment without trial; Parliament's Bill of Exclusion against the Roman Catholic Duke of York blocked by Charles II; Parliament dismissed; Charles II rejects petitions calling for a new Parliament; petitioners become known as Whigs; their opponents (royalists) known as Tories

1681 - Whigs reintroduce Exclusion Bill; Charles II dissolves Parliament

1685 - James II of England and VII of Scotland (to 1688); rebellion by Charles II's illegitimate son, the Duke of Monmouth, against James II is put down

1686 - James II disregards Test Act; Roman Catholics appointed to public office

1687 - James II issues Declaration of Liberty of Conscience, extends toleration to all religions

1688 - England's 'Glorious Revolution'; William III of Orange is invited to save England from Roman Catholicism, lands in England, James II flees to France

1689 - Convention Parliament issues Bill of Rights; establishes a constitutional monarchy in Britain; bars Roman Catholics from the throne; William III and Mary II become joint monarchs of England and Scotland (to1694), Toleration Act grants freedom of worship to dissenters in England; Grand Alliance of the League of Augsburg, England, and the Netherlands.

James II (1633-1701)(Reigned 1685-1688)

In 1685, James II became King after the death of his older brother, Charles II. Like his brother Charles, James, who was Duke of York prior to becoming King, had many exciting adventures in Europe as a wandering prince in exile from 1649 to 1660. His first marriage was to Anne Hyde, who helped James convert to the Catholic faith in the late 1660's. Anne Hyde died in 1671. The daughters of James and Anne Hyde, Mary and Anne, would play an important part in the changes to come. In 1673 James married another Catholic, Mary of Modena, a young Italian princess.

James was stubborn, and only put his trust in a few close conniving advisors and flatterers. Dull witted and pious, he surrounded himself with "yes men." and conspiratorial characters, such as Sunderland, Father Petre , and "Lying Dick" Talbot.

James' attempts to increase the power of Catholics, through the Declarations of Indulgence in 1687 and 1688, only served to antagonize Parliament and the Anglican establishment. His short reign ended with the Glorious Revolution at the arrival of William, Prince of Orange. In late Dec. 1688, James, his wife, and their son, The Prince of Wales, who had been born in June 1688, fled to France. After 13 years of bitter exile, James died near Paris in 1701.

James was a Stuart king of England, Scotland and Ireland who in 1688 was overthrown in the 'Glorious Revolution' by William III.

The Glorious RevolutionWilliam & Mary

• The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland and II of Ireland) in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians with an invading army led by the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange) who as a result ascended the English throne as William III of England. The expression "Glorious Revolution" was first used by John Hampden in late 1689, and is an expression that is still used by the Westminster Parliament. William and Mary were offered the throne as joint rulers, an arrangement which they accepted.

• On February 13, 1689 ,February 23 (Gregorian calendar) Mary II and William III jointly acceded to the throne of England. Since 1689, with the passage of the English Bill of Rights government under a system of constitutional monarchy, in England, and later the United Kingdom, has been uninterrupted.

Queen Anne• Anne (6 February 1665 – 1 August 1714) became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland

on 8 March 1702, succeeding her brother-in-law, William III of England and II of Scotland. Her Catholic father, James II and VII, was deemed by the English Parliament to have abdicated when he was forced to retreat to France during the Glorious Revolution of 1688/9; her brother-in-law and her sister then became joint monarchs as William III & II and Mary II, the only such case in British history. After Mary's death in 1694, William continued as sole monarch until his own death in 1702.

• On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union 1707, England and Scotland were united as a single sovereign state, the Kingdom of Great Britain. Anne became its first sovereign, while continuing to hold the separate crown of Queen of Ireland and the title of Queen of France. Anne reigned for twelve years until her death in August 1714. Anne was therefore the last Queen of England and the last Queen of Scots.

• Anne's life was marked by many crises, both personally and relating to succession of the Crown and religious polarization. Because she died without surviving issue, Anne was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. She was succeeded by her second cousin, George I, of the House of Hanover, who was a descendant of the Stuarts through his maternal grandmother, Elizabeth, daughter of James VI & I.

Queen Anne• Although she had been well-educated, Anne had no experience or training to rule. She

relied upon her advisors, called a cabinet, to help her rule. Almost as soon as she succeeded to the throne, Anne became embroiled in the War of the Spanish Succession. This war, in which England supported the claim of Archduke Charles to succeed to the Spanish Throne, would continue until the last years of Anne's reign, and would dominate both foreign and domestic policy. Anne's reign was further marked by the development of a two-party system as the new era of parliamentary governance unfolded and matured. Anne personally preferred the Tory Party, but "endured" the Whigs.

• During this period, Prince George and Princess Anne suffered great personal misfortune. By 1700, the future Queen had been pregnant at least eighteen times; thirteen times, she miscarried or gave birth to stillborn children. Of the remaining five children, four died before reaching the age of two years.

• Her only son to survive infancy, William, Duke of Gloucester, died at the age of eleven on 29 July 1700, precipitating a succession crisis.

• William and Mary had not had any children; thus, Princess Anne, the heir apparent to the Throne, was the only individual remaining in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights 1689.

• If the line of succession were totally extinguished,…they would have to seek out the German cousins in Hanover.

This is an exampleof Queen Anne furniture, with shapely legs.