textile bleaching

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Textile bleaching

Textile bleaching is one of the stages in the manufacture of te#tiles$ %ll ra& te#tile materials,&hen they are in natural form, are kno&n as 'greige' material (pronounced grey)sh*$ +his greigematerial &ill have its natural color, odor and impurities that are not suitable for clothingmaterials$ ot only the natural impurities &ill remain on the greige material but also the add)onsthat &ere made during its cultivation, gro&th and manufacture in the form of pesticides, fungicides, &orm killers, si-es, lubricants, etc$ +he removal of these natural coloring matters andadd)ons during the previous state of manufacturing is called scouring and bleaching$

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Pesticide

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Pesticides are substances meant for preventing, destroying or mitigating any pest$12 +hey are aclass of biocide$ +he most common use of pesticides is as plant protection products (also kno&nas crop protection products*, &hich in general protect plants from damaging influences such as&eeds, diseases or insects$ +his use of pesticides is so common that the term pesticide is oftentreated as synonymous &ith plant protection product , although it is in fact a broader term, as

pesticides are also used for non)agricultural purposes$

% pesticide is generally a chemical or biological agent (such as a virus, bacterium, antimicrobial or disinfectant* that through its effect deters, incapacitates, kills or other&ise discourages pests$+arget pests can include insects, plant pathogens, &eeds, mollusks, birds, mammals, fish,nematodes (round&orms*, and microbes that destroy property, cause nuisance, spread disease orare vectors for disease$ %lthough there are benefits to the use of pesticides, some also havedra&backs, such as potential to#icity to humans and other animals$ %ccording to the StockholmConvention on 0ersistent 3rganic 0ollutants, 4 of the 1 most dangerous and persistent organicchemicals are pesticides$2/2

Contents

• 1 6efinition

• +ypes

o $1 3rganophosphate pesticides

o $ Carbamate pesticides

o

$/ 3rganochlorine insecticides

o $" 0yrethroid pesticides

o $5 Sulfonylurea pesticides

o $7 8iopesticides

• / 9ses

o /$1 :uantity and variety

• " Costs

o "$1 Health effects

o "$ Environmental effect

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o "$/ Economics

• 5 8enefits

o 5$1 0rimary benefits

o 5$ ;onetary

• 7 %lternatives

o 7$1 0ush pull strategy

o 7$ Effectiveness

• ! ood and %griculture 3rgani-ation (>%3* has defined pesticide as?

any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling

any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or

animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or animal feedstuffs, or substances which may be administered to animals for

the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes

substances intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant or agent forthinning fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to

crops either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during

storage and transport."2

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Type of pesticide Target pest group

Herbicides 0lants %lgicides or %lgaecides %lgae

%vicides 8irds 8actericides 8acteria

>ungicides >ungi and 3omycetes =nsecticides =nsects

;iticides or %caricides ;ites ;olluscicides Snails ematicides ematodes


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=n 4, the development of a ne& class of fungicides called paldo#ins &as announced$ +hese&ork by taking advantage of natural defense chemicals released by plants called phytoale#ins,&hich fungi then deto#ify using en-ymes$ +he paldo#ins inhibit the fungi's deto#ificationen-ymes$ +hey are believed to be safer and greener $12

Types

0esticides are often referred to according to the type of pest they control$ 0esticides can also beconsidered as either biodegradable pesticides, &hich &ill be broken do&n by microbes and otherliving beings into harmless compounds, or persistent pesticides, &hich may take months or years before they are broken do&n? it &as the persistence of 66+, for e#ample, &hich led to itsaccumulation in the food chain and its killing of birds of prey at the top of the food chain$%nother &ay to think about pesticides is to consider those that are chemical pesticides or arederived from a common source or production method$112

Some e#amples of chemically)related pesticides are?

Organophosphate pesticides

3rganophosphates affect the nervous system by disrupting the en-yme that regulatesacetylcholine, a neurotransmitter$ ;ost organophosphates are insecticides$ +hey &ere developedduring the early 14th century, but their effects on insects, &hich are similar to their effects onhumans, &ere discovered in 14/$ Some are very poisonous (they &ere used in World War == asnerve agents*$ Ho&ever, they usually are not persistent in the environment$

Carbamate pesticides

Carbamate pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting an en-yme that regulatesacetylcholine, a neurotransmitter$ +he en-yme effects are usually reversible$ +here are severalsubgroups &ithin the carbamates$

Organochlorine insecticides

+hey &ere commonly used in the past, but many have been removed from the market due to their health and environmental effects and their persistence (e$g$ 66+ and chlordane*$

Pyrethroid pesticides

+hey &ere developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide pyrethrin, &hichis found in chrysanthemums$ +hey have been modified to increase their stability in theenvironment$ Some synthetic pyrethroids are to#ic to the nervous system$

Sulfonylurea pesticides

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=ncludes nicosulfuron, a broad spectrum &hich kills plants by inhibiting the en-yme acetolactatesynthase$12

Biopesticides

8iopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals$ >or e#ample, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidalapplications and are considered biopesticides$ %t the end of 1, there &ere appro#imately 145registered biopesticide active ingredients and !. products$ 8iopesticides fall into three maorclasses?

• ;icrobial pesticides consist of a microorganism (e$g$, a bacterium, fungus, virus or proto-oan* as the active ingredient$ ;icrobial pesticides can control many different kindsof pests, although each separate active ingredient is relatively specific for its target pests2$ >or e#ample, there are fungi that control certain &eeds, and other fungi that killspecific insects$

+he most &idely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of 8acillus thuringiensis, or 8t$ Each strain of this bacterium produces a different mi# of proteins, and specifically kills oneor a fe& related species of insect larvae$ While some 8t's control moth larvae found on plants,other 8t's are specific for larvae of flies and mosBuitoes$ +he target insect species are determined by &hether the particular 8t produces a protein that can bind to a larval gut receptor, therebycausing the insect larvae to starve$

• 0lant)=ncorporated)0rotectants (0=0s* are pesticidal substances that plants produce fromgenetic material that has been added to the plant$ >or e#ample, scientists can take thegene for the 8t pesticidal protein, and introduce the gene into the plant's o&n genetic

material$ +hen the plant, instead of the 8t bacterium, manufactures the substance thatdestroys the pest$ +he protein and its genetic material, but not the plant itself, areregulated by E0%$

• 8iochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non)to#icmechanisms$ Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are generally synthetic materials thatdirectly kill or inactivate the pest$ 8iochemical pesticides include substances, such asinsect se# pheromones, that interfere &ith mating, as &ell as various scented plante#tracts that attract insect pests to traps$ 8ecause it is sometimes difficult to determine&hether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide, E0%has established a special committee to make such decisions$

0esticides that are related to the type of pests are?

Type Action

%lgicides Control algae in lakes, canals, s&imming pools, &ater tanks, and othersites

%ntifouling agents Fill or repel organisms that attach to under&ater surfaces, such as boat

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bottoms%ntimicrobials Fill microorganisms (such as bacteria and viruses*

%ttractants %ttract pests (for e#ample, to lure an insect or rodent to a trap*$ (Ho&ever,food is not considered a pesticide &hen used as an attractant$*

8iopesticides

8iopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural

materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals8iocides Fill microorganisms6isinfectants andsaniti-ers

Fill or inactivate disease)producing microorganisms on inanimate obects

>ungicides Fill fungi (including blights, milde&s, molds, and rusts*>umigants 0roduce gas or vapor intended to destroy pests in buildings or soilHerbicides Fill &eeds and other plants that gro& &here they are not &anted=nsecticides Fill insects and other arthropods;iticides Fill mites that feed on plants and animals

;icrobial pesticides ;icroorganisms that kill, inhibit, or out compete pests, including insects or

other microorganisms;olluscicides Fill snails and slugs

ematicides Fill nematodes (microscopic, &orm)like organisms that feed on plantroots*

3vicides Fill eggs of insects and mites0heromones 8iochemicals used to disrupt the mating behavior of insects


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such as termites and mould can damage structures such as houses$ 1/2 0esticides are used ingrocery stores and food storage facilities to manage rodents and insects that infest food such asgrain$ Each use of a pesticide carries some associated risk$ 0roper pesticide use decreases theseassociated risks to a level deemed acceptable by pesticide regulatory agencies such as the 9nitedStates Environmental 0rotection %gency (E0%* and the 0est ;anagement


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Costs

3n the cost side of pesticide use there can be costs to the environment, costs to human health,!2 as &ell as costs of the development and research of ne& pesticides$

Health effects

0esticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in &orkers &ho are e#posed$ .2 0esticidee#posure can cause a variety of adverse health effects, ranging from simple irritation of the skinand eyes to more severe effects such as affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormonescausing reproductive problems, and also causing cancer$42 % ! systematic revie& found thatAmost studies on non)Hodgkin lymphoma and leukemia sho&ed positive associations &ith pesticide e#posureA and thus concluded that cosmetic use of pesticides should be decreased$/2 Strong evidence also e#ists for other negative outcomes from pesticide e#posure includingneurological, birth defects, fetal death,/12 and neurodevelopmental disorder $/2

+he %merican ;edical %ssociation recommends limiting e#posure to pesticides and using saferalternatives?72 A0articular uncertainty e#ists regarding the long)term effects of lo&)dose pesticidee#posures$A

Even consuming organic food, these chemicals can have a negative health impact$ +hough the9$S$ Environmental 0rotection %gency (E0%* limits the amount of each pesticide that may be present on a food item, there e#ists no limit to the number of different chemicals that can beused$ +his leads to a possibly even more dangerous effect kno&n as a Achemical cocktailA$ +hechemicals may form one of many dangerous interactions and have an unmeasured synergisticeffect$//2

+he World Health 3rgani-ation and the 9 Environment 0rogramme estimate that each year, /million &orkers in agriculture in the developing &orld e#perience severe poisoning from pesticides, about 1., of &hom die$2 %ccording to one study, as many as 5 million &orkersin developing countries may suffer mild pesticide poisoning yearly$/"2

3ne study found pesticide self)poisoning the method of choice in one third of suicides&orld&ide, and recommended, among other things, more restrictions on the types of pesticidesthat are most harmful to humans$/52

% ! study by the California 6epartment of 0ublic Health found that &omen in the first eight&eeks of pregnancy &ho live near farm fields sprayed &ith the organochlorine pesticides dicofol

and endosulfan are several times more likely to give birth to children &ith autism$/72

$nvironmental effect

0esticide use raises a number of environmental concerns$ 3ver 4. of sprayed insecticides and45 of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, including non)targetspecies, air, &ater and soil$2 0esticide drift occurs &hen pesticides suspended in the air as particles are carried by &ind to other areas, potentially contaminating them$ 0esticides are one of

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the causes of &ater pollution, and some pesticides are persistent organic pollutants and contributeto soil contamination$

=n addition, pesticide use reduces biodiversity, reduces nitrogen fi#ation,/!2 contributes to pollinator decline,/.2/42"2"12 destroys habitat (especially for birds*,"2 and threatens endangered

species$2

0ests can develop a resistance to the pesticide ( pesticide resistance*, necessitating a ne& pesticide$ %lternatively a greater dose of the pesticide can be used to counteract the resistance,although this &ill cause a &orsening of the ambient pollution problem$

Since chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides dissolve in fats and are not e#creted, organisms tend toretain them almost indefinitely$ 8iological magnification is the process &hereby thesechlorinated hydrocarbons (pesticides* are more concentrated at each level of the food chain$%mong marine animals, pesticide concentrations are higher in carnivorous fishes, and even moreso in the fish)eating birds and mammals at the top of the ecological pyramid$"/2 Klobaldistillation is the process &hereby pesticides are transported from &armer to colder regions of

the Earth, particularly the 0oles and mountain tops$ 0esticides &hich evaporate into theatmosphere at relatively high temperature can be carried considerable distances (thousands ofkilometers* by the &ind to an area of lo&er temperature, &here they condense and are carried back to the ground in rain or sno&$""2

=n order to reduce negative impacts, it is desirable that pesticides be degradable or at leastBuickly deactivated in the environment$ Such loss of activity or to#icity of pesticides is due to both innate chemical properties of the compounds and environmental processes or conditions$"52 >or e#ample, the presence of halogens &ithin a chemical structure often slo&s do&n degradationin an aerobic environment$"72 %dsorption to soil may retard pesticide movement, but also mayreduce bioavailability to microbial degraders$"!2

$conomics

Harm Annual "S Cost

0ublic Health J1$1 billion0esticide


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and can cost J5D! million for a single pesticide$".2 %nnually the 9nited States spends J1 billion on pesticides$".2

Benefits

+here are t&o levels of benefits for pesticide use, primary and secondary$ 0rimary benefits aredirect gains from the use of pesticides and secondary benefits are effects that are more long)term$"42

Primary benefits

1. Controlling pests and plant disease vectors

• =mproved croplivestock yields

• =mproved croplivestock Buality

• =nvasive species controlled

2. Controlling humanlivestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms

• Human lives saved and suffering reduced

• %nimal lives saved and suffering reduced

• 6iseases contained geographically

!. Controlling organisms that harm other human activities and structures

• 6rivers vie& unobstructed

• +reebrushleaf ha-ards prevented

• Wooden structures protected "42

)onetary

Every dollar (J1* that is spent on pesticides for crops yields four dollars (J"* in crops saved$52 +his means based on the amount of money spent per year on pesticides, J1 billion, that there isan additional J" billion savings in crop that &ould be lost due to damage by insects and &eeds$Kenerally, farmers benefit from having an increase in crop yield and from being able to gro& avariety of crops throughout the year$ Consumers of agricultural products also benefit from beingable to afford the vast Buantities of produce available year round$"42 +he general public also benefits from the use of pesticides for the control of insect)borne diseases and illnesses, such as

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malaria$"42 +he use of pesticides creates a large ob market, &hich provides obs for all of the people &ho &ork &ithin the industry$

Alternatives

%lternatives to pesticides are available and include methods of cultivation, use of biological pestcontrols (such as pheromones and microbial pesticides*, genetic engineering, and methods ofinterfering &ith insect breeding$2 %pplication of composted yard &aste has also been used as a&ay of controlling pests$512 +hese methods are becoming increasingly popular and often are safer than traditional chemical pesticides$ =n addition, E0% is registering reduced)risk conventional pesticides in increasing numbers$

Cultivation practices include polyculture (gro&ing multiple types of plants*, crop rotation, planting crops in areas &here the pests that damage them do not live, timing planting accordingto &hen pests &ill be least problematic, and use of trap crops that attract pests a&ay from the realcrop$2 =n the 9$S$, farmers have had success controlling insects by spraying &ith hot &ater at a

cost that is about the same as pesticide spraying$2


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;any case studies testing the effectiveness of the push)pull approach have been done across the&orld$ +he most successful push)pull strategy &as developed in %frica for subsistence farming$%nother successful case study &as performed on the control of "elicoverpa in cotton crops in%ustralia$ =n Europe, the ;iddle East, and the 9nited States, push)pull strategies &eresuccessfully used in the controlling of #itona lineatus in bean fields$5"2

Some advantages of using the push)pull method are less use of chemical or biological materialsand better protection against insect habituation to this control method$ Some disadvantages of the push)pull strategy is that if there is a lack of appropriate kno&ledge of behavioral and chemicalecology of the host)pest interactions then this method becomes unreliable$ >urthermore, becausethe push)pull method is not a very popular method of =0; operational and registration costs arehigher$552

$ffectiveness

Some evidence sho&s that alternatives to pesticides can be eBually effective as the use of

chemicals$ >or e#ample, S&eden has halved its use of pesticides &ith hardly any reduction incrops$2 =n =ndonesia, farmers have reduced pesticide use on rice fields by 75 and e#perienceda 15 crop increase$2 % study of ;ai-e fields in northern >lorida found that the application ofcomposted yard &aste &ith high carbon to nitrogen ratio to agricultural fields &as highlyeffective at reducing the population of plant)parasitic nematodes and increasing crop yield, &ithyield increases ranging from 1 to 1G the observed effects &ere long)term, often notappearing until the third season of the study$512

Ho&ever, pesticide resistance is increasing$ =n the 14"s, 9$S$ farmers lost only ! of theircrops to pests$ Since the 14.s, loss has increased to 1/, even though more pesticides are beingused$ 8et&een 5 and 1, insect and &eed species have developed pesticide resistance since

14"5$572

*egulation

nternational

=n most countries,which$2 pesticides must be approved for sale and use by a government agency$5!2

=n Europe, recent E9 legislation has been approved banning the use of highly to#ic pesticidesincluding those that are carcinogenic, mutagenic or to#ic to reproduction, those that areendocrine)disrupting, and those that are persistent, bioaccumulative and to#ic (08+* or very persistent and very bioaccumulative (v0v8*$ ;easures &ere approved to improve the generalsafety of pesticides across all E9 member states$5.2

+hough pesticide regulations differ from country to country, pesticides and products on &hichthey &ere used are traded across international borders$ +o deal &ith inconsistencies inregulations among countries, delegates to a conference of the 9nited ations >ood and%griculture 3rgani-ation adopted an =nternational Code of Conduct on the 6istribution and 9seof 0esticides in 14.5 to create voluntary standards of pesticide regulation for different countries$

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5!2 +he Code &as updated in 144. and $542 +he >%3 claims that the code has raiseda&areness about pesticide ha-ards and decreased the number of countries &ithout restrictions on pesticide use$"2

+hree other efforts to improve regulation of international pesticide trade are the 9nited ations

London Kuidelines for the E#change of =nformation on Chemicals in =nternational +rade and the9nited ations Code# %limentarius Commission $ +he former seeks to implement procedures for ensuring that prior informed consent e#ists bet&een countries buying and selling pesticides,&hile the latter seeks to create uniform standards for ma#imum levels of pesticide residuesamong participating countries$72 8oth initiatives operate on a voluntary basis$72

0esticide safety education and pesticide applicator regulation are designed to protect the publicfrom pesticide misuse, but do not eliminate all misuse$ ederal =nsecticide, >ungicide, and =>ood:uality 0rotection %ct (>:0%*$7/2 Studies must be conducted to establish the conditions in &hichthe material is safe to use and the effectiveness against the intended pest(s*$7"2 +he E0% regulates pesticides to ensure that these products do not pose adverse effects to humans or theenvironment$ 0esticides produced before ovember 14." continue to be reassessed in order tomeet the current scientific and regulatory standards$ %ll registered pesticides are revie&ed every15 years to ensure they meet the proper standards$ 7/2 6uring the registration process, a label is

created$ +he label contains directions for proper use of the material in addition to safetyrestrictions$ 8ased on acute to#icity, pesticides are assigned to a +o#icity Class$

Some pesticides are considered too ha-ardous for sale to the general public and are designatedrestricted use pesticides$ 3nly certified applicators, &ho have passed an e#am, may purchase orsupervise the application of restricted use pesticides$5!2


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pesticide regulations$752772 +hese records must be made available to employees and state orterritorial environmental regulatory agencies$7!27.2

+he E0% regulates pesticides under t&o main acts, both of &hich &ere amended by the >ood:uality 0rotection %ct of 1447$ =n addition to the E0%, the 9nited States 6epartment of

%griculture (9S6%* and the 9nited States >ood and 6rug %dministration (>6%* set standardsfor the level of pesticide residue that is allo&ed on or in crops$742 +he E0% looks at &hat the potential human health and environmental effects might be associated &ith the use of the pesticide$!2

%dditionally, the 9$S$ E0% uses the ational


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=n the 147s, it &as discovered that 66+ &as preventing many fish)eating birds fromreproducing, &hich &as a serious threat to biodiversity$ ungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses ofyield, Buality and profit$ >ungicides are used both in agriculture and to fight fungal infections inanimals$ Chemicals used to control oomycetes, &hich are not fungi, are also referred to asfungicides as oomycetes use the same mechanisms as fungi to infect plants$2

>ungicides can either be contact, translaminar or systemic$ Contact fungicides are not taken upinto the plant tissue, I only protect the plant &here the spray is depositedG translaminarfungicides redistribute the fungicide from the upper, sprayed leaf surface to the lo&er, unsprayedsurfaceG systemic fungicides are taken up I redistributed through the #ylem vessels$ >e&fungicides move to all parts of a plant$ Some are locally systemic, and some move up&ardly$/2

;ost fungicides that can be bought retail are sold in a liBuid form$ % very common activeingredient is sulfur ,"2 present at $. in &eaker concentrates, and as high as $5 for more potent fungicides$ >ungicides in po&dered form are usually around 4 sulfur and are veryto#ic$ 3ther active ingredients in fungicides include neem oil, rosemary oil, ooba oil, the bacterium %acillus subtilis, and the beneficial fungus &locladium oudemansii$

>ungicide residues have been found on food for human consumption, mostly from post)harvesttreatments$52 Some fungicides are dangerous to human health, such as vinclo-olin, &hich hasno& been removed from use$72 % number of fungicides are also used in human health care$

Contents

• 1 atural fungicides

•


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o $1 >ungicide resistance management

• / See also

• "


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0athogens respond to the use of fungicides by evolving resistance$ =n the field severalmechanisms of resistance have been identified$ +he evolution of fungicide resistance can begradual or sudden$ =n Bualitative or discrete resistance a mutation (normally to a single gene* produces a race of a fungus &ith a high degree of resistance$ Such resistant varieties also tend tosho& stability, persisting after the fungicide has been removed from the market$ >or e#ample

sugar beet leaf blotch remains resistant to a-oles years after they &ere no longer used for controlof the disease$ +his is because such mutations often have a high selection pressure &hen thefungicide is used, but there is lo& selection pressure to remove them in the absence of thefungicide$

=n instances &here resistance occurs more gradually a shift in sensitivity in the pathogen to thefungicide can be seen$ Such resistance is polygenic D an accumulation of many mutation indifferent genes each having a small additive effect$ +his type of resistance is kno&n asBuantitative or continuous resistance$ =n this kind of resistance the pathogen population &illrevert to a sensitive state if the fungicide is no longer applied$

Little is kno&n about ho& variations in fungicide treatment affect the selection pressure toevolve resistance to that fungicide$ Evidence sho&s that the doses that provide the most controlof the disease also provide the largest selection pressure to acBuire resistance, and that lo&erdoses decreased the selection pressure$1"2

=n some cases &hen a pathogen evolves resistance to one fungicide it automatically obtainsresistance to others D a phenomenon kno&n as cross resistance$ +hese additional fungicides arenormally of the same chemical family or have the same mode of action, or can be deto#ified bythe same mechanism$ Sometimes negative cross resistance occurs, &here resistance to onechemical class of fungicides leads to an increase in sensitivity to a different chemical class offungicides$ +his has been seen &ith carbenda-im and diethofencarb$

+here are also recorded incidences of pathogens evolving multiple drug resistance D resistance tot&o chemically different fungicides by separate mutation events$ >or e#ample %otrytis cinerea isresistant to both a-oles and dicarbo#imide fungicides$

+here are several routes by &hich pathogens can evolve fungicide resistance$ +he most commonmechanism appears to be alteration of the target site, particular as a defence against single site ofaction fungicides$ >or e#ample 8lack Sigatoka, an economically important pathogen of banana,is resistant to the :o= fungicides, due to a single nucleotide change resulting one amino acid (glycine* being replaced by another (alanine* in the target protein of the :o= fungicides,cytochrome b$152 +his presumably disrupts the binding of the fungicide to the protein, renderingthe fungicide ineffective$

9pregulation of target genes can also render the fungicide ineffective$ +his is seen in 6;=resistant strains of 'enturia inae(ualis$172


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%8C type transporters &ith overlapping substrate specificities that together &ork to effectively pump to#ic chemicals out of the cell$1!2

=n addition to the mechanisms outlined above, fungi may also develop metabolic path&ays thatcircumvent the target protein, or acBuire en-ymes that enable metabolism of the fungicide to a

harmless substance$

+ungicide resistance management

+he fungicide resistance action committee (>ungicides should only be applied &hen absolutely necessary, especially if they are in an at)riskgroup$ Lo&ering the amount of fungicide in the environment lo&ers the selection pressure forresistance to develop$

;anufacturersO doses should al&ays be follo&ed$ +hese doses are normally designed to give the

right balance bet&een controlling the disease and limiting the risk of resistance development$Higher doses increase the selection pressure for single site mutations that confer resistance, as allstrains but those that carry the mutation &ill be eliminated, and thus the resistant strain &ill propagate$ Lo&er doses greatly increase the risk of polygenic resistance, as strains that areslightly less sensitive to the fungicide may survive$+emplate?Citation neededdateP3ct 1

=t is also recommendedby whom$2 that &here possible fungicides are only used in a protectivemanner, rather than to try to cure already infected crops$ >ar fe&er fungicides havecurativeeradicative ability than protectant$ +hus fungicide preparations advertised as havingcurative action may only have one active chemicalG a single fungicide acting in isolationincreases the risk of fungicide resistance$

=t is better to use an integrative pest management approach to disease control, rather than relyingon fungicides alone$ +his involves the use of resistant varieties and hygienic practises, such asthe removal of potato discard piles and stubble on &hich the pathogen can over&inter, greatlyreducing the titre of the pathogen and thus the risk of fungicide resistance development$

See also

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATP-binding_cassette_transporterhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Substrate_(biochemistry)http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Substrate_(biochemistry)http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fungicide#cite_note-17http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fungicide#cite_note-17http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fungicide#cite_note-17http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Metabolic_pathwayhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Enzymehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Azoxystrobinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Metalaxylhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Irelandhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Phytophthora_infestanshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Phytophthora_infestanshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/UKhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dose_(biochemistry)http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dose_(biochemistry)http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Integrated_pest_managementhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Integrated_pest_managementhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATP-binding_cassette_transporterhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Substrate_(biochemistry)http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fungicide#cite_note-17http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Metabolic_pathwayhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Enzymehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Azoxystrobinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Metalaxylhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Irelandhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Phytophthora_infestanshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Phytophthora_infestanshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/UKhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dose_(biochemistry)http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributionshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Integrated_pest_management


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• 8utterfly

• Community

• >orest

• >rench intensive

• Kuerilla

• Karden

• Landscape

• ative

• 0arterre

• ernery

• >loating

• >lo&er

• >rench

o formal

o landscape

o ront

• Kreek

• Kreenhouse

• Hanging

• =slamic

• =talian

• Napanese

• Fitchen

• Fnot

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• Forean

• ;arket

• ;ary

• ;ughal

• 3rangery

• 3rchard

• 0ersian

o 8agh

o Charbagh

o 0aradise

• 0hilosophical

• 0leasure

•


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• +rial

• +ropical

• @ictory

• @ineyard

• Walled

• Water

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• Ren

• Roological

Horticultur

e • %griculture

o stock)free

o sustainable

o urban

• %rboriculture

• 8otany

• Companion planting

• Crop

o most valuable

• >lora

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Trial_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tropical_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tropical_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Victory_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vineyardhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Walled_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Water_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wildlife_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Winter_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Japanese_rock_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Zoohttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Stock-free_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Sustainable_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Arboriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Botanyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Companion_plantinghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Crophttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Horticultural_florahttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Trial_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tropical_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Victory_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vineyardhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Walled_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Water_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wildlife_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Winter_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Japanese_rock_gardenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Zoohttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Stock-free_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Sustainable_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Arboriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Botanyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Companion_plantinghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Crophttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Horticultural_flora


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• >loriculture

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o reforestation

• @iticulture

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Floriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hydroculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Indigenous_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Intercroppinghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Landscape_architecturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Oenologyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Olericulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Planthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Plant_propagationhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Postharvest_physiologyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tropical_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_forestryhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Viticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Floriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hydroculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Indigenous_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Intercroppinghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Landscape_architecturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Oenologyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Olericulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Planthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Plant_propagationhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Postharvest_physiologyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tropical_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Urban_forestryhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Viticulture


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Organic

• 8iodynamic agriculture

• List of organic gardening andfarming topics

• @egan organic gardening

Plant

protection

• +ungicide

• Herbicide

• =nde# of pesticide articles

• List of fungicides

• 0esticide

• 0lant disease forecasting

• Weed control

AnthelminticHelp improve this article


"1

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Organic_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Biodynamic_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/List_of_organic_gardening_and_farming_topicshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/List_of_organic_gardening_and_farming_topicshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vegan_organic_gardeninghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vegan_organic_gardeninghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Herbicidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Index_of_pesticide_articleshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/List_of_fungicideshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pesticidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Plant_disease_forecastinghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Weed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthelmintic?action=historyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Organic_horticulturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Biodynamic_agriculturehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/List_of_organic_gardening_and_farming_topicshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/List_of_organic_gardening_and_farming_topicshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vegan_organic_gardeninghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Herbicidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Index_of_pesticide_articleshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/List_of_fungicideshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pesticidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Plant_disease_forecastinghttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Weed_controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthelmintic?action=history


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•

•


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•

Anthelmintic

>ile?%nthelmintic effect of papain on Heligmosomoides bakeri$ogv Anthelmintics orantihelminthics are drugs that e#pel parasitic &orms (helminths* from the body, by eitherstunning or killing them$ +hey may also be called vermifuges (stunning* or vermicides (killing*$

Contents

• 1 0harmaceuticals

• %nthelmintic resistance

• / ootnotes

o /$ Keneral references

• " E#ternal links

Pharmaceuticals

• Ben/imida/oles0

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Parasitehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Parasitehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wormhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Helminthshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Pharmaceuticalshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Anthelmintic_resistancehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Referenceshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Referenceshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Footnoteshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#General_referenceshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#External_linkshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzimidazoleshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Parasitehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wormhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Helminthshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Pharmaceuticalshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Anthelmintic_resistancehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Referenceshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#Footnoteshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#General_referenceshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anthelmintic#External_linkshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzimidazoles


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o Albenda/ole D effective against thread&orms, round&orms, &hip&orms,tape&orms, hook&orms

o )ebenda/ole D effective against pin&orms, round&orms and hook&orms

o Thiabenda/ole D effective against round&orms, hook&orms

o +enbenda/ole D effective against gastrointestinal parasites

o Triclabenda/ole D effective against liver flukes

o +lubenda/ole D effective against most intestinal parasites

• Abamectin D effective against most common intestinal &orms, e#cept tape&orms, for&hich pra-iBuantel is commonly used in conunction &ith abamectin

• Diethylcarbama/ine D effective against *uchereria bancrofti, %rugia malayi, %rugiatimori, tropical pulmonary eosinophilia, loiasis

• ,iclosamide D effective against tape&orms

• vermectin D effective against most common intestinal &orms (e#cept tape&orms*

• Suramin D =t is used for treatment of human sleeping sickness caused by trypanosomes

• Pyrantel pamoate D effective against most nematode infections

• 1evamisole

• Pra/i2uantel D effective against cestodes, some trematodes

• Octadepsipeptides (e$g$? $modepside* D effective against a variety of gastrointestinalhelminths

• Aminoacetonitrile derivatives (e$g$ )onepantel*? effective against a variety ofgastrointestinal round&orms including those resistant to other anthelmintic classes$

• Spiroindoles (e$g$ der2uantel*? effective against a range of gastrointestinal round&ormsincluding those resistant to other anthelmintic classes

Anthelmintic resistance

+he ability of &orms to survive treatments that are generally effective at the recommended doserate is considered a maor threat to the future control of &orm parasites of small ruminants and

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Albendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Threadwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Roundwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Whipwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Whipwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tapewormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hookwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hookwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Mebendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pinwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiabendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fenbendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Triclabendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Liver_flukehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Liver_flukehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Flubendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Abamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Praziquantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Diethylcarbamazinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Diethylcarbamazinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wuchereria_bancroftihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Brugia_malayihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Brugia_timorihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Brugia_timorihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Eosinophiliahttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Loiasishttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Loiasishttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Niclosamidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Ivermectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Suraminhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrantel_pamoatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Levamisolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Praziquantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Cestodeshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Trematodeshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Emodepsidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Aminoacetonitrilehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Albendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Threadwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Roundwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Whipwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tapewormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hookwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Mebendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pinwormshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiabendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fenbendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Triclabendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Liver_flukehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Flubendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Abamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Praziquantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Diethylcarbamazinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wuchereria_bancroftihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Brugia_malayihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Brugia_timorihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Brugia_timorihttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Eosinophiliahttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Loiasishttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Niclosamidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Ivermectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Suraminhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrantel_pamoatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Levamisolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Praziquantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Cestodeshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Trematodeshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Emodepsidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Aminoacetonitrile


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horses$ +his is especially true of nematodes and has contributed to the development ofaminoacetonitrile derivatives for treatment against drug resistant nematodes$

+he clinical definition of resistance is a 45 or less reduction in a A>ecal Egg CountA test$

+reatment &ith an antihelminthic drug kills &orms &hose phenotype renders them susceptible tothe drug$ Worms that are resistant survive and pass on their AresistanceA genes$


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• %nti)diabetics

• @itamins

• 6ietary minerals

Blood and

blood

forming organs

5B6

• %ntithrombotics

o %ntiplatelets

o %nticoagulants

o +hrombolyticsfibrinolytics

• %ntihemorrhagics

o 0latelets

o Coagulants

o %ntifibrinolytics

Cardiovascular

system 5C6 • cardiac therapy antianginals

o Cardiac glycosides

o %ntiarrhythmics

o Cardiac stimulants

• %ntihypertensives

• 6iuretics

• @asodilators

• 8eta blockers

• Calcium channel blockers

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vitaminhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dietary_mineralhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bloodhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Bhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antithrombotichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiplatelet_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anticoagulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thrombolytic_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antihemorrhagichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Platelethttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Coagulationhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antifibrinolytichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Circulatory_systemhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Circulatory_systemhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Chttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antianginalhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antianginalhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Cardiac_glycosidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiarrhythmic_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Cardiac_stimulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antihypertensivehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vasodilationhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Beta_blockerhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Calcium_channel_blockerhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vitaminhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dietary_mineralhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bloodhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Bhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antithrombotichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiplatelet_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anticoagulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thrombolytic_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antihemorrhagichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Platelethttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Coagulationhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antifibrinolytichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Circulatory_systemhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Circulatory_systemhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Chttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antianginalhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Cardiac_glycosidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiarrhythmic_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Cardiac_stimulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antihypertensivehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Vasodilationhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Beta_blockerhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Calcium_channel_blocker


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• renin+angiotensin system

o %CE inhibitors

o %ngiotensin == receptor antagonists

o ibrates

o 8ile acid seBuestrants

S-in 5D6

• Emollients

• Cicatri-ants

• %ntipruritics

• %ntipsoriatics

• ;edicated dressings

.enitourinary

system 5.6

• Hormonal contraception

• >ertility agents

• SE


35/215

o Klucocorticoids

o ;ineralocorticoids

• Se# hormones

• +hyroid hormones%ntithyroid agents

nfections and

infestations 578

P8 #6

• %ntimicrobials? %ntibacterials (%ntimycobacterials*

• %ntifungals

• %ntivirals

• %ntiparasitics

o %ntiproto-oals

o Anthelmintics

o Ectoparasiticides

• =@=K

• @accines

)alignant

disease

519:;19


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519=;19>6 o =mmunostimulants

o =mmunosuppressants

)uscles8 bones8

and 3oints 5)6

• %nabolic steroids

• %nti)inflammatories

o S%=6s

• %ntirheumatics

• Corticosteroids

• ;uscle rela#ants

• 8isphosphonates

Brain and

nervous system

5,6• %nalgesics

•

%nesthetics

o Keneral

o Local

• %norectics

• %nti)%6H6 %gents

• %ntiaddictives

• %nticonvulsants

• %ntidementia %gents

• %ntidepressants

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Lhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Immunostimulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Immunosuppressive_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Musclehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bonehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Jointhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Mhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anabolic_steroidhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anti-inflammatoryhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Disease-modifying_antirheumatic_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Corticosteroidhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Muscle_relaxanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bisphosphonatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Human_brainhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Nervous_systemhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Nhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Analgesichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anesthetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/General_anaesthetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Local_anesthetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anorectichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antihyperkinetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Addiction_medicinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anticonvulsanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antidementia_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antidepressanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Lhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Immunostimulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Immunosuppressive_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Musclehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bonehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Jointhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Mhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anabolic_steroidhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anti-inflammatoryhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Non-steroidal_anti-inflammatory_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Disease-modifying_antirheumatic_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Corticosteroidhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Muscle_relaxanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bisphosphonatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Human_brainhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Nervous_systemhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/ATC_code_Nhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Analgesichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anesthetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/General_anaesthetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Local_anesthetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anorectichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antihyperkinetichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Addiction_medicinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anticonvulsanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antidementia_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antidepressant


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• %ntimigraine %gents

• %ntiparkinson's %gents

• %ntipsychotics

• %n#iolytics

• 6epressants

• Entactogens

• Entheogens

• Euphoriants

• Hallucinogens

o 0sychedelics

o 6issociatives

o 6eliriants

• HypnoticsSedatives

• ;ood Stabili-ers

• europrotectives

• ootropics

• euroto#ins

• 3re#igenics

• Serenics

• Stimulants

• Wakefulness)0romoting %gents

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antimigrainehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiparkinsonhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiparkinsonhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antipsychotichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anxiolytichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Depressanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Entactogenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Entheogenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Euphorianthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Psychedelics,_dissociatives_and_deliriantshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Psychedelic_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dissociativehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Delirianthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hypnotichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Sedativehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Mood_stabilizerhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Neuroprotectivehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Nootropichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Neurotoxinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Orexigenichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Serenichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Stimulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wakefulness-promoting_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antimigrainehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antiparkinsonhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antipsychotichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anxiolytichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Depressanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Entactogenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Entheogenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Euphorianthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Psychedelics,_dissociatives_and_deliriantshttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Psychedelic_drughttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dissociativehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Delirianthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Hypnotichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Sedativehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Mood_stabilizerhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Neuroprotectivehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Nootropichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Neurotoxinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Orexigenichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Serenichttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Stimulanthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Wakefulness-promoting_agent


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*espiratory

system 5* 6

• 6econgestants

• 8ronchodilators

• Cough medicines

• H1 antagonists

Sensory organs

5S6

• 3phthalmologicals

• 3tologicals

Other ATC 5?6

• %ntidotes

• Contrast media

•


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• phenol

o 8ithionol

• thiaole

o irida-ole

• arylsulfonate

o Stibophen

Anticestodals

5taeniacides6

Binds tubulin

• benimidaole

o %lbenda-ole

Other4un-no!n

• salicylanilide

o iclosamide

• aminoacridine

o :uinacrine

• butyrophenone

o 6esaspidin

• chlorophenol

o 6ichlorophen

Antinematodal

agents

5including

macrofilaricides6

Binds tubulin• benimidaole

o ;ebenda-ole

o %lbenda-ole

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Phenolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bithionolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Niridazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Arylsulfonatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Stibophenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anticestodal_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Taeniacidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tubulinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzimidazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Albendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Salicylanilidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Niclosamidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/9-Aminoacridinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Butyrophenonehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Butyrophenonehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Desaspidinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Chlorophenolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Chlorophenolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dichlorophenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antinematodal_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antinematodal_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Macrofilaricidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tubulinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tubulinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzimidazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Mebendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Albendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Phenolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bithionolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Niridazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Arylsulfonatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Stibophenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Anticestodal_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Taeniacidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tubulinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzimidazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Albendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Salicylanilidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Niclosamidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/9-Aminoacridinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Butyrophenonehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Desaspidinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Chlorophenolhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Dichlorophenhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antinematodal_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Antinematodal_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Macrofilaricidehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tubulinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzimidazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Mebendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Albendazole


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o +hiabenda-ole

o >enbenda-ole

o Ciclobenda-ole

o >lubenda-ole

.lutamate;

gated chloride

channel8 .ABA

receptor

• avermectins

o %bamectin

o 6oramectin

o Emamectin

o =vermectin

o Selamectin

• milbemycins

o ;o#idectin

o ;ilbemycin o#ime

,)DA

• tetrahydropyrimidine

o 0yrantel

o 0yrantel pamoate

o 3#antel

Other4un-no!

n • piperaine

o 0ipera-ine

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiabendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fenbendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Ciclobendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Flubendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Glutamate-gated_chloride_channelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Glutamate-gated_chloride_channelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Glutamate-gated_chloride_channelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/GABA_receptorhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/GABA_receptorhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Avermectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Abamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Doramectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Emamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Ivermectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Selamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Milbemycinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Moxidectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Milbemycin_oximehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Neuromuscular_depolarizing_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tetrahydropyrimidinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrantel_pamoatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Oxantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Piperazinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiabendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Fenbendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Ciclobendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Flubendazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Glutamate-gated_chloride_channelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Glutamate-gated_chloride_channelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Glutamate-gated_chloride_channelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/GABA_receptorhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/GABA_receptorhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Avermectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Abamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Doramectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Emamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Ivermectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Selamectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Milbemycinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Moxidectinhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Milbemycin_oximehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Neuromuscular_depolarizing_agenthttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tetrahydropyrimidinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrantel_pamoatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Oxantelhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Piperazine


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o 6iethylcarbama-ine

• thiaole

o LevamisoleT

• (uinolinium

o 0yrvinium

• benylammonium

o 8ephenium

•

naphthalenesulfonate

o Suramin

• +ribendimidine

1ubricantHelp improve this article


1.74

1ubricant

% lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce friction bet&een moving surfaces$ =t may alsohave the function of transporting foreign particles$ +he property of reducing friction is kno&n aslubricity$ (Slipperiness*

% good lubricant possesses the follo&ing characteristics?

• High boiling point

• Lo& free-ing point

• High viscosity inde#

http://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Diethylcarbamazinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Levamisolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Quinoliniumhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrviniumhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzylammoniumhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bephenium_hydroxynaphthoatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Naphthalenesulfonatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Suraminhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tribendimidinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricant?action=historyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Frictionhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Frictionhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Lubricityhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Viscosity_indexhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Viscosity_indexhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Diethylcarbamazinehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Thiazolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Levamisolehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Quinoliniumhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Pyrviniumhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Benzylammoniumhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Bephenium_hydroxynaphthoatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Naphthalenesulfonatehttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Suraminhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Tribendimidinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubricant?action=historyhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Frictionhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Lubricityhttp://self.gutenberg.org/articles/Viscosity_index


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• +hermal stability

• Hydraulic Stability

• 6emulsibility

• Corrosion prevention

• High resistance to o#idation

3ne of the single largest applications for lubricants, in the form of motor oil, is protecting theinternal combustion engines in motor vehicles and po&ered eBuipment$

+ypically lubricants contain 4 base oil (most often petroleum fractions, called mineral oils*and less than 1 additives$ @egetable oils or synthetic liBuids such as hydrogenated polyolefins, esters, silicones, fluorocarbons and many others are sometimes used as base oils$%dditives deliver reduced friction a

textile bleaching

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